ENGLISH

PARTS OF SPEECH
1. Noun – name of person, things, animals, place and events.
 Proper Noun – sepefic names of person, thing or a place. Always begin
with capital letter.
 Common Noun – general names of person, places, or thing.
 Abstract Noun – refer to something that is not tangible or cannot
perceived by 5 senses.
 Concrete Noun – tangible or can perceived by our 5 senses.
 Count Noun – anything that can count without counters.
 Mass Noun – something that can’t be counted, can be quantity by using
counters.
 Collective Noun – name of group of person or items but are taken as one
unit or entity.
 Compound Noun – combination of two words.
 Possessive Noun – show ownership.
 Singular Noun – one person, animals, things or place.
 Pluran Noun – two or more.

2. Pronoun – are used in place of nouns in sentence.

 Personal Pronoun – refers to a specific person or thing and changes its
form to indicate a person, number, gender, and case.
 Subject Pronoun – ( I, you, we, she, he, it and they)
 Object Pronoun – Acts as an object of a verb. (me, you, us, them, him,
 Possesive Pronoun – (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, them, theirs
 Demonstrative Pronoun – ( that, those, this, these)
 Interrogative Pronoun – used in asking question. (what, where, who, which
whom)

3. Verb – refers to action or state being

 Intransitive Verb – express actions that do not require direct object to
complete their action or meanin.
 Transitive Verb – express actions that require direct object to complete
their action or meaning.
 Linking Verb – connects a subject and its complement.
 Helping Verb – verbs that appear before main verb.
 Present Tense – indicates that something is happening or being now.
 Simple Past Tense – uses the past form of the verb, or was completed in
the past.
 Future Tense – uses the helping verb “will or shall” plus the base from of the
verb
 Simple Present Simple Past Progressive Future Future
Present Progressive Past Tense Progresive
Walk Is/are + walked Was/were + walk + will/shall + Will/shall +
walk ing walk be + walking

4. Adjective – describes a noun or a pronoun.

 Degree of Comparison of Adjectives
a. Positive Degree – no comparison made
b. Comparative Degree – two are being compared.
c. Superlative Degree – three or more are being compared.
 Proper Adjective – formed from a proper nouns and always capitalized.
Ex. American doctor, Philippine Literature, European Textile
 Common Adjective – expresses ordinary qualities of a noun or pronoun.
(-ous, -al, -ic, -y, -able, -ish, -en, .....)
Ex. Fame – famous, hero – heroic, storm – stormy, depend – dependable
 Sensory Adjectives – describe sensations or feelings in one’s body.
Ex. Touch, hearing, sight, itchy, smooth, bitter, sweet, fresh . . .
 Series of Adjectives – follow a certain order when describing a noun or
pronoun.
a. Determiner – article or number ( a, an , the, one, several, few, this, that)
b. Opinion – (ex. pretty, smart, easy, exciting, dangerous)
c. Size – (ex. huge, tiny large)
d. Age – (ex. young, old, ancient, recent, new)
e. Shape – (ex. Rectangular, square, flat, round)
f. Color – (ex. Red, white, bluish, purplish)
g. Origin – (ex. African, American, irish, Filipino etc.)
h. Material – (ex. Wooden, metal, wollen, cotton, plastic)

5. Adverb – modifies verb, adjective and another adverb.

 Kinds of Adverb
a. Adverb of Time – tell us when someone does something or when
something happens. (ex. Today, soon, tomorrow, last month, In 2020)
b. Adverb of Place – tell us where things happen. (ex. Up, in, everywhere,
somewhere, down, upstairs, here, outside, over, below, inside, under)
c. Adverb of Manner – answer the question how or in what manner.
(ex. Well, fast, hard, right, diligently, smoothly, slowly)
d. Adverb of Degree – tell about the intensity or degree of an action, an
objective or another verb, they are also known as adverb of intensity.
(very, almost, hardly, fully, thoroughly, nearly, entirely,absolutely)
e. Adverb of Affirmation – affirms or denies (ex. Yes, surely, naturally, not,
never, definitely, certainly, no)
 f. Adverb of Frequency – tell you how often does something or how often
something happens (ex. Akways, normally, seldom, daily, monthly,
often)

6. Preposition - Prepositions show us the relationship between a noun and

another word in a sentence.
Ex.
1. We lived in France.
2. Your keys are on the table.
3. We walked through the park.
7. Conduction - Conjunctions are used to join parts of sentences/ clauses
together.
Ex.
1. I had a shower and a shave.
2. Let me know when you are ready to leave.
3. We went to the beach because she loves swimming.
4. Although we were tired, we stayed up late.
5. I don't have much time, but I will help you anyway.
8. Interjection - We use interjections to show strong emotions and feelings that
occur suddenly.
Ex.
1. Hey! You are standing on my foot!
2. Ah, now I understand.
3. Eh? What did she say?
4. Ow! That hurt!
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Figures of speech lend themselves particularly well to literature and poetry.
They also pack a punch in speeches and movie lines. Indeed, these tools
abound in nearly every corner of life. Let's start with one of the more lyrical
devices, alliteration.
1. A simile is a comparison between two unlike things using the words "like" or
"as."
Examples include:
 As slippery as an eel
 Like peas in a pod
 As blind as a bat
 Eats like a pig
 As wise as an owl
2. Metaphor makes a comparison between two unlike things or ideas.
Examples include:
 Heart of stone
 Time is money
 The world is a stage
  She's a night owl
 He's an ogre
3. Personification gives human qualities to non-living things or ideas.
Examples include:
 The flowers nodded.
 The snowflakes danced.
 The thunder grumbled.
 The fog crept in.
 The wind howled.
4. Onomatopoeia is the term for a word that sounds like what it is describing.
Examples include:
Whoosh
 Splat
 Buzz
 Click
 Oink
5. Alliteration is the repetition of the beginning sounds of neighboring words.
Examples include:
 She sells seashells.
 Walter wondered where Winnie was.
 Blue baby bonnets bobbed through the bayou.
 Nick needed new notebooks.
 Fred fried frogs' legs on Friday.
6. Anaphora is a technique where several phrases or verses begin with the
same word or words.
Examples include:
 I came, I saw, I conquered. - Julius Caesar
 Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition! - King John II, William
Shakespeare
 It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom,
it was the age of foolishness. - A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens
 With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right. -
Abraham Lincoln
 We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end... we shall never
surrender. - Winston Churchill
7. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds (not just letters) in words that are
close together. The sounds don't have to be at the beginning of the word.
Examples include:
 A - For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore.
(Poe)
 E - Therefore, all seasons shall be sweet to thee. (Coleridge)
  I - From what I've tasted of desire, I hold with those who favor fire. (Frost)
 O - Oh hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn. (Wordsworth)
 U - Uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (Poe)
8. Euphemism is a mild, indirect, or vague term that often substitutes a harsh,
blunt, or offensive term.
Examples include:
 'A little thin on top' instead of 'going bald.'
 'Fell of the back of a truck' instead of 'stolen.'
 'Letting you go' instead of 'firing you.'
 'Passed away' instead of 'died.'
 'Economical with the truth' instead of 'liar.'
9. Hyperbole uses exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
Examples include:
 I've told you to stop a thousand times.
 That must have cost a billion dollars.
 I could do this forever.
 She's older than dirt.
 Everybody knows that.
10. Irony occurs when there's a marked contrast between what is said and
what is meant, or between appearance and reality.
Examples include:
 "How nice!" she said, when I told her I had to work all weekend. (Verbal
irony)
 A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets. (Situational
irony)
 The Titanic was said to be unsinkable but sank on its first voyage.
(Situational irony)
 Naming a tiny Chihuahua Brutus. (Verbal irony)
 When the audience knows the killer is hiding in a closet in a scary movie,
but the actors do not. (Dramatic irony)
11. An oxymoron is two contradictory terms used together.
Examples include:
 Peace force
 Kosher ham
 Jumbo shrimp
 Sweet sorrow
 Free market
12. Synecdoche occurs when a part is represented by the whole or,
conversely, the whole is represented by the part.
Examples include:
 Wheels - a car
 The police - one policeman
  Plastic - credit cards
 Coke - any cola drink
 Hired hands – workers

PARTS OF THE BOOK

1. Cover • The COVER tells the reader what the book will be about. • Usually
includes: – picture or illustration – the title of the book – the author(s)
2. Title Page • The TITLE PAGE repeats the information given on the cover. •
Provides the reader with information about: – the book’s title – it’s author(s) –
the publisher – the publisher’s locations
3. Copyright Page • The COPYRIGHT PAGE includes copyright information such
as: – when the book was published – who it was published by
4. Dedication • The DEDICATION is found in the front of the book. • It is a
message from the author expressing appreciation to someone for his or her
help and support.
5. Table of Contents • The TABLE OF CONTENTS lists: – the titles of the chapters or
units in the book – the pages on which they begin
6. Preface • The PREFACE is an explanation of the book • Also may be called
the Foreword or Introduction.
7. Body • The BODY is the text of a book (the story or information).
8. Footnote • The FOOTNOTE is a note placed at the bottom of a page of a
book that comments on or cites a reference. • Something related to but of less
importance than the larger work.
9. Appendix • The APPENDIX includes supplementary (or extra) information
found in the form of: – charts – lists – tables • Located in the back of a book. •
Most often found in reference books and textbooks.
10. Bibliography • The BIBLIOGRAPHY is a list of books found in the back of the
book. • These are either books the author has used for research or books
recommended for further study of the topic.
11. Index • The INDEX is an alphabetical listing of – the subjects or topics – the
pages where they can be located • It is found in the back of a book.
12. Glossary • The GLOSSARY contains definitions of difficult or unfamiliar words
that appear in the book. • The index: – a list of all the topics in a book – Is in
alphabetical order – lists the page(s) on which each topic appears
ELEMENTS OF THE STORY
Every story, or narrative, has five essential elements. Let's take a closer look
at each of the five.
  Plot-Plot is "what happens" in the story. The action of every story can be
mapped out using a plot diagram. There are five key points to the plot of
every story
1. Beginning or Exposition-this is when characters and problems are
introduced to the reader.
2. Rising Action-this is where the problem and characters are
developed through a series of actions that builds to the . . .
3. Climax-this is where the problem (or conflict) is resolved in one way
or another. The climax is often called the "turning point" in a story.
4. Falling Action or Denoument-this is where the reader learns what
happens as a result of the climax-or the way in which the problem
was solved.
5. Resolution-where the entire plot is wrapped up and there is a
sense of closure for the reader.
 Characters-Narratives have characters. A narrative has to have a
protagonist, which is the main character in the story, and one or more
antagonists, characters who are in conflict with the protagonist.
 Conflict-For there to be a narrative, the main character, or protagonist,
has to have a conflict, or problem. Sometimes the conflict involves the
protagonist and another person (man versus man). Sometimes the conflict
involves the protagonist and the environment or nature (man versus
nature). At other times, the conflict involves the protagonist against
himself (man versus self), as he attempts to overcome a weakness or flaw.
 Setting-Narratives have a time and place where the action is set.
 Theme-Narratives have a theme, or main idea/underlying meaning.
Theme should be stated in a complete sentence.

Different Parts of Newspaper and their Meaning:

- General News - found on front page that tells the current news.
- Local News and Foreign News - news about the happening inside and outside
the country.
- Editorial Page - articles and opinions of the editor or the publisher.
- Sports Page - contains the sport news locally and abroad.
- Classified Ads Section - advertisements about job search, lots and space for
Lease or Sale, products to buy.
- Business and Finance Section - provides businessmen and people interested in
business with information on banking, foreign exchange rates, imports and
exports, and prices of prime commodities.
- Entertainment Section - tells information about movies, radio, television, and
other activities for entertainment, games and puzzles, comic strips and
cartoons, and the daily horoscope.
- Home and Culture Section- contains ideas about budgeting, food
preparation, house improvement, proper plant care, and the like.
- Society Page- contains news about important or well-known people who are
celebrating special occasions or performing at a particular place.
- Travel and Tourism Section- provides a guide to enjoyable travel. It directs
tourists to scenic vacation spots and gives information on the activities in these
places. Also found in this section are the schedules of the departure and arrival
of ships and airplanes, both domestic and international.
- Announcements and Obituary Page - list of religious meeting schedules and
people who died.

Friendly or Personal Letters

Personal letters, also known as friendly letters, and social notes normally have
five parts.
1. The Heading. This includes the address, line by line, with the last line being the
date. Skip a line after the heading. The heading is indented to the middle of
the page. If using preaddressed stationery, add just the date.
2. The Greeting. The greeting always ends with a comma. The greeting may be
formal, beginning with the word "dear" and using the person's given name or
relationship, or it may be informal if appropriate.
Formal: Dear Uncle Jim, Dear Mr. Wilkins,
Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings,
(Occasionally very personal greetings may end with an exclamation point for
emphasis.)
3. The body. Also known as the main text. This includes the message you want
to write. Normally in a friendly letter, the beginning of paragraphs is indented. If
not indented, be sure to skip a space between paragraphs. Skip a line after the
greeting and before the close.
4. The complimentary close. This short expression is always a few words on a
single line. It ends in a comma. It should be indented to the same column as
the heading. Skip one to three spaces (two is usual) for the signature line.
5. The signature line. Type or print your name. The handwritten signature goes
above this line and below the close. The signature line and the handwritten
signature are indented to the same column as the close. The signature should
be written in blue or black ink. If the letter is quite informal, you may omit the
signature line as long as you sign the letter.
Postscript. If your letter contains a postscript, begin it with P.S. and end it with
your initials. Skip a line after the signature line to begin the postscript
CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS
A cause is the reason why things happen, while an effect is the result of what
happened.
KINDS OF SENTENCES
1. declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form.
2. Interrogative sentences ask questions.
E.g. Where do you live?
3. Imperative sentences express commands, requests, invitations, etc.
E.g. Stand up.
Open the door, will you?
4. An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling (joy,
anger, grief,
wonder, etc.). It often begins with the words “What” and “How”.