Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MS No. S-2012-404.R1
An experimental study was performed to determine the accuracy of specimens, it has been suggested that in reinforced concrete
designing a statically indeterminate deep beam with three openings specimens, “a more gentle size effect may be expected”
using the strut-and-tie modeling (STM) method in accordance with (Shah et al. 1995). With respect to STM, Muttoni et al.
Appendix A of ACI 318-08. In the present study, four STM models (1997) observed that “a load system based on a statically
were independently developed to closely match the flow of forces
admissible stress field which nowhere violates the yield
according to a finite element analysis. Four specimens were fabri-
criterion is a lower-bound to the collapse load.” This should
cated based on the associated STM, and confining reinforcement
was provided at each load and support point. In all four specimens, hold true regardless of the size of the specimen. Ley et al.
the failure load exceeded the factored nominal design strength, (2007) conducted testing to investigate the size effect on rein-
demonstrating the conservatism of the STM method. The mode of forced concrete structures (similar in size and type to those
failure in each specimen was dependent on the stress concentra- investigated in this study) detailed using STM. Scaled spec-
tions revealed in the elastic analysis and the STM chosen for the imens were designed using STM, detailed, and constructed
design. at 1:10.5 scale and 1:6 scale. Both specimens with reinforce-
ment and without reinforcement were constructed and tested
Keywords: indeterminate system; node confinement; strut-and-tie
at both scales. The researchers found that the scale had no
modeling.
effect on the performance of the reinforced specimens, but
had a significant impact on the unreinforced specimens. For
INTRODUCTION
these reasons, the findings from this small-scale investiga-
A strut-and-tie model (STM) is a lower-bound plasticity
tion are valid to full-scale applications.
solution that idealizes a complex flow of stresses in rein-
The objective of this project was to design and verify, by
forced concrete members as a collection of compression
laboratory testing, four different indeterminate small-scale
elements (struts), tension elements (ties), and the intersec-
concrete members using the STM provisions of ACI 318-08
tion of such elements (nodes). While the use of STM is
(ACI Committee 318 2008). An FEM was constructed to
applicable to all design scenarios for any type of reinforced
examine the flow of forces through the structure. Based on
concrete member, this method is more widely used in deep
the elastic stresses, different STM models were developed
beams, complex structural members, and disturbed regions
to determine the required reinforcement for each specimen.
where the Bernoulli hypothesis that plane sections remain
plane does not apply (Schlaich et al. 1987; Bergmeister et
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
al. 1993).
In the recent past, a significant amount of experimental
The test specimens examined in this study incorporated a
research has been conducted, examining the applicability
combination of point loads and large openings—requiring
and conservatism of STM. Despite this recent research, there
the use of STM or nonlinear finite element analysis. The
has been little experimental validation of STM for statically
pattern, location, and size of the openings and load point
indeterminate structures. The research conducted in this
locations were chosen to investigate the conservativeness of
study investigates the applicability of the provisions of ACI
STM when applied to structures with extreme discontinuities.
318-08 for indeterminate structures.
The support conditions applied were chosen to investigate
the conservativeness of STM when applied to indetermi-
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
nate structures. Schlaich et al. (1987) suggests that plastic
methods of analysis, such as STM, are suitable for deter-
Material properties
mining a realistic ultimate load capacity. The researchers
For each of the specimens, four 80 lb (36.3 kg) sacks of
suggested that a safe solution for the ultimate load can also
commercially available, pre-mixed concrete (specified 4 ksi
be obtained by a linear or nonlinear analysis. In this investi-
[27.6 MPa]) were mixed with 8 fl oz (227 mL) of high-range
gation, a two-dimensional finite element model (FEM) was
used as guidance for the STM used for design and detailing
ACI Structural Journal, V. 111, No. 1-6, January-December 2014.
of the structure. MS No. S-2012-404.R1 received June 10, 2013, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright © 2014, American Concrete Institute. All rights
The specimen size was approximately 1:10.5 scale. A reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the
similar example was given by Reineck (2002). While size copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s closure, if any, will be
published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion is received within four
does have an effect on the shear behavior of unreinforced months of the paper’s print publication.
Design process
For the purpose of this study, each of the specimens was
detailed such that the controlling element in each model
would hold a factored design load of 48.0 kip (214 kN) (16.0
kip [71.2 kN] applied through each of the three hydraulic
rams). There were two aspects of the design that proved to be
challenging. The first challenge was the static indeterminacy
of the system. In statically indeterminate structures, when
failure occurs in one location, forces and moments can be
redistributed to other parts of the structure. With the knowl-
edge that the forces and moments will be redistributed, the
designer has an additional level of freedom when choosing
the STM and reinforcement layout. The second challenge
of the prescribed structure was the location of the open-
Fig. 1—Test specimen. ings, specifically the central opening. This central opening
water-reducing admixture and approximately 25 lb (11.3 is located directly over the most highly loaded support,
kg) of water. The concrete was mixed in a 1 yd3 (0.76 m3) creating a large stress concentration, which can be seen in
electric mixing drum for the prescribed 10-minute length of Fig. 2.
time or until a consistent mixture was achieved. Three 4 x With the purpose of defining an appropriate design for the
8 in. (101.6 x 203.2 mm) cylinders were cast with each of concrete members, four STMs (A, B, C, and D) were devel-
the specimens to know the concrete strength at the time of oped by four independent groups. The first step in the devel-
testing. opment of the STM was to base the geometry of the model
Three different types of steel reinforcing bars and one on the elastic stress fields indicated by an FEM analysis, as
type of welded wire mesh were used to construct the speci- shown in Fig. 2. A two-dimensional planar FEM was devel-
mens. The areas and yield strengths of the reinforcement are oped using quadratic shell elements. This simple elastic
summarized in Table 1. analysis gave a general idea of the stress flows through the
structure. From these results, a large concentration of both
Specimen geometry tensile and compressive stresses was found in a relatively
The geometry of the specimens is shown in Fig. 1. As small area between the center opening and the bearing pad.
stated previously, the geometry of the specimens was chosen It was assumed that the center support, located under the
to investigate the conservatism of STM when applied to: middle opening, would be the most highly stressed region,
and would therefore govern design.
Fig. 2—Finite element model showing: (a) high tensile stresses; and (b) high compressive stresses in specimen.
Fig. 6—Cracking pattern for Specimens: (a) A; (b) B; (c) C; and (d) D.
member; this was done by subtracting the support settle- load should be transferred from each of the loading points
ment from the midpoint deflection measurements. The load to each of the supports via some load path; that is, a combi-
was applied evenly by the three hydraulic rams, and was nation of struts, ties, and nodes. In a statically determinate
measured by a pressure transducer. Load was applied in system, global failure of the specimen will occur with a local
5 kip (22.2 kN) intervals until the maximum load. At the end failure in one of the load paths. In a statically indeterminate
of each load step, cracks were traced and measured, and a system, such as the one investigated in this study, a local
photograph was taken. failure in one load path will cause load redistribution but not
a global failure; two local failures are required for a global
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION failure mechanism to form. In all of the specimens, one of
these local failures was located immediately over the center
Performance of specimens support. This failure location was expected due to the large
A summary of the test results is presented in Table 2. concentration of stresses in this location. Steps (the use of
Each of the specimens tested was detailed such that the confining and compressive steel) were attempted to delay
controlling element in each model would hold a load of 48.0 this failure, but the stress concentration in this central region
kip (214 kN) (16.0 kip [71.2 kN] applied through each of was extremely high, and failure could not be prevented.
the three hydraulic rams), which was the factored design In three of the four specimens (Specimens A, B, and C),
load chosen for this study. All of the measured failure loads the second local failure location was on the region that trans-
were significantly higher than this factored design load, ferred loads (mainly the left load) into the left support of the
reflecting the conservative, lower-bound nature of STM. It structure, which involved the area around the uppermost of
should also be noted that all the specimens exhibited satis- the openings. Specimen D was the only specimen where the
factory serviceability performance, as none showed signs of second failure location was on the right side of the structure.
cracking at loads smaller than 20.0 kip (89.0 kN). From the reinforcement layout, Specimen D was the only
The cracking pattern at the time of failure and the failure layout with continuous reinforcement in the upper half of the
crack are shown in Fig. 6. In each of the specimens, the right span of the structure. Specimen D is the only specimen
Fig. 9—Optimized layout of: (a) ties; and (b) struts based on finite element modeling.
CONCLUSIONS on the planned load path in the strut-and-tie model and the
The purpose of this paper was to: 1) investigate the conser- subsequent reinforcement layout. The model in Specimen D
vatism of STM when applied to a structure with extreme carried more load through the right portion of the specimen,
discontinuities; 2) investigate the conservatism of STM and experienced a local failure in this location;
applied to statically indeterminate structures; and 3) demon- 3. Properly detailed and confined struts in high compres-
strate the applicability of STM with widely different rein- sive stress regions help prevent local fragile failures. Loca-
forcement details. tions of high compressive stress concentrations should be
Through the experimental research conducted, several properly confined to prevent strut crushing. The yielding of
observations and conclusions made based on the investiga- tension ties is a more ductile failure mechanism; and
tion of statically determinate, simple structures (Schlaich et 4. Models closely following elastic stress distribution
al. 1987; Bergmeister et al. 1993; Reineck 2002) can be reaf- will offer more efficient designs. Specimen C, which was
firmed for statically indeterminate structures with extreme constructed based on a model that most closely followed
discontinuities. the elastic stress distribution, offered the most efficient rein-
1. Strut-and-tie modeling is a conservative lower-bound forcement layout.
theory of plasticity. The specimens all held at least 1.43
times the factored design load. This conservatism shows that AUTHOR BIOS
strut-and-tie modeling still offers a conservative design solu- ACI member David B. Garber is a PhD Candidate at The University of
Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. He received his BS from Johns Hopkins Univer-
tion in statically indeterminate structures; sity, Baltimore, MD, and his MS from The University of Texas at Austin. His
2. Load path will vary based on provided reinforcement. research interests include plasticity in structural concrete and behavior of
The local failure locations within the specimens depended prestressed concrete members.