A hydraulic seal is a relatively soft, non-metallic ring captured in a groove or

fixed in a combination of rings, forming a seal assembly, to block or separate

fluid in reciprocating motion applications. Hydraulic seals are vital in machine
ry. Their use is critical in providing a way for fluid power to be converted to
linear motion.
[edit] Materials
Hydraulic seals can be made from a variety of materials such as polyurethane, ru
bber or PTFE. The type of material is determined by the specific operating condi
tions or limits due to fluid type, pressure, fluid chemical compatibility or tem
perature.
[edit] Static
A static hydraulic seal is located in a groove and sees no movement - only seali
ng within its confined space, acting like a gasket.
[edit] Dynamic
A type of dynamic hydraulic seal called a rod seal is exposed to movement on its
inner diameter along the shaft or rod of a hydraulic cylinder. A type of dynami
c hydraulic seal called a piston seal is exposed to movement on its outer diamet
er along the tube or bore of a hydraulic cylinder.

Pneumatic seals require minimal lubrication when exposed to air in order to cre
ate a tight seal. Pneumatic seals may also be exposed to high operating speeds a
t which the pressure is not high. Piston seals, rod seals, flange packings, u-cu
ps, and vee-cups are a few sealing designs that take advantage of pneumatic sea
ls. The difference between pneumatic seals and hydraulic seals is pressure. Pne
umatic seals typically have a pressure range of 1 to 150 pound-force per square
inch (psi), while hydraulic pressure can reach greater than 10,000 psi.
Sometimes, composite seals are used as pneumatic seals. Composite seals are seal
s composed of two or three different materials. Therefore, pneumatic seals are o
ften found in products requiring one seal for many parts. A PTFE ring and an ela
stomer ring are often used in this situation. NASA uses this technology in their
rocket systems. Composite pneumatic seals are also used in the diesel engines f
or trucks.
A pneumatic seal's sealing orientation can be internalas with a rod seal, extern
al as with a piston, symmetrical, or axial. With internal pneumatic seals, a hou
sing bore surrounds the seal and the sealing lip touches the shaft. This seal re
quires very little lubricant.
With external piston pneumatic seals, the seal surrounds a shaft and the sealing
lip touches the housing bore. This system requires more lubrication. Symmetric
pneumatic seals are the same on both sides, and axial pneumatic seals fit axiall
y against the housing. In both cases, however, the seals are used externally and
require more lubrication.
Rotary applications need only one pneumatic seal. This seal is considered to be
single acting because it can seal in one axial direction while the application i
s moving. On the other hand, a reciprocating application requires two pneumatic
seals, or double acting seals. In this case, one seal is needed for each of the
directions. Double acting pneumatic seals are more complicated than single actin
g ones.

Hydraulic fluids, also called hydraulic liquids, are the medium by which power i
s transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on miner
al oil or water.[1] Examples of equipment that might use hydraulic fluids inclu
de excavators, brakes, power steering systems, transmissions, backhoes, garbage
trucks, aircraft flight control systems, elevators, and industrial machinery.
Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work most efficiently if th
e hydraulic fluid used has low compressibility.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Functions and properties
* 2 Composition
o 2.1 Base stock
o 2.2 Other components
o 2.3 Biodegradable hydraulic fluids
* 3 Brake fluid
* 4 Safety
* 5 Trade names
* 6 Aircraft hydraulic systems
o 6.1 Specifications
o 6.2 Contamination
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
[edit] Functions and properties
The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In use, however, t
here are other important functions of hydraulic fluid such as protection of the
hydraulic machine components. The table below lists the major functions of a hyd
raulic fluid and the properties of a fluid that affect its ability to perform th
at function:[2]
Function Property
Medium for power transfer and control
 * Low compressibility (high bulk modulus)
* Fast air release
* Low foaming tendency
* Low volatility
Medium for heat transfer
* Good thermal capacity and conductivity
Sealing Medium
* Adequate viscosity and viscosity index
* Shear stability
Lubricant
* Viscosity for film maintenance
* Low temperature fluidity
* Thermal and oxidative stability
* Hydrolytic stability / water tolerance
* Cleanliness and filterability
* Demulsibility
* Antiwear characteristics
* Corrosion control
Pump efficiency
* Proper viscosity to minimize internal leakage
* High viscosity index
Special function
* Fire resistance
* Friction modifications
* Radiation resistance
Environmental impact
* Low toxicity when new or decomposed
* Biodegradability
Functioning life
* Material compatibility
[edit] Composition
[edit] Base stock
The original hydraulic fluid, dating back to the time of ancient Egypt, was wate
r. Beginning in the 1920s, mineral oil began to be used more than water as a bas
e stock due to its inherent lubrication properties and ability to be used at tem
peratures above the boiling point of water. Today most hydraulic fluids are base
d on mineral oil base stocks.
Natural oils such as rapeseed (also called canola oil) are used as base stocks f
or fluids where biodegradability and renewable sources are considered important.
Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as for fire resistan
ce and extreme temperature applications. Some examples include: glycol, esters,
organophosphate ester, polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils.
[edit] Other components
Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical compounds, including: oils
, butanol, esters (e.g. phthalates, like DEHP, and adipates, like bis(2-ethylhex
yl) adipate), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), phosphate esters (e.g. tributylphospha
te), silicones, alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO) (e.g. po
lyisobutenes), corrosion inhibitors, etc.
[edit] Biodegradable hydraulic fluids
Environmentally sensitive applications (e.g. farm tractors and marine dredging)
may benefit from using biodegradable hydraulic fluids based upon rapeseed (Canol
a) vegetable oil when there is the risk of an oil spill from a ruptured oil line
. Typically these oils are available as ISO 32, ISO 46, and ISO 68 specification
oils. ASTM standards ASTM-D-6006, Guide for Assessing Biodegradability of Hydra
ulic Fluids and ASTM-D-6046, Standard Classification of Hydraulic Fluids for Env
ironmental Impact are relevant.
[edit] Brake fluid
Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling point, both when n
ew (specified by the equilibrium boiling point) and after absorption of water va
por (specified by wet boiling point). Under the heat of braking, both free water
and water vapor in a braking system can boil into a compressible vapor, resulti
ng in brake failure. Glycol-ether based fluids are hygroscopic, and absorbed moi
sture will greatly reduce the boiling point over time. Silicone based fluids are
not hygroscopic, but their inferior lubrication is not suitable for all braking
systems.[3]
[edit] Safety
Because industrial hydraulic systems operate at hundreds to thousands of PSI and
temperatures reaching hundreds of degrees Celsius, severe injuries and death ca
n result from component failures and care must always be taken when performing m
aintenance on hydraulic systems.
Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids.
[edit] Trade names
Some of the trade names for hydraulic fluids include Arnica, Tellus, Durad, Fyrq
uel, Houghto-Safe, Hydraunycoil, Lubritherm Enviro-Safe, Pydraul, Quintolubric,
Reofos, Reolube, and Skydrol.
[edit] Aircraft hydraulic systems
The use of hydraulic systems in aircraft almost certainly began with braking sys
tems.[citation needed] As aircraft performance increased in mid-20th century, th
e amount of force required to operate mechanical flight controls became excessiv
e, and hydraulic systems were introduced to reduce pilot effort. The hydraulic a
ctuators are controlled by valves; these in turn are operated directly by input
from the aircrew (hydro-mechanical) or by computers obeying control laws (fly by
wire). See flight controls.
Hydraulic power is used for other purposes. It can be stored in accumulators to
start an auxiliary power unit (APU) for self-starting the aircraft's main engine
s. Many aircraft equipped with the M61 family of cannon use hydraulic power to d
rive the gun system, permitting reliable high rates of fire.
The hydraulic power itself comes from pumps driven by the engines directly, or b
y electrically driven pumps. In modern commercial aircraft these are electricall
y driven pumps; should all the engines fail in flight the pilot will deploy a pr
opeller-driven electric generator called a Ram Air Turbine (RAT) which is concea
led under the fuselage.[4] This provides electrical power for the hydraulic pump
s and control systems as power is no longer available from the engines. In that
system and others electric pumps can provide both redundancy and the means of op
erating hydraulic systems without the engines operating, which can be very usefu
l during maintenance.
[edit] Specifications
Aircraft hydraulic fluids fall under various specifications:
Common petroleum-based:
* Mil-H-5606: Mineral base, flammable, fairly low flashpoint, usable from -6
5 °F (-54 °C) to 275 °F (135 °C), red color
* Mil-H-83282: Synthetic hydrocarbon base, higher flashpoint, self-extinguis
hing, backward compatible to -5606, red color, rated to -40 °F (-40 °C) degrees.
* Mil-H-87257: A development of -83282 fluid to improve its low temperature
viscosity.
Phosphate-ester based:
* BMS 3-11: Skydrol 500B-4, Skydrol LD-4, Skydrol 5 and Exxon HyJetIV-A plus
Typically light purple, not compatible with petroleum-based fluids, will not su
pport combustion.
[edit] Contamination
Special, stringent care is required when handling aircraft hydraulic fluid as it
is critical to flight safety that it stay free from contamination. It is also n
ecessary to strictly adhere to authorized references when servicing or repairing
any aircraft system. Samples from aircraft hydraulic systems are taken during h
eavy aircraft maintenance checks to check contamination

The term grease is used to describe a number of semisolid lubricants possessin

g a higher initial viscosity than oil. Although the word grease is also used to
describe rendered fat of animals, in the context of lubricants, it typically ap
plies to a material consisting of a calcium, sodium or lithium soap base emuls
ified with mineral or vegetable oil.[1]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Properties
* 2 History
* 3 Uses
* 4 Additives
* 5 Other greases
o 5.1 Silicone grease
o 5.2 Fluoroether-based grease
 o 5.3 Laboratory grease
o 5.4 Water-soluble grease analogs
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 External links
[edit] Properties
A true grease consists of an oil and/or other fluid lubricant that is mixed with
another thickener substance, a soap, to form a solid. The term soap is used in
the chemical sense, meaning a metallic salt of a fatty acid, which forms an emul
sion with the oil.[1] Greases are a type of shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic flu
id, which means that the viscosity of the fluid is reduced under shear. After su
fficient force to shear the grease has been applied, the viscosity drops and app
roaches that of the base lubricant, such as the mineral oil. This sudden drop in
shear force means that grease is considered a plastic fluid, and the reduction
of shear force with time makes it thixotropic. It is often applied using a greas
e gun, which applies the grease to the part being lubricated under pressure, for
cing the solid grease into the spaces in the part.
Soaps are the most common emulsifying agent used, and the type of soap depends o
n the conditions in which the grease is to be used. Different soaps provide diff
ering levels of temperature resistance (relating to both viscosity and volatilit
y), water resistance, and chemical reactivity. Powdered solids may also be used,
such as clay, which was used to emulsify early greases and is still used in som
e inexpensive, low performance greases.
The amount of grease in a sample can be determined in a laboratory by extraction
with a solvent followed by e.g. gravimetric determination[2].
[edit] History
Black slugs Arion ater were used as axle-grease to lubricate wooden axle-trees o
r carts in Sweden, which is documented at least since 18th century.[3]
[edit] Uses
Greases are used where a mechanism can only be lubricated infrequently and where
a lubricating oil would not stay in position. They also act as valuable sealant
s to prevent ingress of water and dust. Grease-lubricated bearings have greater
frictional characteristics due to their high viscosity. Under shear, the viscosi
ty drops to give the effect of an oil-lubricated bearing of approximately the sa
me viscosity as the base oil used in the grease. Lithium-based greases are the m
ost commonly used; sodium and lithium based greases have higher melting point (d
ropping point) than calcium-based greases but are not resistant to the action of
water. Lithium-based grease has a dropping point at 190 °C to 220 °C (350 °F to 400 °F)
. However the maximum usable temperature for lithium-based grease is 120 °C.
Greases used for axles are composed of a compound of fatty oils to which tar, gr
aphite, or mica is added to increase the durability of the grease and give it a
better surface.
[edit] Additives
Teflon is added to some greases to improve their lubricating properties. Gear gr
eases consist of rosin oil, thickened with lime and mixed with mineral oil, with
some percentage of water. Special-purpose greases contain glycerol and sorbitan
esters. They are used, for example, in low-temperature conditions. Some greases
are labeled "EP", which indicates "extreme pressure". Under high pressure or sh
ock loading, normal grease can be compressed to the extent that the greased part
s come into physical contact, causing friction and wear. EP grease contains soli
d lubricants, usually graphite and/or molybdenum disulfide, to provide protectio
n under heavy loadings. The solid lubricants bond to the surface of the metal, a
nd prevent metal-to-metal contact and the resulting friction and wear when the l
ubricant film gets too thin. [1]
Copper is added to some greases for use in high pressure applications, or where
corrosion could prevent dis-assembly of components later in their service life.
Copaslip is the registered trademark of one such grease produced by Molyslip Atl
antic Ltd, and has become a generic term (often spelled as "copperslip" or "copp
aslip") for anti-seize lubricants which contain copper.[4]
[edit] Other greases
Other types of lubricating material that are soft solids or high viscosity liqui
ds at room temperature are often called grease, though they may not exhibit the
shear-thinning properties typical of the oil/soap grease. Petroleum jellies, suc
h as Vaseline, are also sometimes called greases, and are commonly used for lubr
icating food-handling equipment.
[edit] Silicone grease
Main article: Silicone grease
Silicone grease is an amorphous fumed, silica-thickened, polysiloxane-based comp
ound, which can be used to provide lubrication and corrosion resistance. Since i
t is not oil-based, it is often used where oil-based lubricants would attack rub
ber seals. Silicone greases also maintain stability under high temperatures, and
are often used, in pure form or mixed with zinc oxide, to join heat sinks to co
mputer CPUs.
[edit] Fluoroether-based grease
Fluoropolymers containing C-O-C (ether) bonds for flexibility are soft, and ofte
n used as greases in demanding environments due to their inertness. Fomblin by S
olvay Solexis and Krytox by duPont are prominent examples.
[edit] Laboratory grease
Grease is used to lubricate glass stopcocks and joints. Some laboratories fill t
hem into syringes for easy application. Two typical examples: Left - Krytox, a f
luoroether-based grease; Right - a silicone-based high vacuum grease by Dow Corn
ing.

See also: Laboratory glassware

Apiezon, silicone-based, and fluoroether-based greases are all used commonly in
laboratories for lubricating stopcocks and ground glass joints. The grease helps
to prevent joints from "freezing", as well as ensuring high vacuum systems are
properly sealed.
Apiezon or similar hydrocarbon based greases are the cheapest, and most suitable
for high vacuum applications. However, they dissolve in many organic solvents.
This quality makes clean-up with pentane or hexanes trivial, but also easily lea
ds to contamination of reaction mixtures.
Silicone-based greases are cheaper than fluoroether-based greases. They are rela
tively inert and generally do not affect reactions, though reaction mixtures oft
en get contaminated (detected through NMR near d 0). Silicone-based greases are
not easily removed with solvent, but they are removed efficiently by soaking in
a base bath.
Fluoroether-based greases are inert to many substances including solvents, acids
, bases, and oxidizers. They are, however, expensive, and are not easily cleaned
away.
[edit] Water-soluble grease analogs
In some cases, the lubrication and high viscosity of a grease are desired in sit
uations where non-toxic, non-oil based materials are required. Carboxymethyl cel
lulose, or CMC, is one popular material used to create a water-based analog of g
reases. CMC serves to both thicken the solution and add a lubricating effect, an
d often silicone-based lubricants are added for additional lubrication. The most
familiar example of this type of lubricant, used as a surgical and personal lub
ricant, is K-Y Jelly

die cushion
An improved snubber apparatus for an air cushion within a forming press is provi
ded. A floating piston is mounted within the air cushion and defines a snubbing
chamber. As the air cushion returns to its top stroke position after yieldably d
eforming to cushion a member within the forming press, a movable piston within t
he air cushion contacts the floating piston, forcing it to move in the direction
reducing the volume of the snubbing chamber. A check valve is provided between
a cushion chamber and the snubbing chamber which maintains the pressure in the s
nubbing chamber at a minimum equivalent to the pressure in the cushion chamber.
As the volume of the snubbing chamber is reduced, the air trapped within is rapi
dly compressed to a value snubbing the motion of the air cushion. The snubber va
lve is provided communicating with the snubbing chamber and maintained in a clos
ed position by the air pressure within the cushion chamber. During the snubbing
action, when the air pressure within the snubbing chamber reaches a predetermine
d value, the snubber valve is opened permitting the air from the snubber chamber
to escape through the valve to the surrounding atmosphere. An orifice plug is p
rovided to control the outflow of the air when the valve is open. The relative c
ross-sectional areas exposed to the air pressure within the cushion chamber and
the snubbing chamber on the snubber valve are varied to correspond to the number
of cushion chambers in the air cushion.