RISER ANALYSIS USING CASTING SIMULATION TECHNIQUES DURING SOLIDIFICATION
Ioan Ciobanu, Sorin Munteanu, Aurel Crisan, Tibor Bedo, Vlad Monescu
Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania
Copyright © 2014 American Foundry Society
Abstract
Riser sizing optimization is based on the analysis of riser
operation. Casting solidification simulation software allows
this analysis to be done without the consumption of materi-
als, energy and labor. This paper presents a methodology
to analyze riser operation to optimize riser size during met-
alcasting. This three-part paper includes: (1) establishing
the test criteria during the riser operation analysis; (2) ex-
emplification of the riser operation analysis by simulation,
using a steel casting; and (3) experimental verification of the
results. The findings suggest that the riser operation analy-
Research Goals
Riser systems design establishes the riser position and size
in relation to the casting. Riser optimization refers to analy-
sis of the casting solidification with different types of risers
(position and dimensions) and choosing the most favorable
variant from a technological and economical point of view.
The optimal variant is chosen based on the analysis of the
riser operation and the liquid alloy consumption during cas-
ting. The development of software for casting solidification
simulation provides the opportunity to carry out advanced
studies on riser systems operation.1,2,3,4 It is thus possible to
make optimizations, without actually producing castings that
require labor, materials and energy. In casting workshops,
although riser dimensions are established by simulation, the
riser operation and the economic aspects are not studied in
much detail. Often industrial users do not take full advan-
tage of all the possibilities offered by casting solidification
simulation software. Many times in industrial practice, the
casting solidification analysis and riser design are based only
on the analysis of the temperature distribution in the cast-
ing–riser system at the end of alloy solidification.5,6,7,8 Also,
rarely is the best casting variant determined by comparative
economic analysis.
The objective of this work is to provide foundry engineers
and metalcasters with a systematic method to analyze the
riser operation based on computer simulation of casting so-
lidification. This paper consists of three parts:
• establishing the criteria for riser operation analysis;
• exemplifying the working methodology;
• experimental verification
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
sis must be based on solidification time maps (and not on the
temperature maps at the end of solidification), on the time
of interruption of communication between riser and casting
and on the amount of the useful liquid alloy available in the
riser until the casting solidifies. Our study shows that the
solidification analysis must be undertaken on the basis of the
real solidification modulus and not on the geometric solidi-
fication modulus.
Keywords: casting, riser, alloy solidification, simulation
Criteria for Riser Operation Analysis
The study on shrinkage formation mechanism in castings
leads to the following 9 criteria to evaluate the riser operation:
These criteria form the basis of studies to optimize the riser
systems:
Riser Position and Height
Risers are placed in the vicinity of casting hot spots. De-
pending on the geometry and position of the hot spots, each
hot spot may be equipped with a riser or one riser can simul-
taneously feed several hot spots. Liquid alloy flows from the
riser to the casting based on the principle of communicating
vessels (in communicating vessels the fluid levels are of the
same height regardless of the shape of the vessels).1 Con-
sequently the riser should be higher than the casting, and it
is recommended to position the casting with the hot spots
located at the top. As a result the riser has small height.
6HTXHQFHRIWKH/LTXLG$OOR\6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ
For proper functioning of the riser it is necessary to control
the alloy solidification in the following sequence: casting-
riser neck-riser. If the riser neck solidifies last, the shrinkage
cavity is formed in the riser neck and this may affect the
soundness of the casting. If the riser neck solidifies faster
than the casting, then shrinkage is formed in the casting.
The solidification sequence of the casting-riser system can
be quickly appreciated calculating the solidification modu-
lus. The notion of solidification modulus was introduced by
Chvorinov.9 Chvorinov’s relationship to calculate the solidi-
fication modulus is as follows:
63

MG = V/S Eqn. 1
Where; V = casting volume (or a region of the casting), S =
surface area through which the alloy is cooled. Chvorinov’s
relationship considers only the casting geometry. Therefore,
the solidification modulus calculated with this relationship
will be named the geometric solidification modulus (MG).
For a more accurate study of the solidification, the real so-
lidification conditions of the casting inside the mold (risers,
insulated cores, exothermic cores, hot corners, the number
of other castings or risers, etc.) must be considered. There-
fore the solidification analysis should be made based on the
real solidification modulus of casting (or a region of the cast-
ing).2, 9,10,11,12
Eqn. 2
Where V = casting volume (or a region of the casting), n =
number of surfaces through which the cooling occurs, i =
index of the surface, Si = surface with the index “i”, ki = cool-
ing coefficient of the Si surface. The cooling coefficient ki
takes into account the effect of slowed or increased cooling
through that area (Si) compared to a surface where the heat
transfer is not influenced. The cooling coefficient values for
different type of surfaces were given in previous papers. 10,11
To ensure proper directional solidification in the system
casting-riser neck-riser the following relationship must exist
between the real solidification modulus of these elements:
MC:MN:MR= 1:1,1:1,2 Eqn. 3
Where; MC = real solidification modulus of casting; MN =
real solidification modulus of riser neck; MR = real solidifi-
cation modulus of riser. The real solidification modulus (M)
is correlated with the solidification time (tS) by the square
root law of solidification, expressed in the relationship: 2,9,12
Eqn. 4
Where; k = solidification constant
From Equations 3 and 4 results that for a proper solidifica-
tion directing the following relationship must exist between
the solidification times:
tC:tN :tR = MC2:MN2:MR2 = 1:1,2:1,45 Eqn. 5
Where tC, tN , tR = solidification times of the three elements:
casting, riser neck, riser.
Hot Spot Position in the Riser
Liquid alloy solidification must end in the riser as far as the
riser neck. Ideally, the hot spot should be in the upper side
of the riser. This usually occurs in the case of exothermic or
insulated risers.
64
Interruption of Riser–Casting Communication
Equation 5 refers to the end of solidification times for the
elements in the system casting–riser neck–riser. The time
of interruption of communication between riser and cast-
ing has a much greater importance for the riser functioning.
This will be called the time of feeding the casting from riser
(tSN) and represents the time when a first cross section of the
riser neck completely solidifies. For a proper operation of
the riser, this time must be longer than the solidification time
of the casting (tC).
3RVLWLRQRIWKH(QGRI6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ5HJLRQLQ
the Casting
The casting must be fed from the riser until complete soli-
dification. It is necessary that the point where casting soli-
dification ends is located at the casting–riser neck junction.5
Otherwise, the liquid alloy from riser cannot reach the area
in the final stage of solidification. In this case, a secondary
shrink hole (or porosity) can occur in the casting.
The Amount of Liquid Alloy Available in Riser to
&RPSHQVDWHIRU&DVWLQJ6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ
In order to fulfill its role (during casting solidification) the
risers must contain a quantity of liquid alloy sufficient to
compensate for the liquid alloy contraction in the casting.
13
The useful liquid alloy available in the riser (VULR) rep-
resents the liquid that can flow from the riser to the casting
until casting solidification. This is the liquid alloy located at
a higher level than the riser neck, until casting solidification
(Figure 1).
In order to ensure ensure riser efficiency, the amount of use-
ful liquid alloy in the riser until complete solidification of
the casting, must be equal or greater than the alloy contracti-
on at solidification. The volume of useful liquid alloy in the
riser required to compensate the alloy contraction (VULR) is
calculated as:
VLUM ≥ β (VC + VN+ VR ) / 100 = β (VTOT) / 100 Eqn. 6
Figure 1. The useful liquid alloy available in the riser
(VULR) is shown in the yellow area.
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
Where β = percentage of the volume shrinkage of the alloy
during solidification, VC = casting volume, VN = riser neck
volume, VR = riser volume, and VTOT = total volume of alloy
in the casting-riser system.
7KH6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ6KULQNDJH3RVVLEOHWREH
Compensated by Riser
Starting with Equation 6 the maximum contraction βMAX,
which can be compensated by the riser, can be determined:
MAX
= 100 · VULR / (VC + VN+ VR) = 100· · VULR / VTOT [ %]
Eqn.
Sound castings are obtained when βMAX ≥ β.
7HQGHQF\RI0LFURVKULQNDJH$SSHDUDQFH
The microshrinkage appearance is influenced by the tem-
perature gradient and the local cooling rate during alloy so-
lidification. This influence can be estimated by the Niyama
criterion: 7, 14, 15
. Eqn. 8
Where; gradT = local temperature gradient and V = local
cooling rate, both of them evaluated at a specified tempera-
ture close to the end of solidification. Microshrinkage can
occur, if the local Niyama criterion is less than a critical va-
lue which depends on the cast alloy nature.7,15
Yield of Liquid Alloy used in Casting
The use of liquid alloy in the riser is characterized by the
index of the use of liquid alloy in the riser (or yield of the liq-
uid alloy used in the riser) denoted by I.U and calculated as:
Eqn. 9
Where; nC = number of castings, nN = number of riser necks,
and nR = number of risers.
In order to determine the overall effectiveness of the use of
liquid alloy into a mold, the gating system mass must be
considered. The total index of liquid alloy used in the mold
is calculated with the equation:
Eqn. 10
Where; VG = gating system volume.
Methodology For Riser Operation Analysis
Based on the above considerations the methodology for riser
operation analysis includes the following steps:
a) A preliminary analysis of casting solidification
to identify the position of the hot spots. For this
purpose, the analysis of the casting solidification
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
without riser and gating system is required. This
analysis can be achieved by computer solidifica-
tion simulation or by calculating the real solidifica-
tion modulus of the casting regions.
b) The determination of the approximate position and
size of the riser and gating system (by calculating
the solidification times of hot spots or the real so-
lidification modulus).
c) The simulation of casting solidification for this first
case.
d) Changes can be made in the riser size and possi-
7 bly in position depending on the simulation results,
then repeat the simulation.
e) An analysis of the conditions which promote sound
castings is performed for all simulated cases as follows:
• Directional solidification using the solidifica-
tion times for casting, riser and riser neck;
• Time at which the communication riser-cas-
ting is interrupted;
• Position of the hot spot in the casting (end of
solidification in casting);
• Position of the hot spot in the system (solidi-
fication end point in the system casting-riser
neck-riser);
• The amount of useful liquid metal available
in the riser until complete solidification of the
casting;
• Maximum contraction of the alloy in the cast-
ing that can be compensated by the riser; and
• Niyama criterion value that produces castings
without microshrinkage.
f) Analysis of the liquid alloy consumption dur-
ing casting, for the variants ensuring sound
parts, to determine the most economic variant.
Applying this methodology allows for an advanced optimi-
zation of the risers systems.
Exemplifying Riser Operation Analysis Using
Simulation
To illustrate the method for analyzing the riser operation, the
solidification of a steel casting in the presence of different-
sized risers was studied. Undersized and oversized risers
were also studied, in order to highlight the negative aspects
associated with riser operation. All analysis steps were com-
pleted, less the tendency for the microshrinkage occurrence
analysis, because the software used does not calculate Ni-
yama criterion.
The casting subject of this case study is shown in Figure
2. This presents at the upper end a thicker zone (hot spot)
having the inscribed circle diameter of 48mm (1.89 in.) and
the geometric solidification modulus MGC = 14.2mm (0.559
in), (calculated using Eqn 1). The geometric solidification
modulus was calculated in order to highlight the differences
from the real solidification modulus. The real solidification
65
modulus of the part takes into account the warm corners
where cooling is slower. Its value (calculated with Eqn 2)
is M = 14.63mm (0.576 in). The cooling coefficient for the
surfaces near the hot corners was adopted ki = 0.85. To get
a sound casting, a lateral riser, placed in the thickest zone of
the casting must be used.
In the presence of riser, the cooling of the part surface near
the riser is slowed. As result, its real solidification modulus
becomes higher in the presence of riser [∼ 15–16mm (∼0.59–
0.63 in)]. According to Eqn (3), the riser must have a real so-
lidification modulus of at least MR = 18–19mm (0.709–0.748
in). Preliminary calculations show that the value of real so-
lidification modulus requires a riser with thickness around dR
= 85–95mm (3.346–3.740 in).
and geometric modulus for the casting-riser neck-riser sys-
tem elements. These have been calculated with Equations
2 and 1, depending on the riser dimensions given in Table
1. The geometric solidification modulus was calculated to
reveal that its values are not significant for solidification
sequence analysis. When calculating the real solidification
modulus, subunit values were adopted for the cooling coef-
ficient of the part and riser neck surfaces. In these zones the
cooling during solidification is slowed due to molding batch
overheating. The values were adopted in the range 0.5 to
0.95 depending on the speed of cooling.10 Lower values (ki
= 0.5) were adopted for riser neck surfaces. For the surfaces
near the hot corners of the casting and the neighboring sur-

The mold used in simulations is shown in Figure 2. A total of

seven variants were studied by casting solidification simula-
tion. In the first variant, the solidification of a riser-less cast-
ing was simulated. In the other six variants the casting solid-
ification with different riser sizes was studied. The riser sizes
were modified according to the results obtained in previous
simulations. The riser operation in each case was studied,
based on the above criteria. Finally the most favorable solu-
tion was established.
The cases when the
riser neck was un-
dersized (Cases 2
& 4) or when it was
oversized (Case 6)
were studied in or-
der to highlight the
influence of the riser
neck on the riser op-
eration.

The dimensions of
riser and riser neck
for the variants stud-
ied by simulation
are given in Table
1. Table 2 shows the
values of the real so- Figure 3. Schematic of the mould and casting-riser
lidification modulus Figure 2. Test casting dimensions. system.

Table 1. Riser Dimensions for the Variants Studied by Simulation

66 International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014

faces of the casting and riser values, ki = 0.7 0.9 were adopt-
ed, depending on the local geometry. For the surfaces where
heat transfer is not affected by molding batch overheating,
the cooling coefficient ki = 1 was adopted. 10
(The solidification simulation was performed with 3D-SIM
software at Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov,
Romania.16 The software used the finite differences method.
The casting-mould assembly was meshed into cubic elements,
4mm in size. Simulations were performed for a carbon steel
casting with 0.1% C in green sand molds. The following
casting conditions were considered: solidus temperature of the
steel TS=1495˚C (2723˚F); liquidus temperature TL=1453˚C
(2647˚F), initial temperature of the liquid alloy T0S=1650˚C
(3002˚F); initial temperature of the mold T0M=20˚C (68˚F);
environment temperature T0=20°C (68F); silica sand mold
chemically hardened with sodium silicate and CO2. 17
For each simulation case, the following values were deter-
mined:
• Solidification time of the part, riser and riser neck;
• Solidification times ratio;
• Ratio of the real solidification modulus for the cast-
ing-riser neck-riser system, calculated according to
solidification times;
• Total amount of liquid alloy available in riser until
casting solidification;
• Amount of useful liquid alloy available in riser (to
Table 2. Real Solidi¿cation Modulus of the System Casting±Riser NecN-Riser in
the Studied Variants (Values Calculated by Relationships 1 & 2)
Table 3. Results for the Solidi¿cation Time Obtained by Simulation
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
compensate for alloy contraction) until casting so-
lidification;
• Maximum contraction percentage that can be com-
pensated from the riser until the end of casting so-
lidification;
• Hot spot position at the final moment of the cast
alloy solidification;
• Position of end solidification points for the riser
and riser neck;
• Map of solidification front displacement (map of
solidification times);
• Volume of the liquid alloy cast in the part, riser &
riser neck and the yield of liquid alloy used in casting.
Results Obtained by Simulation
Tables 3 and 4 show the results obtained by simulation. Ta-
ble 3 contains the values for the solidification time of the
three elements of the system (tC = casting, tN = riser neck, tR
= riser) and the feeding time from riser (tSN = strangling time
of the riser neck). The solidification time ratio that charac-
terizes the directional solidification was calculated. The real
solidification modulus ratios were calculated, using the so-
lidification time values determined by simulation (Table 4),
and the relationship:9,10
Eqn. 11
67
The ratios of the real solidification modulus were deter-
mined based on the simulation results, and compared with
the real solidification modulus ratios given in Table 2 (ob-
tained based on Eqn 2). The veracity of studying the direc-
tional solidification based on the real solidification modulus
was verified using Eqn 4.
The results on the volume of useful liquid alloy available in
the riser until solidification (VULR), the maximum solidifica-
tion contraction possible to compensate by riser (βMAX) and
the index liquid alloy use in riser (I.U.) are given in Table 4.
Figures 4-17 show the graphical representations of the simu-
lation results: The isotherms in the mold assembly at the end
of alloy solidification, the solidification time map and the use-
Figure 4. Contour map of the solidi¿cation times (the
movement of the solidi¿cation line) Variant V1±riserless
casting.
Table 4. Results for Total Amount of Liquid Metal in
Riser and Ef¿ciency of Liquid Alloy Utilization in the Casting
68
ful liquid alloy available to compensate the casting contrac-
tion until complete solidification. The solidification time maps
(Figs. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 & 16) show the movement of the alloy
solidification front inside the mold. The figures also highlight
if secondary hot spots (shrinkage) can appear in the part, be-
cause their contraction cannot be compensated by riser.
Figures 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 & 17 show the positioning of the
useful liquid alloy inside the riser. If the amount of liquid
alloy is insufficient, the riser size must be increased. These
figures also highlight if the liquid alloy can entirely reach
the casting. This is only possible if there is an unsolidified
channel to the end of casting solidification. The surface cor-
responding to useful liquid alloy in these figures is different
from that corresponding to shrinkages because it includes
the amount of alloy solidified in the mushy zone.
Figure 5. Temperature distribution (isotherms) at the end
liquid alloys of solidi¿cation (tM =705s). Variant V2-riser
dR x HR = 80 x 120mm, riser necN section bN x hN = 32 x
32mm.
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
Figure 6. Solidi¿cation times contour map. Variant V2± Figure 7. Useful liquid alloy available in riser until casting
riser dR x HR =80 x 120mm, riser necN section bN x hN = solidi¿cation (tP= 541.5s). Variant V2-riser dR x HR =80mm
32 x 32mm. x 120mm, riser necN section bN x hN = 32 x 32mm.

Figure 8. Solidi¿cation times contour map. Variant V3± Figure 9. Useful liquid alloy available in riser until casting
riser dR x HR =80 x 136 mm, riser necN section bN x hN = solidi¿cation. Variant V3-riser dR x HR =80mm x 136mm,
48 x 48mm. riser necN section bN x hN = 48 x 48mm.

Figure 10. Solidi¿cation times contour map. Variant V4± Figure 11. Useful liquid alloy available in riser until
riser dR x HR =104 x 144 mm, riser necN section bN x hN = casting solidi¿cation. Variant V4-riser dR x HR =104mm x
32 x 32mm. 104mm, riser necN section bN x hN = 32 x 32mm.

International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014 69

Figure 12. Solidi¿cation times contour map. Variant V5± Figure 13. Useful liquid alloy available in riser until
riser dR x HR =96 x 152mm, riser necN section bN x hN = casting solidi¿cation. Variant V5-riser dR x HR =96mm x
48 x 48mm. 152mm, riser necN section bN x hN = 48 x 48mm.

Figure 14. Solidi¿cation times contour map. Variant V6± Figure 15. Useful liquid alloy available in riser until
riser dR x HR = 64 x 152mm, riser necN section bN x hN = casting solidi¿cation. Variant V6-riser dR x HR = 64mm x
48 x 48mm. 152mm, riser necN section bN x hN = 48 x 48mm.

Figure 16. Solidi¿cation times contour map. Variant V7± Figure 17. Useful liquid alloy available in riser until
riser dR x HR =88 x 144mm, riser necN section bN x hN = casting solidi¿cation. Variant V7-riser dR x HR = 88mm x
48 x 48mm. 144mm, riser necN section bN x hN = 48 x 48mm.

70 International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014

Analysis of Simulation Results
The analysis of the results obtained by simulation led to the
following 7 case studies:
Case 1—Riserless casting have a solidification time tC =
524s. The hot spot is located in the casting area with maxi-
mum thickness (Fig. 4).
Case 2—Casting with riser having dR x HR = 80
x120mm (3.15 x 4.72 in), and riser neck with section
bN x hN = 32 x 32mm (1.26x1.26 in). The solidification
times map (Fig. 5) shows that the main hot spot is formed
in riser. The solidification time of the casting (tC = 541.5)
is higher than the solidification time of the riserless cast-
ing. This confirms that the real solidification modulus
of the casting increases in the presence of the riser. The
solidification time map shows two hot spots. The tem-
peratures map at the end of solidification shows a single
hot spot. The secondary hot spot in the casting is caused
by the brief time until the interruption of communication
between casting and riser (tSN = 387s < tC). The cause is
the small riser neck section. The alloy solidification di-
recting the system is not adequate (tC:tN:tR = 1:0,91:1,3).
This situation is reflected by the real solidification modu-
lus ratio, calculated using the Equation 2 (MC:MN:MR =
1:0,85:1,05). The comparison of Fig. 5 (isotherms at al-
loy solidification end) and Fig. 6 (solidification time map)
reveals the importance of riser operation analysis based
on solidification times and not on the alloy temperature
map at the end of solidification. The map at the end of
solidification temperatures (Fig. 5) did not highlight the
secondary hot spot in casting (Fig. 6). The cause is tem-
perature map changes (after solidification), due to thermal
conduction of the alloy.
Case 3—Casting with riser dR x HR = 80 x 136mm (3.15 x
5.35 in) and riser neck with section hN x bN = 48 x 48mm
(1.89x1.89 in). There is a single hot spot in the riser, near
the level of the riser neck (Fig. 8). The ratio of the solidifica-
tion times casting–riser neck-riser is tC:tN: tR = 1:1,24:1,35.
It does not comply with Eqn. 5. This shows that the alloy so-
lidification time is not enough from casting to riser. The total
amount of useful liquid alloy available in the riser is insuf-
ficient. This can only compensate a solidification shrinkage
EMAX = 3.353% lower than the steel solidification shrinkage
(βSTEEL = 5.5 %).
Case 4—Casting with riser dR x HR = 104 x 144mm
(4.09 x 5.67 in), and riser neck section hN x bN = 32 x
32mm (1.26 x1.26 in). The final hot spot is formed in the
center of the riser (Fig. 10). The amount of useful liquid
alloy in riser can compensate a contraction at solidifica-
tion of 13.93%, more than sufficient for achieving sound
parts. This shows that the riser is oversized. However the
solidification maps (Fig. 10) shows that a secondary hot
spot appears in casting, suggesting that the riser does not
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
function properly. The alloy solidification directing in the
system is not adequate. The communication riser-casting
is stopped before complete solidification of the casting (tSN
= 508s < tC = 543s), causing the malfunction. This variant
highlights the great influence of the riser neck section on
the riser operation.
Case 5—Casting with riser dR = 96 x152mm (3.78 x 5.98
in), and riser neck section hN x bN = 48 x 48mm (1.89x1.89
in). The final hot spot is formed near the riser center. The
alloy solidification is properly directed tC:tN:tR = 1:1,33:1,73.
The riser feeds the casting throughout solidification (tSN =
631.5s > tC = 604.5s). The amount of useful liquid alloy
in riser can compensate a solidification contraction βMAX =
9.9%. This is more than the steel solidification shrinkage
(βSTEEL = 5.5%). The possibility of reducing the riser size
should be examined.
Case 6—Casting with riser dR x HR = 64 x 152mm (2.52
x5.98 in), and riser neck hN x bN = 48 x 48mm (1.89x1.89
in). The final hot spot is formed in the riser neck. Although
the riser neck section is great, the riser does not work prop-
erly. The solidification times (tC:tN tR = 1: 1,11:1.) and the
real solidification modulus show that the riser is undersized.
The amount of useful liquid alloy in riser at the end of cast-
ing solidification is not enough.
Case 7—Casting with riser dR x HR = 88 x 152mm (3.46
x 5.98 in), and riser neck hN x bN = 48 x 48mm (1.89x1.89
in). The alloy solidification is properly directed (tC:tN:tR =
1:1,29:1,52). The amount of useful liquid alloy available in
riser can compensate a solidification shrinkage βMAX = 5.89
%. This is enough to yield a sound steel casting.
The analysis of the results shows that variants 2 and 4 are
eliminated because the communication riser-part is stopped
before complete solidification. Variants 3 and 6 do not sat-
isfy the condition for maximum contraction possible to com-
pensate βMAX <β STEEL. The conditions regarding the feeding
interruption of casting from riser, the solidification directing
and the contraction possible to be compensated are satisfied
only by variants 5 and 7. Finally, the two variants are com-
pared from an economic perspective. Version 7 has a greater
index of liquid alloy use, which makes it more advantageous
(IU = 35.47% for version 7 compared to IU =30.76% for
variant 5).
([SHULPHQWDO:RUNLQJ0HWKRG
The last stage of this paper was aimed at experimentally
verifying the simulated results. The main simulated riser
variants were cast experimentally, followed by visualization
of the position of the shrink holes in the castings and risers.
The experimental results were compared to those obtained
by simulation in order to verify the conclusions related to
the riser operation. The more significant variants V1, V2,
V4, V5, V6, and V7 were cast experimentally from steel.
71
The parts were cast simultaneously in the same mold, to
ensure the same casting temperature, chemical composition
and solidification contraction. Table 5 features the cast steel
chemical composition. Figures 18 and 19 show the loca-
tion of the models during molding. The molds were made
from silica sand chemically hardened with sodium silicate
and CO2, using lost foam (polystyrene) models. The models
were extracted from the mold by burning, prior to assembly.
The temperature of the liquid alloy (measured in the casting
ladle prior to filling the mold) was 1661.2˚C (3002˚F), and
the casting temperature measured in the funnel of the gating
upon completed filling was 1648.7˚C (3000˚F). Filling/pour-
ing time was 10 seconds.
• The riser neck section has a significant influence
on riser functioning; even over-dimensioned risers
(with a real solidification modulus considerably
greater than necessary) do not function correctly if
the riser neck section is small.
• The useful liquid alloy available in riser is the liquid
alloy capable of flowing from the riser into the cast-
ing during casting solidification. This is the liquid
alloy located in the riser above the riser neck level.
• The area corresponding to the useful liquid inside
the riser (plotted in Figs. 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17) is not
identical to the shrink hole volume. When the use-

Experimental Results

Figure 20 shows the experimental castings.

In all cases shrink holes appeared in the area
of hot spots revealed by simulation. The hot
spots highlighted by simulation correspond to
the inferior tip of the shrink holes. In variants
2 and 4 (with a small riser neck section) small
secondary shrink holes appeared in the casting
in the vicinity of the riser. These correspond to
the position of the secondary hot spots also re-
vealed in simulation. The significant influence
of the riser neck on riser operation was thus
confirmed experimentally.

In variants 5 and 7 compact, shrink hole-free

castings were obtained, in accordance with
the results of the simulation-based analysis. In
variant 6 (riser with a very small real solidifica-
Figure 18. Location of the castings, risers and gating in the mold
tion modulus) the shrink hole stretches to the (dimensions in mm).
area of the riser neck. This is in agreement with
the position of the hot spot determined in simu-
lation and reveals an inadequate corresponding
functioning of the riser.

Conclusions

The results obtained by simulation and experi-

mentally have yielded the following conclusions:
• Solidification analysis based on the
temperature map (map of isotherms)
in the cast alloy at the end of solidifi-
cation is not conclusive for highlight-
ing the hot spots, or for the function-
ing of the risers.
• The solidification study and the high-
lighting of hot spots must be achieved
based on the map of solidification times. Figure 19. A schematic vertical section through the mold.

Table 5. Composition of the Cast Alloy

72 International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014

 ful liquid alloy available in the riser is insufficient,
the shrink hole volume is greater than this area, be-
cause the solidification contraction of the casting is
not totally compensated. When more than neces-
sary liquid alloy is available in the riser (more than
required for compensating the solidification con-
traction of casting and riser), this area also includes
the solidified alloy in the mushy zone and is greater
that the shrink hole volume.
• The geometrical solidification modulus computed
with Chvorinov’s formula (Eqn. 1) is not correlat-
ed with the solidification time (does not verify Eqn.
4); it does not provide correct information on the
solidification direction, as the geometrical modu-
lus does not consider the real circumstances of heat
transfer within the casting mold.
• The directing of the riser-casting system is charac-
terized, with sufficient accuracy, by means of the
real solidification modulus, because these are cor-
related with the solidification time in Eqn 4.
• The ratio of the real solidification modulus that
ensures good riser functioning is MC: MN: MR=
(a) (b)
(d) (e)
Figure 20. Sectioned views of six experimental castings(V1, 2,4, 5, 6 & 7).
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
1:1,1:1,2 (Eqn 3); this corresponds to a ratios of
solidification times of tC:tN:tR = 1:1,2:1.45.
• The shrink holes obtained in the risers as part of
the experimental research have an elongated shape
with the inferior tip located in the hot spot; this
stretched shape is explained by the fact that shrink
holes start forming at the time of gating solidifica-
tion, before casting complete solidification.
• The hot spot highlighted in simulation corresponds
to the inferior tip of the shrink holes.
• The experimental results on shape and location of
shrink holes confirm that riser functioning analysis
by simulation, using the criteria described yields
correct results and allows advanced optimization
of the riser system.
• If several riser systems ensure shrink hole-free
solidification of the castings, selection should be
made by economic analysis based on the yield of
liquid alloy utilization.
• This presented methodology can be completed
with an analysis of the occurrence tendency of mi-
cro-shrink holes, based on Niyama’s criterion.
(c)
(f)
73
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the ease of manufacturing (by manual cutting) of the pat- VROLGL¿FDWLRQGHUDFFRUGHPHQWVGHSODTXHVVHORQ
tern used for molding. In industrial practice circular section GLIIHUHQWVSUR¿OVDQJXODLUHV&RHI¿FLHQWVGHIRUPH,”
risers and semi-spherical upper end are commonly used. FonderieFondeur d¶auMourd¶huiQRSS௅
These are more efficient, because they provide the smallest 
surface/volume ratio. The methodology of analysis for riser  )OHQGHU(6WXUP-³7HFKQLFDO'HYHORSPHQW
functioning, systematized in the paper, is however valid for 5HSRUW7KLUW\<HDUVRI&DVWLQJ3URFHVV6LPXODWLRQ´
any riser type or geometry (including thermally insulated or International Journal of MetalcastingYROLVVXH
exothermal risers). SS௅
 5DYL%6ULQLYDVDQ0N., “+RW6SRWVLQ&DVWLQJV
Contributions of This Paper &RPSXWHU$LGHG/RFDWLRQDQG([SHULPHQWDO
Validation,” AFS Transactions$PHULFDQ)RXQGU\
The contributions of this paper include: 6RFLHW\'HV3ODLQHV,/86$YROSS±
• A systematization of the analysis methodology of 
riser functioning based on simulation, as an instru-  +RX7;3HKONH5:LONHV-2³)(0 6LPXODWRU
ment for riser design in foundry/metalcasting in- IRU(I¿FLHQW&DVWLQJ6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ0RGHOLQJ” AFS
dustry was performed. Transactions$PHULFDQ)RXQGU\6RFLHW\'HV3ODLQHV
• This work highlights that solidification analysis ,/86$YROSS±
and riser design have to be based on the solidifica-  ,PDIXNX,&KLMLLZD.$³$0DWKHPDWLFDO0RGHO
tion times map (and not on temperature distribu- IRU6KULQNDJH&DYLW\3UHGLFWLRQLQ6WHHO&DVWLQJV´
tion at the end of solidification, as is often done in AFS Transactions$PHULFDQ)RXQGU\6RFLHW\'HV
industry). 3ODLQHV,/86$YROSS௅
• It also highlights the necessity of analyzing the  /HZLV5//LRX66KLQ<' “/LWHUDWXUH5HYLHZ
quantity of useful liquid alloy within the riser and RI6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ6LPXODWLRQLQWKH'HVLJQRI6DQG
of the percentage contraction that the riser is able Castings,” Steel Founders¶ Research Journal,YRO
to compensate. SS௅
• Reveals the opportunity of a simplified analysis  &KYRULQRY1³7KHRU\RI&DVWLQJ6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ
of directing solidification by the real solidification
modulus, because it is correlated with the solidifi-
cation time.
• The importance of analyzing the useful liquid met-
al available in the riser is illustrated by the follow-
ing example: two parts are to be cast, one of mass
mP1 = 10kg and the real solidification modulus of
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the thickest area (of the hot spot in the part) of MP1 5R
= 30mm, and another part of mass mP2 = 20kg and 'HIUHWLQ*³&DOFXOGHVPRGXOHVGHVROLGL¿FDWLRQ
the same real solidification modulus MP2 = 30mm. apparents des pieces de fonderie,” FonderieSS
Considering the real solidification modulus in both )U'HFHPEHU
cases a riser with real solidification modulus MM = 5DYL%6ULQLYDVDQ01³&DVWLQJVROLGL¿FDWLRQ
36mm is required. But it is evident that in the case DQDO\VLVE\PRGXOXVYHFWRUPHWKRG´International
of the second part, the riser should provide double Journal of Cast Metals ResearchYROQRSS௅
the amount of liquid alloy to compensate the solidi-
fication contraction of the part.
REFERENCES
8.
&DUOVRQ.'%HFNHUPDQQ&³3UHGLFWLRQ
RI6KULQNDJH3RUH9ROXPH)UDFWLRQ8VLQJD
Dimensionless Niyama Criterion,” Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions AQR$SS௅
 %RGHQEXUJ0'LRUGXF9³2SWLPL]DUHDQXPHULFă 
a proceselor de turnare,” [Numerical Optimization of 1L\DPD(8FKLGD70RULNDZD06DLWR6³$
Casting Processes], Revista de turnătorie [Foundry 0HWKRGRI6KULQNDJH3UHGLFWLRQDQGLWV$SSOLFDWLRQWR
Journal@QR௅SS௅,6615R 6WHHO&DVWLQJ3UDFWLFH” AFS International Cast Metals
 JournalYROQRSS௅
 6WHIDQHVFX'³6FLHQFHDQG(QJLQHHULQJRI&DVWLQJ &DUOVRQ.2X6+DUGLQ5%HFNHUPDQQ&
6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ´'HSDUWPHQWRI0DWHULDOV(QJLQHHULQJ ³$QDO\VLVRI$670;5D\6KULQNDJH5DWLQJIRU
8QLYHUVLW\RI$ODEDPD7XVFDORRVD$/86$,6%1 6WHHO&DVWLQJV´International Journal of Cast Metals
; ResearchYROQR

74 International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014

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6,%HGR70RQHVFX9³7KH9HUL¿FDWLRQE\ RI7KHUPDO3URSHUWLHVRI&DVWLQJ$OOR\VDQG0ROG
([SHULPHQWRI6LP'6RIWZDUH,QWHQGHGIRU&DVWLQJV Materials,” National Science Foundation, Mechanical
6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ6LPXODWLRQ´Metalurgia International, Engineering and Applied Mechanical Division, pp
QRSS௅,6615R
Technical Review & Discussion
Riser Analysis Using Casting Simulation
7HFKQLTXHVGXULQJ6ROLGL¿FDWLRQ
Ioan Ciobanu, Sorin Munteanu, Aurel Crisan,
Tibor Bedo, Vlad Monescu Transilvania University of
Brasov, Romania
Editor’s note: The published paper was originally submitted
in three parts dealing with both iron and steel casting. The
authors have modified this IJMC paper to focus strictly on
steel casting.
Reviewer: The study seems to indicate that the gating sy-
stem and filling process don’t have significant influence on
solidification time. Were the simulations specific to steel
castings? What thermal characteristics were used?
Authors: When we revised the paper, we re-ran all simulati-
ons for steel castings, taking into account the gating system
in the same simulation conditions (temperature, mold type).
Thermal characteristics of the mold and liquid steel consi-
dered in the simulation are those used by the most popular
commercial software. The results showed that in the case of
the small casting we studied, the gating system and filling
process don’t have significant influence on solidification, in
terms of solidification time, temperature distribution in the
International Journal of Metalcasting/Volume 8, Issue 4, 2014
±
system and hot spot positions. This is explained by the short
filling time (under 10 seconds), the temperature equalization
during filling (due to the forced convection during filling),
the small sections of the riser pipe and its distance from cas-
ting.
Reviewer: The use of round risers is common foundry prac-
tice. Why were they not used in this study?
Authors: Riser patterns of square section were used, both
in simulations and in experiments because they are easi-
er to make by manual cutting in polystyrene. We believe
that the methodology for analyzing the riser operation is
not influenced by the riser geometry. Of course if we use
a cylindrical riser, the yield of liquid alloy used would be
slightly larger. For example, in the case of variant 7, this
index will be IU = 40.68% (against IU =35.47% for riser
with square section).
Reviewers: How were the simulations condition such as the
cooling co-efficient validated?
Authors: The cooling coefficient values used to calculate
the real solidification modulus are adopted depending on
the local cooling conditions (hot corners, parallel surfaces
neighboring). This is based on previous calculations and ex-
periments that are not the subject of this paper.
75