2

Two-BodyMotion

All of the celestial bodies, from a fleck of dust to a supemova, are attracted to
erch other in accordance with Newton's law of universal gravitation:
Fe: MmG/r2 (2.r)
where
Fs : universalgravitationalforce betweenbodies
M, m : massof the two bodies
G : universalgtavitationalconstant
r : distancebetweenthe centerof massesof the two bodibs
The motion of a spacecraftin the universeis govemedby an infinite network
of athactionsto all celestialbodies.A rigorousanalysisof this networkwould be
impossible;fortunately,themotionof a spacecraftin thesolarsystemis dominated
by one centralbody at a time. This observationleadsto the very usefultwo-body
assumptions:
l) The motion of a spacecraftis govemedby attractionto a single central
body.
2) The massof the spacecraftis negligible comparedto that of the central
body.
3) The bodiesare sphericallysymmetricwith the marisesconcentratedat the
centers. (a, ^n^3'
4) NoforcesactonthebodiesexceptforgravitaliUnal t'rnelrluforces
rorcosan.,
andce''" " r'>
cenr''\ugarl /'^'//
forcesacting alongthe line of centers
If the two-bodyassumptions hold, it canbe shownthat conic sectionsarethe
only possiblepathsfor orbiting bodiesandthat thecentralbody mustbe at a focus
of theconic.a
The two-bodyassumptions arevery nearlytrue.Table2,I showsthemostsig-
nificant relative accelerationson a low Earth orbiter. The influenceof Earth on
the spacecraftis more significantthan any other influenceby more than a factor
of 1000.The oblatenessof the Earth also leadsto errorsin two-body solutions;
however,theseenors aresmall andcanbe accuratelypredicted.
No explicit solutionhasbeenfoundfor the N-body problemexceptfor N :2;
however,numericalsolutionsare availablefor the N-body situation.Thesesolu-
tions require a large computingcapacityand are usedonly when the two-body
solutionis suspect(e.9.,a Mercuryorbiter)or when high accuracyis required
(e.g.,navigationcalculations).

2.1 GircularOrbits
Figure 2.1 showsthe forceson a spacecraftin a circular orbit undertwo-body
conditions.The gravitationalforce on the spacecraftis definedby Eq. (2.1);the
 MISSIONDESIGN
SPACECRAFT

on a lowEarthorbiter
Table2.1 Accelerations
Body Acceleration,g

Earth 0.9
Sun 6x l0-a
Mmn 3x 10-6
Jupiter 3x 10-t
Venus 2x l0-E

Source:FromRef. 3, p. I l; reproducedthroughthecourt€sy
of Dover Publications,Inc.

centrifugalforce on the spacecraftis

Fc: mV2/r (2.2)
where
F" : centrifugalforce on the spacecraft
Y : velocity of the spacecraft
,n : massof the spacecraft
r : radiusfrom the spacecraftcenterof massto the cenfralbody center
of mass
For circular, steady-statemotion to occur, the gravitational and centrifugal
forcesmustbe equal;therefore
mVz/r: MmG/rz (2.3)

v : Jm77 (2.4)

Cenual
Body

Fig. 2.1 Two-body motion<ircular orbit

 TWO.BODY MOTION 7
It is convenient to assign a gravitational parameterpr,
which is the product of the
central body mass and the universal gravitational
rn otr,".'*oror,
"onit*t.
l-t = MG (2.s)
allows the simplification

V =rffi (2.6)
for circularorbits.
The gravitationalparameteris-.aplopertyof the central
bdy; tablethat rists
valuesfor eachof the major bodiei in'the solar.sysrem
is gi"; "il;;p"ndix c.
(Substantialimprovemeniin-the accuracyof pranetary
constantsis one of the
by-productsof planetaryexploration.)
The periodof a circuiarorbit, deriveawith equalsimpricity,
is givenby
P : circumference/velocity:2vJfi (2.7)
11.
Example 2.1 Circular Orbit Velocity and period
ig
]vhat rhevelocity-oflheSpaceshuttrein a 150-nmile circurarorbit?
From Appendix C, for Earth,

Ro: 6378.14
km
& : 398,600krt/r'
spacecraftaltitudei is specifiedmorefrequentlythan radius
plications.It is understood r in practicalap-
thataltitude,u."d u, an orbital iis-givenwitrr
respectto themeanequatorialradiusRe. "t",n"ni,
calculater (the conversionfactordr nauticalmiles to kilometers
TableC.l0 of AppendixC): is given in

r : R0* h : 6378.14+(150X1.852) : 6655.94km

CalculateShuttlevelocityfor a circularorbit by usingEq. (2.6):

v : JW6/m,= 7.739
km/s
Calculateorbit periodby usingFq. (2.7):

P :2n,/fi :2vf@@@ :54Ms evgomin

2.2 GeneralSolution
circular motionis a specialcaseof two-bodymotion.Solving
thegeneralcase
requiresintegrationof the equationsof motion; this
solutionis summarizedin
the work of Koelreaandelsewhere.'The conclusionsthat canbe drawnfrom the
generalsolutionaremore interestingthanthe solution
itself:
D Kepler's laws of pranetarymotion are confirmedanJ generaizedto
or-b-rtr. any conic secrion,not just elripticar oruits. gwo-uily alrow
9J ;;; is often
calledKeplerianmotion.)
 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

2) The sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the orbiting body,
per unit mass,is a constant at all points in the orbit and is

' : v;rc-e.t/r) (2.8)

where e is the total mechanical energy per unit mass, or specific energy, of an
object in any orbit about a central body. The kinetic energy term in Eq. (2.8) is
Vz12 and the potential energy term is -p/r. Potential energy is considered to
be zero at infinity and negative at radii less than infinity. Equation (2.8) can be
reduced to

(2.e)
wherea is thesemimajoraxis(seeFig. 2.3).Thetotalenergyof anyorbitdepends
on the semimajoraxis of the orbit only, For a circularorbit, a : r andspecific
energyis negative.For an elliptical orbit, a is positiveand specificenergyis
negative.Thus, for all closedorbits specificenergyis negative.For parabolic
orbits,c - oo and specificenergyis zero;as we will see,a parabolicorbit is a
boundaryconditionbetweenhyperbolasandellipses.For hyperbolicorbits,a is
negativeand specificenergyis positive.Figure2.2 showsthe relativeenergyfor
orbit types.
At a givenradius,velocityandspecificenergyincreasein the following order:
circular,elliptical,parabolic,hyperbolic;total spacecraft
energyincreases in the
sameorder.Additional energymust be addedto a spacecraftto changean orbit
from circularto elliptical.Energymustberemovedto changefrom anellipticalto
a circularorbit. Both addingandremovingenergyrequiresa forceon the vehicle
andin generalthat meansconsumptionof propellant.
A particularlyusefulform of Eq. (2.9)is
a: -(p"/2e) (2.10)

Hyperbola
Parabola

Ellipse

CentralBody

fi92.2 Relativeenergyof orbit types.

 TWO.BODY
MOTION

3) Total angular momentum of the orbiting body is a constant, equal to the

cross product ofthe radius and the velocity vectors:
H:rxV (2.rr)
whererI is the angularmomentumper unit mass(or specificmomentum)andis
a vectorquantity.From vectormechanics,the magnitudeof rr can be determined
by
H:rVcosy (2.12)
where
// : magnitudeof the specificmomentum,km2/s
r : magnitudeof the radiusvector(the distancefrom the spacecraftto the
centerof massof the centralbody),km
V : magnitudeof the velocity vector,km/s
f : flight path angle(the anglebetweenthe local horizontalandthe velocity
vector;seeFig. 2.3), deg
Eccentricitye definesthe shapeof a conic orbit and is equalto cf a in Fig. 2,3.
Eccentricityequalszerofor a circularorbit, is lessthanonefor an eliipticaforbit,
lgual 1oone for a parabolicorbir, and is greaterthan one for a hypeibolic orbit.
Specificenergyand eccentricityarerelatedasfollows:
e-\m (2.r3)
The most useful relation resulting from the general two-body solution is the
energy integral (also called the vis-viva integral), which yields the generalrelation
for the velocity of an orbiting body:

V:JQp./r)-(tt/a) (2.14)
Equation(2.14)yieldsspacecraftvelocityat anypointon anyconicorbit.Foreach
conicit canreduced,ifdesired,to a specificrelation.
Foracircle,a:r,and
V:ffi (2.6)
as was derived for circular orbis in the previous section.
Foranellipse,a > 0,and

v:w(6 (2.r4)
For a parabolo,4 : oo, ttrd

v :,12p./r (2.15)
For a hyperbola, a < 0, and

(2.16)
TableZ.2summarizes thedistinguishingcharacteristics
of the four conicorbits.It
is importantto notethat Eqs.(2.&-2.14)ue generalequations.They arevalid at
gy point on any orbit andcanbe usedin caseswherethe orbit type is not known.
Theserelationsalsoaresummarized in Table2.3.
 10 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

Table2.2 Characteristicsof conic orbits

Element Circle Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola

Ecc€ntdcitye Z,ero <l I >l

Semimalxaxisa = r Positive @ Negative
Specificenergy€ Negative Negative 7*ro Positive

Delining an Orbit Given r, V andl

Equations2.8-2.14 can be usedto define an orbit and discoverits type given
only r, v, and y at a point.This situationariseswhenan arrivalorbiihas been
changedby a planetaryencounter.The stepsrequiredare
l) Givenr and V, the specificenergycanbe calculatedfrom Eq. (2.g).
2) With specificenergy,the semimajoraxiscanbe obtainedtom gq. (Z.tO).
3) Givenr, V, and y, the magnitudeof specificmomentumcanbe obtained
from Eq. (2.12).
4) with specificmomentumandthe semimajoraxis,eccentricitycanbe ob-
',q tainedfrom Eq. (2.13).
5) From the characteristicsof the eccentricities,the orbit type can be deter-
t "r- minedfrom inspection,Table2.2.
Eccentricity and the semimajoraxis define a conic orbit. Knowing thesetwo
glele1ts andthe orbit rype,any otherelementcanbe obtainedusingthe relations
derivedin subsequentsections.

. Exampaez.2 DefininganOrbitGivenr,V,and1
- An Earth-opiting spacecrafthasbeenobservedto havea velocity of 10.7654
km/s at an altitude of 1500km and a flight path angleof 23.174deg; determine
the orbit elementse anda andthe orbit type.
The orbital radiusis l50O+ 6378.14: 7878.14km. Determinethe specific
energyfrom Eq. (2.8):
cr
.>.
s t:7
(l0.7654\2 398600.4
:7.351169km2/s2

[one of theproblemswith usingEq.(2.8)is thesubhactionof two largenumbers,

S
whir_hreducesaccuracy.Intermediatestepsmustbe takento four or five places.l
With e set,a canbe calculatedfrom Eq. (2.10):

398600'4
o: - = -271[.36km
2(7.3srr.69)

Itrc ryrytive sernimajoraxis indicatesthat the orbit is a hyperbolic departure.

Calculatingspecificmomentumfrom Eq. (Z.lZ),

H : Q 878. laX I 0.7654)cos(23.t74) : 77 968.2km3I s

 TWO-BODYMOTION 11

With thesemimajoraxisandspecificmomentum,eccentricitycanbecalculated
from Eq. (2.13)

e: = 1.250
(398600.4X-27rrr.36)
An eccentricity
largerthanoneconfirmsthattheorbitis a hyperbolicdeparture.

2.3 EllipticalOrbits
Ellipticalorbitsareby far themostcommonorbits.All planetsandmostspace-
tn
craft movein ellipticalorbits.Thegeometryof an ellipticalorbit is shownin
EN
Fis.2.3.

0). Defining an Elliptical Orbit

Ed An ellipticalorbitis mostfrequentlydefinedin termsof theseorbitalelements:
#. d : semimajor axis

e : eccentricity
ro : aPoaPsisradius
wo
trls rp : periapsisradius

The periapsis of an orbit is the point of closest approach to the central body or
the point of minimum radius. The apoapsisis the point of maximum radius. The
apoapsis, periapsis, and center of mass of the central body are joined by the line
154 of apsides.
ine Periapsis and apoapsis are general terms for orbits about any central body; there
are also body-specific terms:
ific
General: Periapsis Apoapsis
Sun: Perihelion Aphelion
Earth: Perigee Apogee
Moon: Perilune Apolune
:
trs,
r.l

N
c
I b
7
a
Periapsis

Lineof,$psides I
ra
Focus4 /'o
Apoapsls \ /
[e.

Fig.2.3 Ellipticalorbit.
12 MISSIONDESIGN
SPACECRAFT

By inspection,the long axis of an elliptical orbit is the sum of the apoapsisradius

and the periapsis radius. It is useful to define the semimajor axis a as one-half of
the long axis. Therefore,

a=(ro*r)/2 (2.r7)
The semimajor axis is one of the classical orbital elements.It defines the size of
the orbit *d indi"ut"s the energy of the orbit. In astronomical woiffirc-semi-m-ajor
axis is often callcd-the mean distance; this term is misleading, however, because
the semimajor axis is not equal to the time-averageradius.
Similarly, the distancebetween elliptical foci is 2c, and

c: (ro- rp)/Z (2.18)

Eccentricity e is one of the classical orbital elements. As previously sfated,

eccentricity definesthe shapeof an orbit" and it is defined as

e:c/a (2.re)
Thus,
e:(ro-rp)/(ro*rp) (2.2o)
The semiminor axis b of an ellipse is related to a and c as follows:

a2:b2 +c2 (2.2r)

As shown in Fig. 2.4, a spacecraftposition in orbit is defined by the radius r and
the position angle d, called the true anomaly,which is measuredfrom the periapsis
to the spacecraftin the direction of motion. Given an orbit defined by e and a, the
radius to a position can be calculated using the true anomaly as follows:

a(l - e2)
, P : -
(2.22)
(l *ecosd)
rr(l * e)
f :+ (2.23)
(l * ecos0)

Une of Apsides

Fig. 2.4 Spacecraftpositionin orbit.

 TWO.BODY
MOTION 13

[us Given a defined orbit, the true anomaly can be calculated from the radius asfollowS:
lof
cosO: frofl*e)/rel-l/e (2.24)

r7) cos0 : la(l - e2)/rel- l/e (2.2s)

rof Example 2.3 True Anomaly at g Point

flor
use Given an elliptical Earth orbit with a perigeeradius of 6500 km and apogee
radiusof 60,000km, find the true anomalyof the spacecraftposition as it enten
the VanAllen belt at an altitudeof about500 km.
Find the eccentricityby using Fa. Q.20):
l8) 60,000- 6500
e: :0.8045
Ed, 60,000+6500
Find true anomalyat an altitudeof 500 km (Earttrradiusis from Appendix C):
l9) r :6378.t4 * 5fi): 6878,14
km'
From Eq. (2.24)
20) (6500xr+ 0.8045) l
cosO=
(6878.14X0.8045) 0.8045
0 :28.755 deg
2r) Note that the altitude (or radius)definestwo positionson an orbiq therefore,the
radiusin this examplewill be 6878.14km when$e trueanomalyis either28.755
rnd
degor 331.245deg.
Fis It is sometimesnecessaryto designan elliptical orbit to passthroughtwo given
the
points,asshownin Fig. 2.5;two pointsaresufficientto designa uniqueelliptical
orbit Intercepttrajectoriesand interplanetaryorbits aredesignedin this way.
From Eq. (2.23),the relationsfor 11and12canbe given as
22) rr(l * e)
/ r' : - (2.26)
I +ecos0r
23)

Line of Apsldes

Fig.2.5 Elliptical orbit definedby two points.

14 MISSIONDESIGN
SPACECRAFT

+ e)=
r"- : ,rp(l e.zl)
I + ecos?2

Equations(2.26)nd (2.27) aretwo equationswith two unknowns;they can be

soivedto producethe equationsdefiningan orbit from two points:
t2-rt
e: (2.28)
r*o"6ffit
(l * ecos0r)
rP:rt-.Iil (2.2e)

Example 2.4 Defining an Ellipse from Two Points

Design a transferellipse from Earth at a heliocentricposition of I =. t.oo eu
anda lJngitude of 4l.26 to Plutoat r; 39.5574AU anda longitudeof I 94.66".
Placethe line of apsidesat a longitudeof 25'.
The true anomaly of a spacecraftat Earth's position is 4l-26 deg - 25 :
*
16.26deg.Similarly,at Pluto'sposition,the true anomalyis 194.66deg 25 :
169.66deg.
The radii of dateof the Planetsare
rr(Earth): 1.49598x lOEkm
rz(Pluto):5.91t7 x 10ekm

Find the eccentricityby usingEq. (2.28):

5.9177x 10e- 1.49598 x 108
e: l0e)cos169.66
: 0.9670
Find ro by usingF'q.(2'29):
(1 * 0.9670cos
16.25)
ro:(1.49598xt08) = 1.4666x 108km
(1+ 0.9670)
Any of the remaiiringelementsof this colossaltransferellipsecan be found
from e andrr.

at a Point
Detining Parameters
Having definedthe orbit, it is now possibleto definetheparametersat anypoint
on the ofuir The radius and true anomalydefinethe orbit point. The parameters
of inrerestat a point areflight pathangley, velocity V, andtime sinceperiapsisr._

Flight path angle. Flight path angleis definedasthe anglebetweenthe local

horiz,6ntaland thJ velocity vector,as shownin Fig. 2.6. It might seemsffangeto
considerlocal horizontalandvertical in a 0-g situation;however,the horizontalat
any point canbe definedasperpendicularto the radiusvector'
 TWO.BODY
MOTION 15

lv
Y'J
\t
\/
IrsPacecraft
,/\
- d
centrat \
eodv V
J"",
Horizontal

Fig.2.6 Flight path angle"

The relation between radius and flight path angle can be readily derived by
noting that
tanY = dr /r d0 (2.30)
DifferentiatinEF4".|@l3)\andrearranging yields
*. . r_ o*J\
esin9"ttp-
' :
lanv (2.3r)
I + ecos4
Flight path anglevarieswith orbital positionasshowninFig.2.7. As a spacecraft
flies around an orbit, its flight path angle is zero at periapsis;it is positive as
the spacecraftrises to apoapsis.It is zero again at apoapsisand negativeas the
spacecraftdescendsto periapsis.

Velocity. Velocityat anypoint is calculatedfrom thegeneralvelocity equation

aspreviouslydiscussed:
v:y@m (2.r4)

I Negative
r Decreaslng

I
T=0 ?=0
bt
fs
It.

I Posltlve
Eal
r lncreasing
io
lat
Fig2.7 Flight path angle as a function of positon.
16 SPACECRAFTMISSION DESIGN

for angular
Another useful velocity relationship can be obtained ftom the equation
rno-"ntorn. From Eq. (2.1l), the angular momentum vector is

H:rxV (2.11)

Angularmomentum for anypointonanorbit;therefore,

is constant V
cor{u: flr)"p.€
t1v11=rzy,z -/&Nt Q-32)

Where V, is tangential velocity component'

Slnce itigtrtpattr angle is zero atperiapsis and apoapsis,
rrVo: roVg (2.33)

periapsts
Time si nceperi apsis. Thetime takenby a spacecraftto mole from
is computedusing the famoud Kepler
t" gi*" i*" *o*"ty (timesinceperiapsis)
"
equation:
t:(E-esinE)/n (2.34)

where
t : time sincePeriaPsis
E : eccentricanomalY,rad
e : eccentricityof orlit, ,
n : meanmotion (Vr"'
anomalyand
Figure2.8 showsthe ge#etric relationshipbetweenthe eccentric
the true anomalY.
that cir-
The eccentricanomalytracesa point on a circle, with radiusequalto.a,
goes
theellipticaforbit.As eccentricity to zero,the anomaly
eccentric
cumscribes
anomalyis
-a t-" anomalymerge.The relationbetweineccentricandtrue
cosE : (e * cos0)/(l * ecos0) (2.3s)
in Fig. 2.8'
If the spacecraftweretravelingon !h: circumscribingclrcl9 shown
velocity equalto the mean
,utii"r ifiun the elliptical orbit, iiwould havean angular

Fig.2.E Eccentricanomalyand true anomaly'

 TWO-BODYMOTION 17

Erotron,

n = J t"lot (2.36)

Equation(2.34)doesnot yield time valuesgreaterthan one half of the orbit

petiod. For tnre anomaliesgreaterthan fi, the result obtainedfrom Eq. (2.34)
mustbe subtractedfrom the orbit periodto obtainthe conect time sinceperiapsis.
Norealso that in using Eqs. (2.34) aJ||d(2.35),all anglesmust be expressedin
radians.
Kepler's equationhas attractedthe attentionof mathematiciansfor centuries.
It is tractablewhen being usedto calculatethe time sinceperiapsisgiven the
orbit parameters.The historic interest,however,stemsfrom attemptsto deduce
orbit parameters knowingthe time sinceperiapsis.Obtaininga solutionin this
direction is very difficult indeed.Many of the great mathematicalminds of all
dme attemptedto solve Kepler's equatior-Newton, Euler,Gauss,Laplace,and
Iagrange,to namea few.It is interestingto speculateasto how mathematicswould
havedevelopedif Kepler'sequationweretrivial.

Orbital periOd. When E : 2n,Kepler's equationreducesto Kepler'sthird

law,the relation for ellipical orbit period:
P:Zn/n (2.37)

P:ZnGlp (2.38)
Theorbitalperiodfor acircularorbit,
whereP equalstheorbitalperiodin seconds.
caseof Eq.(2.38),witha : r.
grvenby 4. (2.7),is a special

ExamPle2.5 Parametersat a Point

The elementsof the Magellan mapping orbit about Venus are as follows:

a: l0,424.lktn
e :0.39433 62be-a
&
The mapping pass is started at a true anomaly of 280 deg. What are the altitude,
flight pathangle,velocity.fnd ti1":t-n:"^.p"riapsisat this point?
Calculatethe radius Dy Lsing
uus by F4. \z.zz,,
usrng Eq. Q.22) cu ;\
u
twz4.ltl- (0.39433)21 a-Ct' 4
, : f f(li = 8 2 1 9 k m tH
+0.39433cos280deg) 1 +ec,#s
h :8239 - 6052: 2187km

Calculatetheflight pathangleby usingEq. (2.31):

,r<\

0.39433sin280deg '-/ a Y-<-{>\>

ttrry - _*
I *0.39433cos280deg l-+-er &8,
L \ H,_-.L/dW
y : -19.97 deg
-

18 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

Calculate the velocity by uping Eq. (2.14):

/.1324858.81)(324858.81)
V : 'l'\ : 6.906km/s
u 8239 10424.r
by usingEq.(2.35)(in preparation
anomaly
theeccentric
Calculate for calcu-
lation of time since periapsis):

0 -- 280deg : 4.8869rad
0.39433* cos4.8869
cosE:
I *0.39433cos4.8869
E : 1.01035 rad

Calculate the mean motion by using Fq. (2.36):

ffi#:o'ooo5355s-r
Calculatethe time sinceperiapsisby usingFq. (230:
- 0.39433
1.01035 sin1.01035
: 1263s
0.000535s
RecallthatEq. (2.34)givesthetime sinceperiapsisin theshortestdirection.Since
the true anomalyis greaterthan I 80 deg,theresultof Eq. (2.34)mustbe subtracted
from orbit period. Calculatethe orbit periodby using F4. Q.37),
P =2n/0.W5355: s
11,733
in thedirectionof flight, is
The time at which the mappingstarts,measured
t : 11,733- 1263: 10,470s or 174.5min

Summaryof Relationstor EllipticalOrbits

There are myriardrelationsbetweenthe principle elementsof elliptical orbits
that canbe derivedalgebraicallyfrom the foregoingdefinitions;manyof theseare
tabulatedin the work of Wood5and elsewhere.The relationsin Table2.3 arean
adequateworkingset. \_

2.4 Parabolic Orbits

A parabolicorbitwouldbeachievedbyanobjectfallingfrom aninfinitedistance
toward a centralbody.Sucha fall essentiallydescribesthe motion of comets,and
asa result,cometsapproachparabolicorbits.Theprocessis reversible.Ifan object
werepropelledto the velocity fol a parabolicorbit, it would just reachinfinity'
A parabolicorbit, shown,inFig. 2.9, representstheboundaryconditionbetween
an elliptic orbit and a hyperbolicorbit. A parabolacan be consideredan ellipse
 TWO-BODY
MOTION 19

Thble23 Relationsdefiningan ellipticalorbit

Eccentricitye

c
e:- (2.re) ,='3-l (2.3e,)
a a
(ro - ro)
e:4 (2.20) e:l-13 (2.40)
(ro I rp) a
rz- rt
e: (2.28)
11cos01-r2c0sA2

Flightpath arogley

esina
t a n' v : (2.3r)
l+eqs?
Mean motion z

n = ,/-1t1at (2.36)

Period P

p:2tr/n (2.37)

p =Zn,FTtt (2.38)

Radius(general)r

a(l - e2)
,':- (2.22)
I * ecosO
ro{l I e)
t:+
(2.23)
I + ecos0
Radiusof apoapsisro
B
E
ra: a(l + e) (2.4r)
n
ro :24 - rp (2.42)
I (l *e)
ro = rp6 (2.43)
E
(continued)
d
It

n
E
20 SPACECRAFTMISS]ONDESIGN

Tbble 23 Relations defining an

elliptical orbit (continued)

Radius of periapsis r,

rP: a(l - e) Q.44)

(l-e)
r, = rofi6 (2.4s)

tP=24-ro (2.46)

rr(l
r e = _ _ *ee c o s O r ) (2.2e)

Semimajoraxisa

o=@ (2.r7)
2
o- :;;vr,l " _ (2.47)

't--
o- (2.48)
(l -c)

":& Q.4e)

Tlme sinceperiapsisr

t:(E-esinE)/n <2.34)
- etcos0
cosE: (2.3s)
I +r""to
Ttue anomalyd

^ r,(l*e) I
cosu= (2.U>
ree
a0-e2\ I
cos0: (2.2s)

Velocity V

v = ,Y[rT ,4 (2.r4)

roVo = roVo (2.33)

 TWO-BODYMOTION 21

Fig.2,9 Parabolicorbit.

with aninfinitesemimajoraxis.Thearmsbecomeparallelasr approaches

infinity
andwhene = I anda = 6. The velocityalonga parabolicorbit is

v:Jwr (2.l5)
Farabolic orbits are the least energetic open orbits. The velocity on a parabolic
orbit is the minimum velocity neededfor a spacecraftto escapethe central body;
Le.,_P ote that the escapevelocity is an
im,iiFfunction of the square root of the radius; the greater the splcecraft aititude,
the lower the escapevelocity.

Example2.6 EscapeVelocity
Whatis the escapevelocityfrom thesurfaceof themoon?
For themoon,AppendixC gives

1t.7 4902.8km3/s2
Ro : 1738km
FromEq. (2.15)the lunarescape
velocityis

v:JMm:2.37skm/s
 22 SPACECRAFT
MISSIONDESIGN

Parabolic orbits are an interesting boundary condition but not a useful spacecraft
trajectory.

2.5 HyperbolicOrbits
Hyperbolicorbitsareusedfor Earthdepartureonplanetaryflightsandfor plan-
Hyperbolicplanetary
etaryarrivalandtargeting. flybyorbitsareusedfor energetic
gravity-assistmaneuversthat changethe directionand magnitudeof spacecraft
velocity without expendingspacecraftresources.At any radius,a spacecrafton a
hyperbolic orbit hasa greatervelocity than it would on a parabolicorbit; thus all
hyperbolasareescapetrajectories. Figure2.10showsthegeometryof a hyperbolic
trajectory.The orbitalparametersaresimilarto thoseof an ellipse:
rp : periapsisradius
a : semimajoraxis,thedistancefrom thecenterto the_periapsis
D : semiminoraxis,thedistancefrom the asymptote to a parallel
passingthroughthecentralbody
e : eccentricity,c/a(greaterthanl)

l-a

br
I
Line of Apsides

. ,*e>d')d
Ari Y ^\r,\il"4
\,xpr" v" ,ffJ'' \\
4-9f *f Fig'2'roEter
\ao-\
\ osp>
 TWO.BODY
MOTION 23

,i : angle of the asymptote

fE : true anomaly of the asymptote

It is important to note that the semimajor axis of a hyperbola is considered

:reative; however, the equations in this book are adjusted to accept a positive
rcrmmajor axis.
-{s with an ellipse,

c2:o2 +bz (2.2r)

e=c/a (2.r9)
Tl:e angle of the asymptote is

cosp - l/e (2.s0)

]lrc position of a spacecrafton a hyperbolic orbit is defined by radius and true
nomaly; in a manner similar to that for ellipses,

a(ez-l)
,_
1* e c o s 0
(2.sr)
-tu) (2.s2)
rherrue
anomary
,rrnJl"lTol#r"--,t)/"
0a : 180degl p (2.s3)
-r the region betweenthe minimum do and the rfaximum go,the hyperbolic radius
s rnfinite. From Eq. (2.52), the true anomaly of the asymptotecan also be expressed
IS

cosea: -lf e (2.s4)

The flight path angle relation is the same as for an ellipse and is derived in the
rameway:
"Ur W#Me-
'
\l'
ta;-y- e sinl/(l* ecosd) e.3l)
,,$-
.L
The velocity at any point on a hyperbola is ",rU
\I1 a>3
lL'r'

V- (2p'/al Q'tla) li'x 6: {z.rs)

do-e
"-
The velocity on a hyperbolic trajectory is greater than the velocity on a parabola
rn any radius. The parabolic velocity goes to zero for an infinite radius; on a
hlperbolic trajectory, the velocity at infinity is finite and equal to

V* = ,f[/a (2.ss)
I - is the velocity in excessof the escapevelocityand is calledthe hyperbolic
excessvelocity(vHe) whenEarthrescape is inte4llf:&Forall situationsotherthan

tr*\Ah
+\ /8'\
"'-
24 MISSIONDESIGN
SPACECRAFT

Earth escape,V- is the preferableterm. For the equationsin this text, VHs and V@
may be used interchangeably.

Vm: VHr= \fm (2.56)

V- (2.s7)
Vss is the velocity that must be addedto the Earth's velocity to achievedeparture
on a planetary mission. It is traditional to expressthe energy required of a launch
vehicle for a planetary mission as C3, which is the squareof VHs:

c3 : v&z (2.58)
C3 is usedto describehyperbolicdeparturefrom Earth;it is not usedto describe
an arrival at a planet.

Example2.7 HyperbolicEarthDeparture
Theelements
of thedeparture of theVking I MarsLander*"rf J
hyperbola
( v./
a : 18,849.7
km \ ^r\ry
{*c \
e: r.34EZ
What C3 value was providedby the lander'sTitan IIIE launchvehicle?From
Eqs.(2.56)and(2.58),
398'600'4-21.146km2/s2
- .lIJiZm:'
= YHE:
C3-v2

The angleof the asymptoteis givenby Eq. (2.50)as

cosp- l/1.3482:0.7417
B : 42.t2 deg

st Maneuvers
Gravity-Assi
The anglethroughwhicha spacecraft velocityvectoris tumedby an encounter
with a planetis 180deg - 2p. This type of encounteris calleda gravity-assist
maneuver;it is a very energeticmaneuverthat can be accomplished withoutex-
pendingspacecraft resources.
The 1989 Galileo mission would not have been possiblewithout multiple
gravity-assist tums at VenusandEarth.Gravity-assist trajectorieswerealsoused
by Voyagerto targetfrom one outer planetto the next at a substantialreduction
in time of flight. The Ulyssesmission,to takescientificdataoverthe polarregion
of the sun, would not be possiblein any year without a gravity tum out of the
ecliptic.As shownin Fig. 2.I 1,Ulyssesusesthegravitationalattractionof Jupiter
to bendits trajectoryout of theeclipticplaneandsendit on its way overthepolar
region of the sun.The designof this importantmaneuverwill be discussedin
Chapter6.
 TWO.BODY
MOTION 25

Fig. 2.11 Ulyssesmissiongravity-assistmaneuver.

frnre of Flight
The time since periapsis can be determined in a manner analogousto that for
rrytical orbits with the aid of the hyperbolic eccentric anomaly F:
1:(esinhF-F)/n (2.se)
c o s hF : ( e + c o s 0 ) / ( 1 * e c o s d ) (2.60)
&-€re

time since periapsispassage,s

t r - hyperbolic eccentric anomaly, rad
, : eccentricity
semimajor axis, km
j-
true anomaly
mean motion
l-ius expressionfor F yields inaccurateresultsfor e valuesnear L SeeRef. 3, page
i l. for a universal variable solution for near-parabolicorbits.
The following hyperbolic relations are useful in solving for time:

F:h(coshF+/cosh2F-1) (2.6r)
sinhF : jtexl(f) - exp(-F)l (2.62)

Example2.8 Time SincePeriapsis-Hyperbola

On August 24, 1989,Voyager2 flew pastthe north pole of Neptune.TThe
riernentsofthe Voyager2 encounterhyperbolawere:
a : 19,985
km
e :2.45859
)uring departure,Voyager2 passedTriton, one of the moonsof Neptune,at a
=Jius of 354,600km. What wasthe time sinceperiapsisfor the encounterwith
lnton?
r
26 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

Calculatethe megn^ory by using4. Q.25):

'jmt
' : : o'0009278
s- l
\/ ttn'nttl'
Calculatethecosineof thetrueanomalyby usingFq. (2.52):
- l]
19,985[(2.45359)2 I
cos9 : -=
(354,600X2.45859)2.45859
From F4. (2.60)
- 0.29t1
2.45859
coshF = :7.6236
| + (2.4s8s9x-0.29
I 096)
FromEq. (2.61)
F : h[1t.tzo1+
rreffi]:2l2l
FromEq.(2.62),
* exp(-2.720)l:7 .5577
sinhF : ltexp(2.720)
Finally,calculate
timesinceperiapsis
by usingFa.Q.59):
s77) - 2.720
(2.45859X7.s
: 17095s or 4.75h
0.00@278

Summary of Relations Defining a Hyperbolic Orbit

Additional relations for hyperbolic orbits can be found by algebraic manipu-
lation or on page 201 of Ref. 5 and elsewhere.Table 2.4 summarizes the frost
frequently usedequations.The equationsin Table 2.4 havebeenarrangedto accept
semimajor axis as a positive number. VHs dedotes an Earth-centered hyperbola;
V* is the general case. V- and 7s6 are used interchangeablyinThble 2.4.
I

2.6 TimeSystems
Missiondesigncalculations, especiallyephemeris calculations,
requirea more
precisedefinitionof howtimeis measured andof therelationshipbetweentimeand
planetaryposition. Five different time measurement systemsmustbe understood.

Apparent Solar Time

The mostancientmeasureof time is the apparentsolarday.It is thetime interval
betweentwo successive solartransitsacrossa localmeridian,i.e.,two successive
high noons.Two motionsare involvrldin this definition; the rotation of the Earth
aboutits axisandtherevolutionof the Earthaboutthesun,asshownin Fig. 2,12.
The apparcntsolardaycanbemeasuredby a sundialandwasan adequatestandard
for thousandsofyears.
 TWO-BODYMOTION 27

Tbble2.4 Relationsdefininga hyperbolicorbit

Angleof asymptote
B

rroB:s/a (2.63) tanP= bvklp Q.e)

t,mB:=:!1 (2.6s) eosB - l/e (2.50)

D'-r;
Eccentricitye

e : l / c o sF (2.66) s:la(rr/a) (2.67)

(2.68)
":$@76
Flightpathangley

e sin?
' =
tAnY (2.3r)
I * ecos0
Meanmotion a

N: JE|A (2.36)

Radius(general)r

r:a(ez-l)/(l*ecoso) (2.sr)
E'
6t Radius of periapsis ro
pt
T ,p: bJ(7=Tfl@Tl (2.6e) rP:a(e-l) (2.70)

fP:c-a (2.7r) rp: btart(f/2) (2.72)

E
2tL+ ta(e
,o: --TX-
- l)
Q.73)
t' tTiv-*r
'o:-fr.r|\n) (2.74)
d
d-
rp: -d + .ffiF (2.75)

(continued)
rl
F
D
L
rd
28 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

Table 2.4 Relations defining a hyperbolic orbit (continued)

axisa
Semimajor

o = b/.F77 (2.76) a = ro/@ - l) (2.77)

a: tr/V&e (2.78) o : (b' * 12)/2ro Q.79)

o:*v,
&ro (2.80)

Semiminoraxisb

b: T,JGTTIFD (2.81) b = aJV7l (2.82)

b:rp (zp.lrrvftr)
+ (2.83)

Time sinceperiapsis,

1:(esinhF-F)/n (2.se)

(e * cos0)
cosnr:(l+"*rg) (2.60)

F - C'(coshF+.f,;[EJ) (2.61)

sinhF : jlexn(r) - exp(-F)I (2.62)

True anomalyd

a(e2- l) _ (2.s2)
C O S O:
re
04
Trueanomalyof asymptote

0 o : 180degA P (2.s3)

= -!
cosoo (2.s4)

VelocityY

v*--vse: JTld (2.s6)v = JOiiiTvil Q.sz)

v: r/"@7FG76 (2.t6) c3 = vIe (2.s8)
 TWO-BODYMOTION

:lii'iiTul;'_iF
iifi lilcul;i+i =ii+:ilEE=ii
=ijNFiG+.t.R.=.D!sT.
:
*+= EiiE=
ru+:Ei:ii==EiE
=:E-
=i=17882
Fig.2.l2 Apparentsolar day.
bn Solar Time
. F oflt," problemswith apparentsorartime is thatthedaysareall of different
Egdrs. This variationoccuri becausethe Earth'saxis is i"t p"rp"iaicular
h ccliptic plane,the Earth'sorbit is not circurar,and the Earth,s^axis to
wobbres
sgttly
-withrespectto the.ecripticplane.Theseeffectsare all smar, regular,
d predictable;therefore,it is possibreto estabrisha mean,orui
a"y that has
l1vTTt
T fength.$.meansolir day is definedbasedon ttr" asru.ptions that
@oruitwitnpe
tu Earth'sorbit and that the Earth'; axis is perplndicularto the ecriptic
prane.
Tbe mean_solar day is the commontime rt-o"ta; it i, tr,"-iir"
vou ,""a rro,
yw watch.seconds,minutes,and hoursare definedin
auration"uydividing a
-n solarday into equalparts.A meansolarday is equalir
' '--- 24 h, or
"$fOmin,or 86,400s. "-"Jtry
#real Time
For some^purposes, notablyastronomy, it is necessary
to measuretime with re-
rpectto thefixedstarsratherthanthesolarzenith.e mean,ia"r""ia"vl,
themean
:me requiredfor the Earthto rotateonceon its axiswi*, respecii;;;
'idr respectto inertialspabe. stars,or
'r A meansiderealdayis slighttyshorteritun -"un .o_
My' asshownin Fig. 2.l3.A siderealdayis subdiviledinto sidereal"
hours,min-
mes,andseconds just asa sorardayis; however,ttretengttrsare
,iilr,iry oir".nt,
I meansolarday : 1.0027379093 meansiderealdays8
: 24h,3 min,56.5536s of sidereal
time
: 86,636.55536
siderealseconds
: 86,400.0@00meansolarseconds
I meansiderealday = 96,164.091
meansolarseconds

Time Zones and lJniversat Time

Anotherproblemwith solartime is that the time of day is
differentat every
iongitudeon Eanh.up until themid-lg0Oseverytownin
theunited statessetits
30 MISSIONDESIGN
SPACECRAFT

One Mean
Sidereal DaY

Ons Mean
SolarDay

Fig. 2.l3 Mean siderealday. (From Ref. 3, p. 102; reproducedcourtesyof Dover

Publications,Inc.)

clock by local high noon. The advent of railroads changed all lhat. To operate a
train scheduleit was necessaryto standardizetime. The Earth is now subdivided
into 24 standardtime zones,each encompassingapproximately 15" of longitude.
Greenwich, England, is the index mark for time zones. The mean solar time at
Greenwich is called Universal time (UT). (Greenwich meantime, an early standard
used prior to 1925, was similar to universaltime exceptthat a new day was started
at noon rather than at midnight.) Table 2.5 shows the conversionof universal time
to local mean solar times for the United States.Interestingly enough, universal
time is computed from solar motion in mean sidereal time and then converted to
mean solar time. Universal time is expressedby the 24-h clock method; i.e., 4 p.m.
is stated as 16:00.

Julian Days
The Julian day system is a meansof providing a unique number to all days that
haveelapsedsince a standardreferenceday in the distant past.The day selectedfor
the starting point of the systemis January 1,4713 B.C. The days are in mean solar
measure.The Julian day (JD) numbers are never repeatedand are not partitioned

Thble2.5 Conversionof UT to local time

EastemStandardTime (EST) + 5h = UT
EastemDaylightTime (EDT) + 4h = UT
CentralStandard Trme (CST) + 6h = UT
CentralDaylight Time (CDT) + 5h : UT
MountainStandardTime (MST) + 7h = UT
MountainDaylightTiine (MDT) + 6h : UT
PacificStandardTime (PST) + 8h : UT
PacificDaylightTime (PDT) + 7h = UT
 TWO-BODY
MOTION 31

rb weeksor months.As a result,the numberof daysbetweentwo datesmaybe

fuined by subtractingJuliandaynumbers.
Tbere are 36,525meansolar days in a Julian century and 86,400s in a day.
The Juliancenturydoesnot refer to sometime system;it is merelya countof a
frcd numberof days.Ephemeriscalculationsaredonein JuliandaysandJulian
a*tfr-ies,
This curious systemwasdevisedby Josephscaliger in I 582 to provide a calendar
sitarble for recording astronomical observations.e The starting date was selected
bcause it is the starting point of three cycles: the 28-year solar cycle, the l9-year
har cycle, and the lS-year tax cycle in use at the time. In spite of the general
o,nvenienceof the system, it is still, four centuries later, the only generally
mcqgnized system of unique day numbers.
A Julian day startsat noon UT rather than at midnight, an astronomicalcustom;
rsronomers find it disconcerting for the day number to change in the middle
d a night's observations.This custom has a curious effect on the conversion
d Julian days to equivalent Gregorian calendar (the common calendar) days, as
a fuwn in Fig. 2,14. Julian dates may be calculated from calendar dates using
d EC. (2.84), adaptedfrom a remarkably compact relation devised by Thomas C.
rfu Flandem (seeRef. l0). The result is accuratefordates between l90l A.D. and
rt $99A.D.
d
d f v +(M +9)/121 , 27sM
E
l :367Y-tyffl*; (2.84)
+ D+ r,72r,or3.s
il
D rhere
t.
J = Julian day number
f : calendaryear
M : calendarmonth number (e.g., July : l;
D : calendarday andfraction
u
n All divisions must be integer divisions. only the integer is kept; the fraction is
r discarded.
d
January1,0h UT

1.5 January2O00

GregorianDays Dec31, 1999 J a n1 , 2 0 0 0

JulianDays JD 245 1543 JD 245 1544 JD 245 1545

JD 245 154/,5

Fig.2.l4 Conversionof Gregoriandaysto Julian days.

 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

Example 2.9 Conversion to Julian Days

Whatis thenumberof theJuliandaythatstartsat noonUT on Januaryl, 2000?
That is, find the Julianday for

M:l
Y :2000
D :1.5

FromEq. (2.84),
- 7{t2000+ (l + 9)/ r2l/ 4l + 27s(r\/9 + 1.5+ r,72r,0r3.s
J : 367(2OOO)
J :734,NO- 3500+30+ 1.5+ 1,721,013.5 :2,451,545

2.7 CoordinateSystems
Four types of coordinate systemsare common in mission design work: l) the
geocentric-inertial system, 2) the heliocentric-inertial system, 3) the geograph}-
body-fixed system, and 4) the Intemational Astronomical Union (IAU) carto-
graphic system(forthe planets).The systemsare designedto make variortltypgqat
motion easyto visualize; selectionof the proper coordinatesystemhas a profound
effect on the difficulty of a given type of problem. Each system is defined by the
selection of the origin, selection of axes,and the determination of what is fixed.
A body-fixed coordinate system measuresall motion relative to that body with
the assumption that the body is stationary.Our daily experienceis in body-fixed
coordinateswherethe sun appearsto rise in the eastandsetin the west.An inertially
fixed coordinate system is one which is referencedto stellar positions. The vemal
equinox vector is the primary referencein such systems.

Vernal Equinox
Therearetwo equinoxesin a year,onein the springandonein the fall. On these
daystheEarthis locatedattheintersection lineofthe equatorialandeclipticplanes.
The axisof rotationof theEarthis in a planeperpendicular to the sun'srays;asa
resultthe lengthof the day an{nlgtrt is thesameeverywhere on Ear,th.As shown
in Fig. 2.15,thevernalequinoffiE-toris thevectorfrom thecenterof massof the
Earthto thecenterof massof thesunon thespring(northemhemisphere) equinox
day,whichoccursaroundMarch21.
The vemalequinoxwasfirst observedmorethan5000yearsago;at that time
thevectorpassedthroughAries(a constellatiqq in thezodiacalsocalledtheRa!!).
The signof theRam,T, is usedto ttridaayto inaicatethevemalequinox;howev6r,
overthe yearsthe vectorhasmovedthroughAries andinto Pisces(theFishes).ll
This smallprecession ofthe equinoxes, about0.014degperyear,doesnot prevent
considerationof the vectoras fixed for mostpurposes;however,this precession
and the motion of the ecliptic planeare importantfor ephemeriscalculations.
Ephemeristabulationsare notedto indicatethe instantof time that definesthe
exactpositionofthe referenceaxes.
 TWO-BODYMOTION 33

Vernal
$::lx?'
Fg, 2.15 Vernal equinox.(From Ref. 3, p. 54; reproducedcourtesyof Dover Publi-
di<ns, Inc.)

fucentric-lnertial Coordinate System

For most orbital calculations the coordinatesystemof choice is the geocentric-
inertial system, shown in Fig.2.16. The origin forthe geocentric system is the
ccnterof massof the central body, which is usually, but not necessarily,the Earth.
The equatorial plane (the plane ofthe Earth's equator) is the referenceplane. The
X axis is the vernal equinox vector, and the Z axis is the spin axis of the Earth;
north is positive. The axes are fixed in inertial space or fixed with respect to the
stars.
Positions are measured by latitude and longitude; longitudes are measured
ectward (i.e., counterclockwise as viewed from celestial north) from the vernal
cquinox vector and centered in the Earth. North latitudes are measured in the pos-
rnrveZ direction from the equatorial plane, and south latitudes are measuredin a
regative Z direction.

lbliocentric-l nertlal System

The heliocentric-inertial
systemis usedfor interplanetarymissiondesign.The
eclipticplane,theplanethatcontainsthecenterof massof thesunandtheorbit of
theEarth,is thereferenceplanefor theheliocentricsystem.The'systemisittrnfieat-
to thegeocentric-inertial
systemshownin Fig. 2.16exceptfor thereference plane
andthe centralbody.The origin for the systemis centeredin the sun, and the
systemis fixed with respectto the stars.The equatorialplaneis inclinedat an
angleof approximately23.5 degwith respectto the ecliptic.The X axis for the
heliocentricsystemis the vemalequinoxvector,whichis commonto theecliptic
34 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

Fig. 2.16 Geocentric-inertialcoordinatesystem.

plane and the equatorial plane.The Z axis is perpendicularto the ecliptic; positive
is north. Latitude and longitude are measuredas in the geocentric system.

Geographic-Body-Fixed Coordi nate System

The geographic-body-fixed coordinatesystem,shownin Fig. 2.17, has been
usedfor centuriesto locateandqap positionson the Earth.The systemis Earth-
centeredand body-fixed;the surfaEE-of the Earth is divided into a grid of latitude
and longitudemeasuredin degrees.Spacecraftgroundtrack is commonlyplotted
in this coordinatesystem.
Longitudeis a sphericalanglemeasuredaroundthe polar axis,startingat the
primemeridian.Theprimemeridianis thegreatcirclepassingthroughGreenwich,
England,andtheEarth'spoles.longitude is measured in degrees eastor westfrom
theprimemeridian(thehighestlongitudebeing180").Thelongitudeof New York
is approximately75" W. Both eastandwestlongitudesarepositive.
I-atitude is a sphericalanglemeasuredaroundthe centerof the Earth starting
from 0" at the equator.Latitudeis measurednorth or southof the equatorwith the
highastlatitudebeing90".Bothnorthandsouthlatitudesarepositive.Philadelphia
and Denverareat approximately40' N.
The geographicsystemis most frequently mappedas a Mercator projection,
which projecs an Earthmapon a cylinder wrappedaroundthe equator.

lntemational Astronomical U nlo n Cartog raphic Coordi nates

The IntemationalAstronomicalUnion (IAU) cartographicsystemis a body-
centered,body-fixedsystemfor mappingsolarsystembodies.Intemationalagree-
ment hasbeenestablishedby the IAU on theplacementof thenorth polar axis,the
 TWO.BODYMOTION 35

North
Polar
Axis

West
Longitude
II
I
North
Latitude

East
Longitude

Fig. 2.17 Geographic.body.fixed

coor{inate system.

equatorialplane, and the prime meridian for the planetsand their satellites.l2The
north pole is placed in the northem celestialhemisphereregardlessof the direction
n 'rf rotation of the body. Paramgrersspecifying the orientation of the north pole and
l-
dp location of the prime meridian vary slowly with time and can be obtainedfrom
E Ref. 12.
d I-ongitudes are reckoned in an eastward direction from the prime meridian,
r.e., in a counterclockwise direction as viewed from the north pole. unlike the
E
Erographic system, Iongitudes increase from 0" to 360"; latitudes north of the
1. eguatorare positive, and southem latitudes are negative.
n
k ZB ClassicalOrbitalElements
B There are a number of independentparametersdescribing the size, shape,and
e spatial position of an orbit. six of thesehave becomethe parametersof choice to
define and describe an orbit. These six parameterslsee rig. 2.lg) are called the
I classicalorbital elements:
L e : Eccentricity: the ratio of minor to major dimensionsof an orbit definesthe
thape.
: semimajor axis: The orbil size is defined by one half of the
-. a major axis
dimension. (Circular orbits arc defined by radius.)
i : Inclination: the angle betweenthe orbit plane and the referenceplane or the
angle between the normals to the two planes.
rrr : Argument of periapsis;the angle from the ascendingnode to the periapsis,
rneasuredin the orbital plane in the direction of spacecraftmotion. The iscenhing
36 SPACECRAFTMISSIONDESIGN

O - Longttudeot
1 Arcendlng Noda

Fig.2.1E Classicalorbitalelements.

node is the point where the spacecraftcrossesthe reference plhne headed from
south to north. The line of nodes is the line formed by the intersection of the orbit
plane and the rtiference plane. The ascendingnode and the descendingnode are
on this line.
52 : Longitude of the ascendingnode: the angle between the vernal equinox
vector and the ascendingnode measuredin the referenceplane in a counterclock-
wise direction as viewed from the northern hemisphere.
@ : True anomaly: the sixth element locates the spacecraftposition on the
orbit. (Time since periapsisis also used as this orbital element.')
For orbits about the Earth or planets, the elemcnts are located with respect to the
geocentric system. For interplanetary orbits the elements are given with respect
to the heliocentric system. The coordinate system, the orbital elements, and the
orbit itself are fixed in inertial space and do not rotate with the central body.

Problems
2.1 An Earth satelliteis in an orbit with a perigeealtitudeof 400 km and an
of 0.6.Find
eccentricity
(a) theperigeevelocity
(b) theapogeeradius
(c) the apogeevelocity
(d) the orbit period
(e) thesatellitevelocitywhenits altitudeis 3622km
(o rherrueanomalyat altitude3622km
(g) the flight pathangleat altitude3622km

2.2 The LANDSAT C Earthresources satelliteis in a near-polar,near-circular

orbit with a perigeealtitudeof 917 km, eccentricityof 0.00132,andan incli-
an
nationof 89.1deg.Whataretheapogeealtitude,theorbit period,andtheperigee
velocity?