GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE

ENGINEERING
LECTURE 1:
SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKES
(Earthquake Characteristics)

FALL 2019
CIVE636

Taiwan Feb 5-2016

Taiwan Feb 5-2016

Taiwan Feb 5-2016

 SEISMOLOGY-INTRO
 Greek: Seismos-EQ + Logos-Science
 Seismology is the branch of Geophysics
concerned with the study and analysis of
Earthquakes and the science of energy
propagation through the Earth's crust.
 Study of earthquakes gives us important clues
about the earth’s interior
 Understanding earthquakes allows us to minimize
the damage and loss of life

SEISMOLOGY: WAVES
BODY WAVES
P-WAVE: Can travel through solids and fluids- e.g. Sound Waves

v
S-WAVE: Shear-Particle Motion perpendicular to
direction of travel
 SEISMOLOGY: WAVES
SURFACE WAVES
Raleigh

Love

SEISMOLOGY:
INTERNAL STRCUTURE OF THE EARTH

Crust thickness: 25-40 km. (min 5 max ~70)

Moho Boundary between Crust and Mantle
Mantle thickness: 2850 km (650 U+ 2200 L).
Viscous , semi-molten state; behave as
“solid” when subjected to waves.
Outer Core: 2260km thick. Liquid; cannot
transmit waves.
Inner Core: v. dense solid (Gs~15)
SEISMOLOGY:
INTERNAL STRCUTURE OF THE EARTH

SEISMOLOGY:
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

P and S Can reach

Surface from 0 to 103o

Since Outer Core liquid,

only P waves can get to
surface between 143o -180o

In “Shadow Zone” Only paths reflected

from solid inner core can reach surface
SEISMOLOGY:
PLATE TECTONICS-Continental Drift

PERMIAN 225 Millions yrs ago 200 Millions yrs ago TRIASSIC

JURASSIC 135 Millions yrs ago 65 Millions yrs ago CRETACEOUS

TODAY

PLATE MOVEMENT
Driving Forces
SEISMOLOGY:
PLATE TECTONICS- EQ BELTS

SEISMOLOGY:
PLATE TECTONICS – PLATE BOUNDARIES
 MID-OCEAN RIDGES

MID-OCEAN RIDGES
 The ridges rise 3000 meters from the ocean floor
and are more than 2000 kilometers wide
surpassing the Himalayas in size.
 The mapping of the seafloor also revealed that
these huge underwater mountain ranges have a
deep trench which bisects the length of the ridges
and in places is more than 2000 meters deep.
 Research into the heat flow from the ocean floor
during the early 1960s revealed that the greatest
heat flow was centered at the crests of these mid-
oceanic ridges
MID-OCEAN
RIDGE

MID-OCEAN RIDGE
MAGNETIC STRIPPING
PLATE BOUNDARIES
TYPES OF BOUNDARIES

PLATE BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES

Krafla Lava Flows

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundaries
Oceanic-Continental Plates

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundaries
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundaries

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundaries
Oceanic-Oceanic Plates
 PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundaries
Continental-Continental Plates

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundaries
Continental-Continental Plates
 PLATE BOUNDARIES
Transform Boundaries
Lateral Side-Slip

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Transform Boundaries

SAN ANDREAS
 WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?

 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth

produced by the rapid release of accumulated
energy in elastically strained rocks
 Energy released radiates in all directions
from its source, the focus
 Energy propagates in the form of seismic
waves
 Sensitive instruments around the world
record the event

WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES OCCUR?

PLATE BOUNDARIES

FAULTS
 TYPES OF FAULT MOTION
1] DIP-SLIP FAULTS
a) Normal Fault
In a normal fault, the block above the fault moves down
relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is
caused by tensional forces and results in extension.

b) Reverse Fault
In a reverse fault, the block above the fault moves up
relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is
caused by compression forces and results in shortening.

2] STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
In a strike-slip fault, the movement of blocks along a fault is
horizontal. If the block on the far side of the fault moves to
the left, as shown in this animation, the fault is called left-
lateral. If the block on the far side moves to the right, the
fault is called right-lateral. The fault motion of a strike-slip
fault is caused by shearing forces.

3] OBLIQUE-SLIP FAULT
Oblique-slip faulting suggests both dip-slip faulting and
strike-slip faulting.

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Rocks bend under stress while storing elastic energy.
When the strain in the rocks exceeds their strength,
breaking will occur along the fault. Stored elastic energy is
released as the earthquake. Rocks“snap back”, or
rebound to their original condition.
GEOMETRIC NOTATION

HYPOCENTER

GEOMETRIC NOTATION
SEISMOGRAHS-SEISMOGRAMS

SEISMOGRAHS-SEISMOGRAMS
Modern
Seismograph
(Horizontal)
SEISMOGRAHS-SEISMOGRAMS
Modern Seismograph
VERTICAL

SEISMOGRAM
 SEISMOGRAM

LOCATION OF EARTHQUAKES
LOCATION OF EARTHQUAKES

EUREKA, CALIFORNIA

VEGAS, NEVADA

ELKO, NEVADA
 LOCATION OF EARTHQUAKES

t(P- S)
VP ~ 3-8 km/sec ; VS ~ 2-5 km/sec
d
1 1

VS VP

LOCATION OF EARTHQUAKES
 DEPTH OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes usually occur at some depth below the
ground surface.
The depth can also be calculated from seismograph
Records.
Earthquake foci are described as:
•Shallow: less than 70 km depth
•Intermediate: 70 - 300 km depth
•Deep: >300 km depth
90% of earthquake foci are less than 100 km deep
Large earthquakes are mostly at < 60 km depth
No earthquakes occur deeper than 700 km

Intensity Scale
Modified Mercalli
SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES- INTENSITY
from FEMA
I. People do not feel any Earth movement.

II. A few people might notice movement if they are at rest and/or
on the upper floors of tall buildings.

III. Many people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing

back and forth. People outdoors might not realize that an
earthquake is occurring.

IV. Most people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing.

Dishes, windows, and doors rattle. The earthquake feels like a
heavy truck hitting the walls. A few people outdoors may feel
movement. Parked cars rock.

V. Almost everyone feels movement. Sleeping people are

awakened. Doors swing open or close. Dishes are broken.
Pictures on the wall move. Small objects move or are turned
over. Trees might shake. Liquids might spill out of open
containers.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
from FEMA
VI. Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects
fall from shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in
walls might crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage is slight in
poorly built buildings. No structural damage.

VII. People have difficulty standing. Drivers feel their cars shaking.
Some furniture breaks. Loose bricks fall from buildings. Damage is
slight to moderate in well-built buildings; considerable in poorly
built buildings.

VIII. Drivers have trouble steering. Houses that are not bolted down
might shift on their foundations. Tall structures such as towers and
chimneys might twist and fall. Well-built buildings suffer slight
damage. Poorly built structures suffer severe damage. Tree
branches break. Hillsides might crack if the ground is wet. Water
levels in wells might change.

IX. Well-built buildings suffer considerable damage. Houses that are

not bolted down move off their foundations. Some underground
pipes are broken. The ground cracks. Reservoirs suffer serious
damage.

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

from FEMA
X. Most buildings and their foundations are destroyed. Some
bridges are destroyed. Dams are seriously damaged. Large
landslides occur. Water is thrown on the banks of canals, rivers,
lakes. The ground cracks in large areas. Railroad tracks are
bent slightly.

XI. Most buildings collapse. Some bridges are destroyed. Large

cracks appear in the ground. Underground pipelines are
destroyed. Railroad tracks are badly bent.

XII. Almost everything is destroyed. Objects are thrown into the air.
The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock
may move.
 EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY

SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES- MAGNITUDE

 Need for “Objective”, Quantitative

measure.

 Use of modern instrumentation

 Possible to define an “Earthquake

Magnitude”
SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES- MAGNITUDE
 Richter Local Magnitude, ML
ML ~ Log10 (Max. trace amplitude in m-from
Wood-Andersen seismometer)
+ Distance correction factor
Surface Wave Magnitude, MS
Eqn. (2.3) Kramer
 Body Wave Magnitude, MB
Eqn. (2.4) Kramer
 Moment Magnitude, MW
Eqn. (2.5) Kramer: MW ~ [Log10 (M0)/1.5] – 10.7
M0 = Seismic Moment = A.D
A= Rupture Area; D=Average Slip; = Rupture Strength of material
along the fault

LOCAL MAGNITUDE
 SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES- MAGNITUDE

EQ Energy

Log E = 11.8 + 1.5 Mw

M=7 Releases ~1000

more energy than M=5
Bigger Faults Make Bigger Earthquakes
1000

100
Kilometers

10

1
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Magnitude

Bigger Earthquakes Last a Longer Time

100
Seconds

10

1
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Magnitude
What Controls the Level of Shaking?
 Magnitude
More energy released
 Distance
Shaking decays with
distance
 Local soils
amplify the shaking
 PREDICTING EARTHQUAKE?
Strange Animal Behavior
stress in the rocks causes hairline fractures to form, the
cracking of the rocks emits high pitched sounds and
minute vibrations imperceptible to humans but
noticeable by many animals.
Foreshocks
unusual increase in the frequency of small earthquakes
before the main shock
Changes in water level
porosity increases or decreases with changes in strain
Seismic Gaps
based of the chronological distribution of major
earthquakes
PREDICTING EARTHQUAKE?