SCIENTISTS JOINED AS LIFE MEMBER OF SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN

3512019. Y. Prabhabati Devi, Subject Matter Specialist, Home Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chandel,
ICAR, Manipur Centre
3522019.  Moutusi  Dey, Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture), Uttar Dinajpur Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
UBKV Uttar Dinajpur, west Bengal
3532019. Sri Sourav Mondal, Subject Matter Specialist, Plant Protection, Rathindra Krishi Vigyan
Kendra ,Visva-Bharati university ,Sriniketan, Birbhum, West Bengal
3542019. Ankita, Subject Matter Specialist (Soil Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pauri Garhwal,
Uttarakhand 
3552019. Shikha Bathla, Assistant Professor (Home Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar, Punjab.
3562019 J Bhuyan, Scientist, Home Science , Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mayurbhanj-I, Shamkunta,
Odisha.

331
 CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title Page No.

Agronomy
1. Effect of Date of Sowing and Cutting Management on Seed Yield in Berseem 96-100
(Trifolium alexandrinum L.).
Ajmair Singh, Rakesh Sharma and Amanpreet Singh
2. Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Productivity and Economics of 87-91
Rabi Onion (Allium cepa L).
Iqbal Singh Dhillon and Didar Singh
3. Effect of Plant Spacing on the Growth and Yield of Blackgram (Vigna mungo). 101-104
P Veeramani
4. Effect of Planting Geometry and Fertigation Levels on Growth, Yield and 63-69
Quality of Chilli.
V N Nandeshwar and S G Bharad
5. Evaluation of Cropping System of Medium Duration Rice Followed by Toria under 81-86
Medium Land Situation.
R Bezbaruah and R S Deka
6. Influence of Different Planting Methods and Mulching on Growth and Yield of Spring 149-153
Maize (Zea mays L).
Amandeep Kaur and Gurbax Singh Chhina
7. Utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam. 284-290
M Venkataramulu and P Punnarao
8. Water Management through Puddling Techniques. 297-300
K Prasanthkumar, M Saravanakumar and J John Gunasekar
9. Zero-Till Wheat Planting in Rice-Wheat Cropping System. 301-305
Shailendra Singh Kushwah, B S Kasana and S S Bhadauria

Agricultural Extension
10. Attitude of Women towards Self Help Groups under Integrated Watershed 19-22
Management Programme
M K Bariya, H S Patel, K U Chandravadia, S J Parmar and H C Chodavadia
11. Evaluation of Agronomic Practices based on the Knowledge Level of Small and Big 117-121
Guava growers of Rajasthan State.
S R Meena and Y K Sharma
12. Effect of Nutrition Education on Knowledge Level of Farm women. 92-95
Rashmi Limbu, Manisha Arya and Ankita
13. Impact of Trainings and Demonstrations on Promotion of Mushroom Cultivation. 162-165
A Rajkala, S Shobana, M Ashok Kumar and G Alagukannan
14. Information Seeking Behaviour of Opinion Leaders in Hill Region of Uttarakhand. 154-161
Neelam Basera, Neelam Bhardwaj and Arpit Huria
15. Investigation of Socio-Economic Traits of Tibetan Rehabilitants and its relationship to 178-182
their Problems.
E K Marbaniang, L Manjunath, V S Yadav, S Sadaqath, K V Natikar, And S S Dolli

326
 16. Job Performance of Subject Matter Specialists working in Krishi Vigyan Kendra. 183-186
S D Sarnaik, P P Bhople, D M Mankarand N M Kale
17. Knowledge Gain through Bee Keeping Training Programme. 306-311
Bhupender Singh and Surender Singh
18. Knowledge Level of Farmers about Chickpea Production Technology in Nagaur 187-190
District of Rajasthan.
Mahendra Kumar and S R Kumawat
19. Knowledge Level of Farmers about Improved Production Technology of Onion 191-196
Crops in Sikar District of Rajasthan.
Mahesh Choudhary, B L Asiwal and R K Dular
20. Perception and Adoption of Soil Health Cards by Farmers in YSR Kadapa District of 225-230
Andhra Pradesh.
Veeraiah A, Shilpakala V, Ramalakshmi devi S and Ankaiah Kumar K
21. Reasons for Discontinuance of Agricultural Innovations by Farmers in Tarai 235-242
Region of Uttarakhand.
Arpit Huria, V L V Kameswari and Neelam Basera
22. Regression Analysis of Knowledge Level and Socio Economic Impact of Drip 243-246
Irrigation System with the Selected Characteristics of Drip Owners. .
Mahammad Shafi Rupanagudi Shaik , Swati Khandave and Nikitaben Thakor
23. Training Needs of Tribal Farm Women in relation to Improved Animal Husbandry 274-278
Practices of Chhotaudepur District of Gujarat.
B L Dhayal and B M Mehta
24. Tool to Measure Attitude of Postgraduate Scholars towards Extension Service. 279-283
Naveenkumar, G and Chauhan N B

Agricultural Economics
25. Economic Viability of Crop Diversification in Punjab. 55-62
Raj Kumar and Sangeet
26. Extent of Diversification and Constraints in Adoption of Different Farming Systems in 122-127
Chamba District of Himachal Pradesh.
Divya Sharma and Virender Kumar
27. Loan Repayment Behaviour under Nagaland State Cooperative Bank Limited. 203-207
Longma Yanger Pongen, A K Godara and S P Singh
28. Micronutrients Spray on Yield and Economics of Cotton in Rainfed Areas of Prakasam 208-211
district in Andhra Pradesh.
Sahaja Deva, G M V Prasada Rao, P Vinayalakshmi, Ch Varaprasada Rao
29. Resource Use Efficiency of Bt Cotton in Hanumangarh District of Rajasthan. 247-251
Vikas, Hari Om Sharma and Mukesh Kumar
30. Study on Marketing Pattern of Chilli Cultivation in Wokha District of Nagaland. 269-273
Nchumthung Murry and James Tsopoe

Agricultural Engineering
31. Comparative Study between Solar Dryer and Open Sun dried Tomato under 28-33
North Plateau Climatic Zone.
J Bhuyan, D K Mohanty and D Jayapuri

327
 32. Stem Application Technology with Modified Tools for Management of Sucking 264-268
Pests in Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.).
Venkanna Yasa, Bhaskar Rao B and Sreenivas A
33. Studies on Ambient Storage of Lime Juice Concentrate Packed in Sachet. 256-263
R A Kachhadia, B L Jani, B M Devani and D M Vyas

Animal Science and Fisheries

34. Characterization of households of Marginal and Landless Livestock Farmers in Rural 23-27
Tamil Nadu.
K M Sakthivel and Narmatha N
35. Development of Dot-ELISA Technique for Estimation of Milk Progesterone and 43-54
PregnancyDiagnosis using PVDF Membrane.
Ramesh Kumar, Taruna Thakur and R L Prasad
36. Feeding of Concentrate and Green Fodder at an Early Age and its Effects on Growth 133-136
Rate in Goat Kids.
Tejbeer Singh and Manoj Sharma
37. Incidence of Repeat Breeding in cattle at Organized Dairy Farms. 166-169
Dinesh Mahto and Shobha Rani
38. Line Fishing Methods of the Brahmaputra Valley. 197-202
Deepjyoti Baruah, Amalesh Dutta and P Pravin
39. Performance of Pekin Ducks and Desi Ducks under Integrated Farming System at 217-220
Kancheepuram District in Tamilnadu.
K Devaki, K Senthilkumar and P R Nisha

Horticulture
40. Assessment of Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) Varieties for Fruit Yield and 5-7
Component Traits in Mohali District of Punjab.
Munish Sharma, Yashwant Singh and Priyanka Suryavanshi
41. Effect of Plastic Mulch on Growth, Yield and Economics of Chilli 105-108
(Capsicum annuum L.) under Nimarplains Conditions of Madhya Pradesh.
S K Tyagiand G S Kulmi
42. Foliar Fertilization for Enhancing Yield and Fruit Qquality of Apple under Rain-fed 137-141
Conditions of Mid-Himalayas
Sanjeev K Banyal and Ajay K Banyal
43. Marketing Behaviour of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) Growers in Tapi District. 212-216
P K Modi, P D Verma and S M Chavan
44. Potential of Dry Khirni (Manilkara hexandra Roxb.) Fruits as Nutritional Substitute. 234-234
Kanak Lata, Sanjay Singh, Raj Kumar and Shakti Khajuria
45. Response of Micronutrient Mixture Application in Banana for Enhanced 252-255
Growth and Yield
Bindu B

Home Science
46. Consumer Acceptance of Household Articles Developed through Recycled Agro textiles. 34-37
Pooja Bhatt, Anita Rani and Sudha Jukaria
328
 47. Effect of Processing Techniques on Quality and Acceptability of Bitter Brinjal Pickle. 70-75
Y. Prabhabati Devi
48. Ergonomic Analysis of the Work Environment of Weavers in Manipur. 113-116
Kangjam Victoria Deviand Visalakshi Rajeswari
49. Factors Responsible for Contributing Anxiety among the Working Women in Punjab. 128-132
Shikha Bathla and Shabnam Sharma
50. Peer Victimization among School Children. 221-224
Varsha Saini and Shanti Balda

Plant Breeding
51. Assessment of Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflorum) Varieties for Yield and 8-12
Productivity in Salem District.
P S Kavitha, A Sudha and N Sriram
52. Assessment of Improved Variety of Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) Prajwal for Yield and 1 3-18
Economics in Western Parts of Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh
Pedda Nagi Reddy Pocha, M Mallikarjun, G Nirmala Devi and M Reddi Kumar

Plant Pathology
53. Assessment of Biocontrol Agents for Management of Nematode Complex Disease in 1-4
Chillies.
K Kavitha and R Latha
54. Integrated Management of Nematode Disease Complex in Tuberose 170-173
(Polianthes tuberose L)
K Kavitha and K Thirukumaran
55. Integrated Management of Panama wilt disease in Banana. 174-177
Sudha A, Kavitha P S and Sriram N

Soil Science
56. Design and Development of an Expert Support System for Fertilizer Calculation. 38-42
V G Sunil , Berin Pathrose and K Prasanth
57. Effects of Soil Application of Biochar on Soil Health and Productivity of 109-112
Rice-Wheat Cropping System in Rohtas District of Bihar.
Ram Pal
58. Effect of Various Silicon Sources on Nutrient Uptake in Rice. 76-80
Guntamukkala Babu Rao, Poornima Yadav P I and Elizabeth K Syriac
59. GIS and Remote sensing Approach in Identifying Ground Water Recharge Zones of 142-148
Cheriyal Watershed.
B Meghana1, Ch Rakesh, P karthik, D Girish, Ch Radha Srivalli
60. Water Draft Exceeds the Quantity of Groundwater Recharge: A Case of Yarehalli 291-296
Micro-Watershed, Davanagere District, Karnataka.
Shivaraj S and Naveena K P

329
Short Communications
61. Anionic Mishran Supplementation in Pleuriparous Animals. 306-309
Rakesh Thakur and Vishal Dogra
62. Evaluation of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) Varieties suited for Off Season 310-313
Cultivation in Rain Shelters of Kerala.
Bindu B
63. Impact of KVK Training Programme on Knowledge Level of Moong Bean Growers. 314-316
B L Asiwal and L R Balai
64. Performance of Red Gram (Cajanus cajan) under Rain fed Situation in 317-319
district Mahabubnagar.
P S John daniel, V Rajendra Kumar and Bhupender Singh

330
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 1-4 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00059.X

Assessment of Biocontrol Agents for Management of Nematode

Complex Disease in Chillies
K Kavitha and R Latha
ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thirupathisaram-629 901, Kanyakumari District (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
The experiment on assessment of talc based formulations of Pseudomonas fluorescens 1% WP +
Trichoderma viride 1% WP + Paecilomyces lilacinus 1% WP of IIHR, Bangalore and talc based
formulations of P fluorescence (Pf1) of TNAU, Coimbatore were used for the evaluation of its efficacy
for the management of nematode complex disease in chillies at farmers field. The experiment was
conducted in Nainarpalayam village of Vanoor block of Villupuram district at five farmer’s field. The
talc based formulation of P fluorescens, T viride and P lilacinus was enriched in farm yard manure@
5kg/ha whereas P fluorescens (Pf1) was used @ 2.5 kg/ha for FYM enrichment and seed treatment @
10g/kg of seed. The results revealed that soil application of mixture of three biocontrol agents viz., P
fluorescens + T viride + P lilacinus enriched in FYM efficiently reduced the Fusarium wilt and root
knot nematode incidence in chillies than application of single biocontrol agent P fluorescens (Pf1) alone.
Key Words: Chilli, Fusarium wilt, Root Knot Nematode, Management.

INTRODUCTION without crop rotation throughout the year for

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is being grown
worldwide as one of the most important vegetable
and spice crop for its multipurpose use. In India it
is an important cash crop, which is grown for both
domestic and export market for vegetable green
fruits and for the dry chilli as the spice of commerce.
India is the largest producer of chillies in the world
followed by China, Pakistan and Mexico. There
are many biotic and abiotic factors which are
decreasing chilli production. Chilli crop suffers with
many fungal, bacterial and viral diseases resulting
in huge yield losses. Among these factors the most
devastating are fungal nematode complex diseases
which lower the yield. The nematode infestation on
plants leads to the secondary infection of other soil
borne pathogens viz., fungal / bacterial pathogens
(Taylor, 1990). Wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum
f.sp. capsici has been found as the most frequently
encountered disease problem (Siddiqui and Akhtar,
2007) in chillies. Survey for wilt disease revealed
that growing chilli continuously in the same field
seed or dry or vegetable purpose will help the
pathogen to survive on host (Priya and Mesta,
2018). Root-knot disease caused by Meloidogyne
incognita has been found as the most frequently
encountered nematode disease and is one of the
limiting factors affecting the production of chilli in
India. National loss due to nematode pest in chilli
was worked out to 12.85 per cent and in monetary
terms to the tune of 210 million rupees (Jain et al,
2007). The incidence of wilt varied from 0 to 75
per cent in different states of India (Anonymous,
2005). Wilt caused by Fusarium solani recorded 25
per cent yield loss in Karnataka in black cotton soil
(Madhukar and Naik, 2004). In Pakistan Fusarium
wilt of chilli causes 15 to 20 per cent yield losses in
dry areas (Siddiqui and Akhtar, 2007). Interactions
between Meloidogyne spp. and fusarium wilt
pathogens has been studied and documented in
several host crops (Back et al, 2002).
Chemical control of root-knot nematode and
fungal pathogens is most efficient method but very

Corresponding Author’s Email: kavithagobi@gmail.com

1 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 1-4

 Kavitha and Latha
expensive, not sustainable and has adverse effects
on human health, ground water and environment. In
view of the uneconomical and hazardous effects of
pesticides, researchers have focused their attention to
adopt biological control of Meloidogyne spp. (Singh
and Mathur, 2010). Pseudomonas fluorescence was
found effective against root-knot nematodes and
soil borne pathogens. Trichoderma viride is also
effective against several fungal pathogens (Kapoor
et al, 2010) and Meloidogyne spp (AbdAl-Fattah
A et al, 2007). Paecilomyces lilacinus is also as a
potential biological control agent of Meloidogyne
spp (Kiewnick and Sikora, 2006). However, bio-
control agents often are not thought as acceptable
alternatives for pesticides. Reasons for this include
lack of broad spectrum activity, inconsistent
performance in field and slower in action by the
bio-control agents when compared with pesticides.
One of the strategies for overcoming inconsistent
performance is to combine the disease-suppressive
activity of two (or more) beneficial bio-agents to
manage the nematode complex disease in chillies.
As the single bio-agent has not proved
effective in the management of nematode induced
disease complex, it was proposed to evaluate
the combination of nematophagus fungus
P. lilacinum with other bio-agents. viz. P.
fluorescence and T. viride. In this investigations,
On farm testing has been conducted to evaluate
the effect of combination of three Bioagents of
IIHR, Bangalore viz., T. viride, P. fluorescence
and P. lilacinus along with the TNAU
P. fluorescence for the management of nematode
induced wilt disease of chilli which is caused by
Meloidogyne incognita and Fusarium oxysporum f.
sp. capsici .
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental trial was conducted at
Nainarpalayam village of Vanoor block of Villupuram
district at five farmer’s field as five replications.
Talc based formulations of Pseudomonas
fluorescens 1%WP + Trichoderma viride 1% WP
+ Paecilomyces lilacinus 1% WP obtained from
2 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 1-4
IIHR, Bangalore and Talc based formulations of
P fluorescence (Pf1)obtained TNAU, Coimbatore
was used for the study purpose. The talc based
formulation of IIHR P fluorescens, T viride and P
lilacinus were used for enrichment of farm yard
manure. One ton of well decomposed FYM was
enriched by mixing of each of IIHR P fluorescens,
T viride and P lilacinus formulation @ 5kg/ha
under shade with optimum moisture of 25 - 30%
for a period of 15 d. Once in a week FYM was
thoroughly mixed for maximum multiplication
and homogenous spread of the microorganisms
in the entire lot of FYM. The same procedure
was used for the enrichment of FYM with
TNAU P fluorescens (Pf1) @ 2.5 kg/ha. This
enriched FYM was used for all the experiments.
Seed treatment of chillies was done with
P fluorescens (Pf1) @ 10g/kg of seed. The treatment
details is as follows
T1 Seed treatment with P fluorescens (Pf1)
@10 g/kg seed + Soil application of
P fluorescens (Pf1) @ 2.5 kg/ha enriched in
FYM
T2 Soil application of IIHR P. fluorescens 1% WP
+ IIHR T viride 1% WP + IIHR P lilacinus 1%
WP each @ 5 kg/ha enriched in FYM
T3 Control
The observations on percent wilt incidence and
nematode gall index were recorded. The number
of galls/root system was assessed and assigned
a severity scale from 0 to 5 (0=no galls, 1=1‒2,
2=3‒10, 3=11‒30, 4=31‒100, 5=>100 galls per
root system) (Taylor and Sasser, 1978)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was evident from the present investigation
that the soil application of P fluorescens +
T viride + P lilacinus recorded lowest incidence
of fusarium wilt of 5.6 per cent and nematode
gall index of 1.2 whereas by seed treatment
with P fluorescens (Pf1) and Soil application of
P fluorescens (Pf1) recorded 6.8 per cent fusarium
wilt incidence and nematode gall index of 1.2.
 Assessment of Bio Control Agents

There was no significant difference between CONCLUSION

both the treatments on yield and reduction in Soil application of mixture of three
disease incidence (Table 1). The reduction on biocontrol agents viz., P fluorescens + T viride +
the wilt and nematode gall index could be due P lilacinus enriched in FYM efficiently reduced the
to the antagonistic activity of P fluorescens and Fusarium wilt and root knot nematode incidence in
higher activity of defense enzymes in the plants chillies than application of single biocontrol agent
treated with T viride (Umamaheswari et al, 2004). P fluorescens (Pf1) alone. The results revealed that
Ranjinikanth et al, 2013 reported that application adoption of integrated disease management practice
of T viride, P lilacinus and P flourescens enriched would reduce the nematode disease complex and
in neem cake was more effective than treatments increase the yield in chillies.
with individual bio-agents in reducing M incognita
population and disease incidence caused by F REFERENCES
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the root surface and parasitizes eggs, egg-masses, Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride for
the Biological Control of Meloidogyne incognita on
juveniles and females of Meloidogyne spp. by direct Tomato. Jordan J Agric Sci 3(3):297-309.
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(2004). Adoption of integrated disease management Bindu Madhavi G and Bhattiprolu S L (2011). Integrated
effectively controls dry root rot disease in chillies disease management of dry root rot of chilli incited by
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formulation of T viride, P fluorescence and Jain R K, Mathur K and Singh R V (2007). Estimation of
losses due to Plant Parasitic Nematodes on different
P lilacinum was effective in controlling nematode crops in India. Indian J Nematology 37: 219-221.
induced wilt disease complex in seedlings of
Kapoor Shashi, Jaiswal Ashish and Shukla D N (2010).
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play a key role in organic seedlings production as Fusarium Oxysporum F. Sp. udum Buttler Causing Wilt
transplanted seedlings carry these bio-agents to of Pigeon Pea, Agril Sci Dig 30: 189-191.
the main field. Their efficacy was enhanced in the Kiewnick, S and Sikora, R A (2006). Biological control
presence of farm yard manure which served to have of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita by
synergistic effect on the growth of these bio-agents. Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251. Biological Control 38
(2): 179-187.
Table 1. Effect of bioagents on nematode gall index, wilt incidence and yield in chilli.
Treatment Yield (t/ha) Fusarium wilt (%) Nematode gall Benefit cost Ratio
index (0-5 scale)
T1 11.48 6.8 1.6 2.31
T2 11.66 5.6 1.2 2.33
T3 9.00 14.6 3.6 1.76
CD 5% 0.525 2.061 0.753 -
SEd 1.170 4.596 1.679 -

3 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 1-4

 Kavitha and Latha
Madhukar H M and Naik M K (2004). Evaluation of bioagents
against Fusarium wilt of chilli (Capsicum annuum). In:
Proc. 15 th Int. Plant Protection Towards 21 st Century
held in Beijing, China, pp. 540.
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Paecilomyces lilacinus on pathogens is of Meloidogyne
javanica infecting tomato plant. European J Appl Sci 2:
80-84.
Priya I N and Mesta R K (2018). Survey for wilt of chilli: a
threat to chilli crop in northern Karnataka. Int J Microbio
Res 10(10): 1390-1391.
Rajinikanth R, Rao M S, Pavani K V, Manojkumar R, Chaya
M K, Rathnamma K and Shivananda T N (2013).
Management of nematode induced disease complex
in seedlings of cauliflower (Brsassica oleraceae var.
botrytis) using bio-pesticides. Pest Management in Hortl
Ecosystems 19 (2): 203-210.
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to control root-knot nematodes. Nematol Mediterr
35(2):199-203.
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Prospects for the management of disease complex
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11 - 14 November, 2002, Bangalore, India. pp. 347-351.
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Siddiqui I A and Shaukat S S (2004). Trichoderma harzianum
enhances the production of nematocidal compounds in
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by Pseudomonas fluorescens in tomato. Letters in Applied
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Meloidogyne incognita. Biocontrol Sci and Tech 20: 275-
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Carolina state university Graphics, Raleigh, NC, USA,
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Umamaheswari R, Sivakumar M, Subramanian S and
Samiyappan R (2004). Induction of systemic resistance
by Trichoderma viride treatment in greengram (Vigna
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Received on 02/05/2019 Accepted on 14/10/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 5-7 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00060.6

Assessment of Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) Varieties for

Fruit Yield and Component Traits in Mohali District of Punjab
Munish Sharma*, Yashwant Singh and Priyanka Suryavanshi
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, SAS Nagar (Mohali)
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana 141001(Punjab)

ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted at twenty two farmer’s field by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mohali during the
year 2016-2017 to find out suitable bottle gourd genotype for yield and related traits under agro climatic
conditions of Mohali district of Punjab. Three bottle gourd genotypes were evaluated for different
characters like days taken for first harvest, fruit length, fruit girth, number of fruits/vine and fruit yield.
In addition, economics for raising crop along with benefit cost ratio was also determined. Among three
varieties, Punjab Barkat was observed best for earliness (48), maximum number of fruits per vine (12),
maximum fruit length (30 cm) and maximum yield (478.75 q/ha). Punjab Barkat was also found to
be having maximum BC ratio of 3.93 followed by Punjab Komal (3.58) and farmer’s practice (3.16).
Key Words: Bottle gourd, Evaluation, Fruit, Yield.

INTRODUCTION during summer season with the objective to identify

Bottle gourd is one of the most important promising and high yielding variety for production
cucurbits cultivated in India. The Bottle gourd and to calculate its BC ratio.
belong to the genus Lagenaria that is derived
from the word lagena meaning the bottle (Milind MATERIALS AND METHODS
and Kaur, 2011). The plants are annual, viny, District Mohali of Punjab falls under sub-
pubescent herbs with large, white flowers borne mountainous zone (30.69°N latitude, 76.72°E
on slender peduncles (Dubey and Ram, 2008). It longitude having an average altitude of 316 m
is grown as rainy season and as well as summer from the sea level). The present study was carried
season vegetable and its fruits are available in the out at 22 farmer’s field during 2016-17 to evaluate
market throughout the year. Tender fruits are used three genotypes of Bottle gourd for fruit yield and
as cooked vegetable and also for making sweets component traits. The area under each trial was 0.2
(Thakur et al, 2015). Due to its crisp, soft, and tasty ha. The trial was conducted in randomized block
fruits, it is equally liked by rich and poor people. It design (RBD) with three replications. The land was
is highly remunerative crop which fetches sizeable brought to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing and
income to the farmer within two or three months. harrowing. The clods were broken and debris were
However, the yield of bottle gourd in district Mohali removed. The soil was levelled and made into raised
is not satisfactory enough in comparison with other beds. For raising of crop, recommended package
cucurbit growing districts of Punjab and nearby of practices were followed. The seeds were sown
states due to less use of improved varieties. In view during February-March for seedling production.
of the above facts, figures and importance of bottle The seedlings were planted at a spacing of 2.0-2.5m
gourd, an experiment was designed to evaluate x 45-60 cm. Before fertilizer application, random
the performance of some genotypes of the crop in soil samples were taken from the experimental site
agro climatic condition of Mohali district of Punjab and were analyzed. The treatments included: T1:
Corresponding Author’s Email : munish_uhf@yahoo.co.in

5 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 5-7

 Sharma et al
Farmers Practice or FP, T2: Punjab Komal and T3:
Punjab Barkat. Five plants were selected at random
from each plot for recording observations. Based
on the net plot yield, yield per ha was calculated
and expressed in quintal (q) per ha. The cost of
cultivation and gross returns were worked out by
using prevailing market prices of inputs during the
period of investigation. Benefit-cost ratio (BCR)
was worked out by using the following formula.
Benefit: Cost ratio (BCR) = Gross return (Rs/ha)/
Total cost of cultivation (Rs/ha). Statistical analysis
was done using standard procedure given by Panse
and Sukhatme (1985).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fruit yield and component traits
From the results (Table 1), it was revealed that
T1 gave 360.12 q/ha yield whereas it was observed
to be 432.50 q/ha and 478.75q/ha in T2 and T3
respectively. The data of the trial revealed that T3
gave maximum yield of bottle gourd i.e 478.75 q/
ha along with the maximum B: C ratio (3.93:1) as
compared to T2 (3.58:1) and T1 (3.16:1). The variety
selected under Farmer’s practice taken fifty four
days for first harvest whereas Punjab Komal took
sixty eight and Punjab Barkat took minimum forty
eight days. Highest fruit length was recorded in
Punjab Barkat (30 cm) followed by Punjab Komal
(12 cm) and Farmer’s practice (24 cm). Maximum
fruit girth was recorded in Punjab Komal (18 cm)
followed by farmers practice (16.5 cm) and Punjab
Barkat (14 cm). Maximum twelve fruits/vine was
recorded in Punjab Barkat followed by ten fruits/
Table 1. Performance of different bottle gourd varieties for fruit yield and other traits.
Treatment Days to first Fruit length
harvest (cm)
T1 54 24
T2 68 12
T3 48 30
SE (m) 1.33 2.33
CD@0.05 5.38 9.40
6 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 5-7
vine in Punjab Komal followed by nine fruits/vine
in Farmer’s practice. The results obtained were in
accordance with those of Mahto et al (2010) for
fruit length and Sharma and Sengupta (2013) for
fruit length and fruit girth. Results of study are also
in line with results obtained by Jamal uddin (2014)
and Thakur et al ( 2015) for all the traits.
Economics
The inputs and outputs prices of commodities
prevailed during the year of demonstration were
taken for calculating cost of cultivation, net returns
and benefit cost ratio. Net profit /ha also depends
upon the availability of labour and a suitable
market for the disposal of produce. Results of the
present investigation revealed (Table 2) that T1
gave net return of Rs. 369,312/ha with B: C ratio
of 3.16 whereas T2 gave net return of Rs. 467,750/
ha with B: C ratio of 3.58 and T3 gave net return
of Rs. 535,625/ha with B: C ratio of 3.93. The
total cost of production was maximum for Punjab
Barkat (Rs.182,500/-) followed by Punjab Komal
(Rs.181,000/-) and Farmer’s practice (Rs.170,875/-
). Gross return was found to be maximum for
Punjab Barkat (Rs.718,125/-) followed by Punjab
Komal (Rs.648,750/-) and Farmer’s practice
(Rs.540,187/-). The results were in line with results
of Verma (2007) and Singh et al (2007) who also
studied economics of vegetable cultivation. Similar
studies were also carried out by Khayer (2011)
who made an economic evaluation of bottle gourd
production in Bangladesh and Kumar and Kumar
(2018) who made the economic analysis of hybrid
and conventional varieties of bottle gourd.
Fruit girth No of fruits/plant Fruit yield
(cm) (q/ha)
16.5 09 360.12
18 10 432.50
14 12 478.75
2.08 0.33 2.68
NA 1.34 10.82
 Assessment of Bottle Gourd

Table 2. Economic returns from different varieties of bottle gourd

Treatment Cost of cultivation Gross Return Net return B:C ratio
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
T1 170,875/- 540,187/- 369,312/- 3.16
T2 181,000/- 648,750/- 467,750/- 3.58
T3 182,500/- 718,125/- 535,625/- 3.93

CONCLUSION Mahato B , Pandit M K and Sarkar A (2010). Evaluation

It was concluded from the present investigation of some indigenous bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria)
genotypes in the new alluvial zone of West Bengal. J
that use of Bottle gourd variety Punjab Barkat is Interacademicia 14(4): 440-443.
most suitable for cultivation in the Mohali district
Milind Parle and Kaur Satbir (2011). Is Bottle gourd a natural
of Punjab as it gave highest yield along with highest gourd?. Int Res J of Pharmacy 2(6): 13-17
returns per unit area as compared to the other
Panse V G and Sukhatme P U (1985).Statistical Methods
varieties being grown by the farmer’s in the district. for Agricultural Workers, Indian Council of Agriculture
The market acceptability and consumer preference Research, New Delhi.
of Punjab Barkat and Punjab Komal found to be Sharma A and Sengupta S K (2013). Genetic Diversity,
quite satisfactory. Heritability And Morphological Characterization In
Bottle Gourd [Lagenaria Siceraria (Mol.) Standl.]. The
REFERENCES Bioscan 8(4): 1461-1465.
Dubey Rakesh K and Hari Har Ram (2008). Genetics of seed Singh R K, Singh R A and Mishra J P (2007). Economic
yield and its components in bottle gourd [Lagenaria study on production and marketing of hybrid tomato in
siceraria (Mol.) Standl.]. Seed Sci and Biotech 2(2): 61- Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh. Indian J Agric Mrkg
64. 50(3):32-36.
Jamal Uddin (2014). Evaluation of bottlegourd (Lagenaria Thakur Padmakshi, Sharma D, Visen V K and Dash S P
siceraria) to growth and yield. Int J of Biosci 5(12):7-12 (2015). Evaluation of bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria)
Khayer Ummul, Akhter Sharmin and Mondal R K(2011). genotypes. Plant Archives15(2):1037-1040.
Comparative economics of Bean and Bottle Gourd Verma A R (2007). Economics of production, resource
production in some selected areas of Bangladesh. use efficiency, marketing and constraints of potato in
Developing Country Studies. 1(2):34-40. indore district of Madhya Pradesh. Indian J Agric Mrkg
Kumar Mukesh and Kumar Kuldeep (2018). Economic 50(3):21-30.
Analysis of Hybrid and Conventional Varieties of Bottle Received on 19/06/2019 Accepted on 14/10/2019
Gourd as Affected by Different Levels of Nitrogen and
Plant Spacing. Int J Current Microbiol and Applied Sci
7(8): 2632-2638.

7 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 5-7

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 8-12 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00061.8

Assessment of Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflorum)

Varieties for Yield and Productivity in Salem District
P S Kavitha1, A Sudha2and N Sriram3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sandhiyur, Salem-636001 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema  grandiflorum) is a member of the family Asteraceae, mainly grown
for cut flower and loose flower for garland making, general decoration, hair adornments and religious
function. The major varieties grown by the farmers of Salem district in Tamil Nadu are local, chandini,
karnool, uppili etc. Technical problems faced by the farmers were low yield, poor quality flowers, high
cost of planting materials and high cost of cultivation. On farm trial was conducted with CO 1 variety
released by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore and the locally adopted variety. Five
chrysanthemum growing farmers were selected at different locations of pannapatti village with an area
of 2ha each for the trial. RBD was laid out with three varieties as treatments and seven replications.
CO1 performed well and recorded highest yield (11.2 t/ha) than the local variety (5.8 t/ha). The major
attribute for increase in yield is big flower size (4.0-4.5 cm dia) in CO 1 than the local varieties (2.8-
3.4 cm). Besides, CO1 gave ratoon crop that led to dramatic reduction in cost of cultivation.CO1 variety
with big flower size and increase in yield than the local varieties fetched higher price in market. There
is a need to standardize the optimum dose of nutrients particularly the integrated nutrient management
for improving the soil structure, physico-chemical properties and flower yield for CO 1 variety.
KeyWords : Front line demonstration, Intervention, On farm trial, Ratoon crop.

INTRODUCTION flower crops in major state like Karnataka, Tamil

Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora
Tzeuleu) in the   family  Asteraceae occupies a
prominent place in ornamental horticulture is
one of the commercially exploited flower crops.
The international market for cut and potted
chrysanthemums is increasing, and chrysanthemums
in many European and Asian countries are
commercially very important for the floral industry.
In India, Tamil Nadu is the second largest producer
of loose flowers and occupies 9 per cent of total
flower area is occupied by Chrysanthemum. The
flower crop sector provides good employment
opportunities to the farmers especially to small and
marginal farmers and female labour (Kaviarasan et
al, 2015). Further, the export of flower also generates
good export earnings to the country. Though the
Chrysanthemum is one of the important commercial
Nadu and Andhra its yield and quality levels are low
and hence there is a need to standardize the varieties
suitable for growing in particular region along
with standardization of optimum dose of nutrients
particularly the integrated nutrient management
for improving the soil structure, physico-chemical
properties and flower yield.
Chrysanthemum (Samanthi) is being cultivated
in an area of 850 ha in Salem district covering
omalur and kadayampatti blocks and some scattered
patches all over the district. Flowers are sold as loose
flowers for making garlands and ritual functions.
The farmers are regularly growing more varieties
and mostly the planting materials are purchased
from farmers of Hosur, kaddapa, gundukal and
Bangalore. The major varieties grown by the farmers
are local, chandini, karnool, uppili etc. They market

Corresponding Author’s Email: sudhaa1981@gmail.com

8 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 8-12

 Kavitha et al

the bulk of produce regularly in Bangalore market of ZnSO4 0.25per cent + MgSO4 0.5 per cent was
and a meager one in local market. Major problems given at 30th and 45th day after planting. GA3 @ 50
faced by the farmers were low yield, poor quality ppm was sprayed on 30th , 45th and 60th day after
flowers, high cost of planting materials and cost of planting. Duration of the crop was 6 - 8 m for plant
cultivation. As the result farmers were in dilemma crop and 4 m for ratoon crops. Harvesting of the
to continue the crop that they cultivated for the last flowers started from 3rd m onwards at 4 d intervals.
two decades. Harvesting was done at 3/4 to full open stage for
Scientist team from KVK visited the Pannapatti nearby markets and 1/2 open stage for distant
village cluster where more than 90 per cent of markets. Farmers were given training on cultivation
the area are under Chrysanthemum cultivation practices, crop management, plant protection
andconducted base line survey about village and measures, harvest, marketing studies and trained
the farmers behaviour. PRA was conducted with to observe the floral and yield characteristics of the
help of Multi-disciplinary team and group of local assessed varieties.
farmers and found the local felt and unfelt needs Technologies involved
in chrysanthemum cultivation. For assessing the • Introduction of TNAU released CO 1
suitable high yielding varieties under farmer’s Chrysanthemum variety
cultivation, the TNAU released variety CO1 was
included along with local variety and chandini. • Propagation by rooted suckers in farmers field
• Soil testing and STCR based recommendation
MATERIALS AND METHODS • Use of bio-control as soil application, foliar
A trial was conducted during 2015-16 for spraying and root dipping
assessing the suitable high yielding varieties under
• Special practices like pinching of terminal
farmer’s cultivation. Experiment was conducted at
shoots (once in 4 weeks)
5 fields on 10 ha area comprising 2 ha each with
three varieties namely, Local (TO 1), hybrid CO • Flower regulation by use of growth regulators
1(TO 2) and Chandini (TO 3) as three treatments, at (foliar spraying of 50 ppm Gibberellic acid on
Pannapatti village, Omalur block of Salem District. 30,45 and 60 days after planting)
Statistical design adopted was RBD with seven • Training on harvesting, grading and marketing
replications. Tabular analysis was used to calculate of the produce
the floral characteristics and profitability was
• Formation of chrysanthemum grower
computed using cost and return concepts. Terminal
association
cuttings were used as planting materials for all the
three varieties. Planting was done during June - July Periodical observation was made in all the fields
at 30 x 30 cm spacing on one side of ridges (1,11,000 and data were recorded on growth of the plant, first
plants/ha). Irrigation was done twice a week in the flowering, crop duration, yield per plant, flower
first month and subsequently at weekly intervals. size, flower weight, flower diameter, flower colour,
Recommended dose of 25t FYM and 125:120:25 yield/ha, net return, benefit cost ratio etc.
kg NPK/ha was applied.Basal application of half of
N + entire P and K; top dressing of half of N applied RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
30 days after planting. Among the treatments it was evident (Table
1) that TO 3 recorded the highest flower yield per
Pinching was done 4 weeks after planting to
plant (51.57) than TO 2 - TNAU released variety
induce lateral branches. The side suckers were
CO1 (46.14)and TO 1- local variety (28.43 flowers)
removed (desuckering) periodically. Foliar spray

9 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 8-12

 Assessment of Chrysanthemum

Table 1. Floral characteristics of Chrysanthemum varieties.

Sr. No. Treatment Size of Flower Wt of No. of Colour Market Blooming
the flower diameter the flowers of the preference period
(cm) flower /pt flower
(g)
TO 1 Local Small 3.09 2.01 28.43 Light Loose Oct
yellow flowers and
garland
TO 2 CO 1 Medium 4.24 2.50 46.14 Bright Garland and Sep
sized yellow decorative
purpose

TO 3 Chandini Very small 2.23 1.73 51.57 Medium Loose Oct

yellow flowers
CD(0.05 0.19 0.46 2.32
%)
SEd 0.09 0.21 1.06
CV (%) 5.29 19.92 4.76
Table 2. Yield characteristics of Chrysanthemum varieties.
Treatment Ratooning habit and yield of ratoon Production Benefit Cost Net return
crop (t/ ha) ratio (Rs.)

TO 1 - 5.86 1.16 79,000/-

TO 2 One ratoon (Feb-April) 4.3 t/ha 11.13 2.10 1,85,000/-
TO 3 - 9.19 1.46 1,35,000/-
CD(0.05 %) - 0.10 - -
SEd - 0.04 - -
CV (%) - 1.03 - -

where as the size of flower was medium in TO 2
followed by TO 1 and TO 3 (Jamal et al, 2015).
Hence, CO 1 recorded highest yield (11.13 t/ha)
than the local variety (5.86 t/ha) as inferred from
Table 2. The major attribute for increase in yield is
big flower size ( 4.24 cm dia) in CO 1 than the local
varieties (3.09 cm dia). In addition the weight of
the flower was found to be highest 2.5 g per flower
in CO 1 followed by Local variety (2.01 g) and
Chandini (1.73 g). Besides, CO1 was found to give
ratoon crop that led to dramatic reduction in cost
of cultivation. Moreover CO1 being early flowering
(25 -30 d) and bloomed in the month of September
compared to the existing varieties that bloomed
during the month of October led a better market
price in lean season too. This was in line with the
findings that flowering period was ranged from
50.59 to 132.99 d in chrysanthemum (Barigidad
and Patil, 1996), which resulted late and early
flowering habits among cultivars flowering times in
chrysanthemum were affected by varietal characters,
habitat and species type (Kim et al, 2014). TO 1
and TO 3 flowers were meant only for loose flowers
and garland making but TO 2 i.e., CO 1 has thick
stalk and is used both loose flower, garland and also
for bouquet and decorative purposes. By seeing
all the merits it was recommended to the farmers
to cultivate this crop along with other existing

10 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 8-12

 Kavitha et al

varieties to have the marketable produce throughout
the years. Hence during 2016-17 through KVK
this variety CO 1 was popularized through FLD
(Front line Demonstration) among the people of
Pannapatty.
less. They had low level of knowledge about the
scientific method of cultivation and IPM measures.
But after the intervention, they were well trained
in problem diagnosis, ecofriendly management
practices and group marketing activities.
In marketing of chrysanthemum flowers, the
farmers were mainly routed through the commission
agents in the Bangalore market (Kaviarasan et al,
2015). The exorbitant rate of commission charge
was the main constraint for the farmers which was
stream lined by forming grower association and
now the farmers were selling their produce directly
in the flower market.

CONCLUSION
Early flowering in CO 1 compared to Chandini The following were the conclusions derived
from the above study of which the chrysanthemum
growers of pannapatti village of Salem district
were very much satisfied and fetched more income
by improved yield. TNAU hybrid CO1 recorded
highest yield (11.13t/ha) than the local variety and
chandini and hence suitable for Salem district.
The flower size was bigger in CO 1 than the other
two varieties. Early flowering was observed in CO
1, which fetched more market price. In addition,
ratoon crop fetched an extra yield for 2 months.
Varietal replacement was found to be significant (28
Difference in flower size .5%). Farmers started growing both chandini and
CO 1 to balance the market price fluctuation. Few
CO1 variety with big flower size (Fig.1.) and more varieties have to be assessed for the suitability
increase in yield than the local varieties fetched at Salem district in future.
higher price in market (Joshi et al,2009). Due to its
early flowering habit it fetched more returns during REFERENCES
the peak season when the other varieties are in Barigidad H and Patil A A (1992). Relative performance
vegetative stage (Fig.2). The average yield was 104 of chrysanthemum cultivars under transitional tract of
q/ha as against 76 q/ha in local varieties with 36.84 karnataka. J Agric Sci 10: 98-101.
% yield increase. The farmer obtained a net return of Jamal Uddin A F M, Taufique T, Ona A F, Shahrin S and Mehraj
Rs. 302500/ha with BCR of 2.1 in a period of eight H (2015). Growth and flowering performance evaluation
of thirty two chrysanthemum cultivars. J Bioscience and
months (Verma et al, 2011). The rate /Kg varies Agri Res 04(01): 40-51.
from Rs.10 /Kg to Rs 140/Kg. Further, it fetched
Kaviarasan K, Singh D R and Arya Prawin (2015). An
an addition yield (4.3t/ha) during ratoon crop and economic Analysis of Rose Production System in
an income of Rs. 80000/ha (Table 2). Before the Tamil Nadu, Biotech articles, accessed at http: //www.
intervention of KVK, the farmers used to grow only biotecharticles.com.
the local varieties and their economic gains were

11 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 8-12

 Assessment of Chrysanthemum
Kim S J, Lee C H, Kim J and Kim K S (2014). Phylogenetic Verma S K, Angadi S G, Patil S G, Mokashi A N, Mathad
analysis of Korean native Chrysanthemum species based J C and Mummigatti U V (2011). Growth, yield and
on morphological characteristics. Sci Hort 175: 278–289. quality of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium
Joshi Manoj, Verma L R and Masu M M (2009). Performance Ramat.) Cv. Raja as influenced by integrated nutrient
of different varieties of chrysanthemum in respect of management. Karnataka J Agric Sci 24 (5): 681-683.
growth, flowering and flower yield under north Gujarat Received on 06/08/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019
condition. The Asian J Hort 4 (2) : 292-294.

12 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 8-12

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00062.X

Assessment of Improved Variety of Tuberose (Polianthes

tuberosa) Prajwal for Yield and Economics in Western Parts of
Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh
Pedda Nagi Reddy Pocha1, M Mallikarjun2, G Nirmala Devi 3 and M Reddi Kumar4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri,
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Chittoor (Andhra Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted during 2015-2018 for three years to assess the performance of high
yielding tuberose variety Prajwal for western parts of Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. The improved
variety Prajwal was plated along with local variety Hyderabad single as check in 0.2ha each in the fields
of five farmers at Ayyavaripalli and Chinnagangulavaripalli villages during June 2015 and continued
for three years. The results revealed that among the two varieties Prajwal recorded significantly higher
number of spikes per plant (2.86 no./plant), number of flowers per spike (46.9 no./spike), flowering
duration of spike (16.55d), spike length (105.88cm), flower weight per spike (55.31g), 100 flower
weight (91.80g), flower yield per plant (165g) and flower yield per hectare (17.7t/ha). The economic
parameters viz., benefit cost ratio (2.22), marginal benefit cost ratio (26.5) and relative economic efficiency
(12.92) were recorded more in Prajwal than Hyderabad single. The Prajwal variety showed superiority
over Hyderabad single and found suitable for western parts of Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.
Key Words: Efficiency, Flower, Hyderabad Single, Prajwal, Spikes, Tuberose,Yield.

INTRODUCTION and loose flowers on a commercial scale for the

In India, commercial cultivation of tuberose domestic market.
is popular in states of West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Tuberose flowers are cultivated throughout the
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam,
year and can be grown outdoor or under greenhouse
Gujarat and parts of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
conditions. Single type is predominantly cultivated
In Andhra Pradesh, East Godavari, Guntur,
and used in garland making, social functions and in
Chittoor, Krishna are the leading districts taking
perfumery industry for extraction of essential oil.
up tuberose cultivation (Jadav and Gurav, 2018).
Mostly local varieties are cultivated by the farmers
Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) belongs to family
of Chittoor district. Productivity was lesser due to
Agavaceae is a bulbous fragrant ornamental plant
low yielding local varieties. Many hybrids have
grown in the tropical and subtropical areas for cut
been introduced in Tuberose by Indian Institute of
flower and fragrance (Manas et al, 2018). Among
Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bengaluru, National
ornamental bulbous plants valued for their beauty
Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow and
and fragrance of the flowers, the tuberose occupies
a very special and selective place (Sood and Nagar, various other Agricultural Institutes.
2005). In India, Tuberose is a very popular flower Tuberose is one of the important flower crop
and millions of spikes are sold every year. Tuberose cultivated in Chittoor district as loose flower for
flowers are cultivated to produce flower spikes purpose of making garland and veni. It is being used
Corresponding Author’s Email: ppnreddy09@gmail.com
1
Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture), 2Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy),
3
Subject Matter Specialist (Home Science), 4Programme Coordinator.

13 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18

 Pocha et al

Table 1. Characters of different tuberose varieties.

S. No. Variety Character
1. Shringar This variety of tuberose develop through hybridization, cross between ‘Single x Double’
and was released by Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore. Flower
is highly fragrance and medium spikes. Flower bud attractive due to pinkish tinge. Spike
has more number of flowers and florets are large in size. These type flowers basically use
loose flower purpose and yield of these flower are 15,000-20,000 kg/ha.
2. Vaibhav Semi-double flowers on medium spike, cross Mexican Single x IIHR2, developed by IIHR
3. Prajwal Prajwal Tuberose variety was released by Indian Institute of Horticulture research,
Bengaluru during the year 2014. Prajwal is a Hybrid of Shringar x Mexican single. This
hybrid bears single type white flowers on long stiff spikes (95 cm, 50 florets per spike).
The individual flowers are larger in size compared to local single. Prajwal yields 15.5 –
18 t/ha/year which is 20 per cent more loose flowers than “Shringar”. The loose flowers
yield is high compared to other varieties of Tuberose.
4. Suvasini It is double type flower with multi whorled variety and release from Indian Institute of
Horticulture Research (IIHR), Bangalore. It is developed by hybridization, cross between
‘Single’ and ‘Double’. These varieties produce more number of flowers per spike, bold
flowers and uniformity flowers develop. Suvasini flower are white colour with fragrance.
In this flower mainly use for cut flower purpose. Spike yield is higher 25per cent than
Pearl Double cultivar.
5. Mexican Creamy flower with three row of corolla segments
White Double
6. Kalyani Single Long single flowers, petals with creamy colour
7. Arka Single-flower type ,Single rows of petals, Flower Spike curvature Present
Nirantara
8. Hyderabad More than three rows of corolla segment
Double
9. Mexican Florets bearing single segment of corolla
Single
10. Swarna Rekha It is developed through induce mutation (gamma ray) and release from National Botanical
Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow. The flowers are double with golden yellow steaks
along the margins of leaf. Concrete content has been found to be 0.062 per cent.
11. Phule Rajani Single rows of corolla segment
12. Pearl Double Flowers are pure white with more than three segments of corolla
13. Hyderabad Hyderabad Single Tuberose variety was released by Andhra Pradesh Agricultural
Single University (APAU). Hyderabad Single is a popular local variety grown by tuberose
farmers in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad Single tuberose variety bears
pure white flowers with one row/ whorl of corolla segment. Flowers are highly scented
Each spike produces 30 flowers It has profuse flowering habit and suitable for cultivation
in marginal soils also.
14. Arka Small size spike with more number of single florets
Sugandha
15. Rajat Rekha In this variety develop through induce mutation (gamma ray). It is a single flowered
variety released by National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow. Flowers are
silvery white streaks along the middle of the leaf blade. Concrete content 0.089 per cent.

14 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18

 Assessment of Improved Variety of Tuberose

Table 2. Performance of Tuberose varieties at farmer’s field during 2015 to 2018.

Sr. Parameter Prajwal Hyderabad Single
No. 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Mean 2015- 2016-17 2017-18 Mean
16
1. No. of Spikes/plant 2.83 2.94 2.75 2.86 1.83 1.75 1.66 1.75
2. No. of flowers/spike 44 49.3 47.5 46.9 34.1 40.3 39.1 37.8
3. Flowering duration of 16.83 15.66 17.16 16.55 9.16 9.33 9.66 9.38
spike (days)
4. Spike length (cm) 105.83 106.16 105.66 105.88 83.16 87.66 80.66 83.83
5. Flower weight per 56.34 55.10 54.51 55.31 41.96 37.00 42.4 40.47
spike (g)
6. 100 flower weight (g) 91.87 91.5 92.05 91.80 71.75 77.08 77.66 75.50
7. Yield/plant (g) 165 178 152 165 60 62 52 57
8. Yield (t/ha) 17.4 18.6 17.2 17.7 7.7 7.5 7.2 7.4

for worshipping, offerings in religious functions has been compared with local variety i.e Hyderabad
and auspicious days. The performance of tuberose Single and the characters of tuberose varieties were
cultivars varies with climate. The Chittoor district given in table 1. Each experimental plot size was
normal temperature during South west monsoon 0.2 ha and the planting was taken up during June
(June-September) Kharif is 36°C, during north east 2015 at five farmer’s fields. The observations viz.,
monsoon (October-December) Rabi is 34°C, during number of spikes per plant, number of flowers per
winter is 32°C and 38°C during summer. The spike, flowering duration of spike (days), spike
existing local cultivars are low yielding and give length (cm), flower weight per spike (g), 100 flower
low margin to the farmers. Hence, experiment was weight (g), flower yield per plant (g) and flower
conducted to assess suitable high yielding variety yield per hectare (t/ha) and economic character
‘Prajwal’ for commercial cultivation in this district. like cost of cultivation, gross income, net income,
marginal benefit cost ratio (MBCR), relative
MATERIALS AND METHODS economic efficiency (REE), benefit to cost ratio
The experiment been conducted at farmer’s (BCR) were recorded.
field for three years during 2015-18 at five farmer’s The soil type was sandy loam, pH 6.4, and
field in Ayyavaripalli and Chinnagangulavaripalli EC was 0.8. The available nitrogen, phosphorus,
villages of Chittoor district. Two varieties were used potassium content were 142, 12, 210 kg/ha
and Prajwal tuberose bulbs were supplied to the respectively. The tuberose bulbs were planted in
farmers under treatment T1 was Prajwal whereas double row system with spacing of 120 x 20 ×
T2 was local variety. The improved Prajwal variety 10 cm. Drip emitters were installed for providing
Table 3. Comparison of means of the yield characters with check variety for three years.
Sr.No. Parameter Prajwal Hyderabad Single Percent increase
1. No. of florets/spike 46.9 37.8 24.07
2. No. of Spikes/plant 2.86 1.75 63.4
3. Yield/plant (kg) 0.165 0.057 189.47
4. Yield (t/ha) 17.7 7.2 139.18
5. Average cost per kg (Rs) 45 37 21.62

15 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18

 Pocha et al

Table 4. Pooled analysis of Repeated Measure Mixed ANOVA for Tuberose flower yield
Year Variety Mean Stranded t-value p-value
Yield (t/ha) Deviation
2015-16 Prajwal 17.4 0.78 19.87** 0.000
Hyderabad Single 7.7 0.91
2016-17 Prajwal 18.6 0.84 28.83** 0.000
Hyderabad Single 7.5 0.45
2017-18 Prajwal 17.2 0.77 25.72** 0.000
Hyderabad Single 7.2 0.53
Mean Prajwal 17.73 0.79 24.80** 0.000
Hyderabad Single 7.42 0.63

** Significant at 1% level
irrigation. Before planting of the tuberose bulbs of flowers per spike (46.9 no./spike), flowering
were treated with copper oxy chloride (3g/l). Farm duration of spike (16.55d), spike length (105.88cm),
yard manure (10 t/ha), recommended dose of flower weight per spike (55.31g), 100 flower
fertilizers NPK– 200:200:200 kg/ha, neem cake 250 weight (91.80g) compared to Hyderabad single. In
kg/ha has been applied as a basal dose. The flowers, Prajwal flower yield per plant (165g) and flower
spikes and yield data obtained were statistically yield per hectare (17.7t/ha) were more compared
analysed with SPSS and repeated measures mixed to Hyderabad single and this might be due to more
ANOVA is carried out for pooled analysis of three number of flower per spike and more flower weight
years data with two treatments. The Benefit Cost per plant which also reflected in higher 100 flower
ratio (B:C), Marginal Benefit Cost Ratio (MBCR) weight (91.80g). Similar results were reported by
and Relative Economic Efficiency (REE) (Sarma, Krishnamoorthy (2014), Ranchana et al (2013),
2018) were calculated by using following formula Gurav et al (2005) in tuberose.
as given below. The improved variety Prajwal was well adaptive
to different region of the district and there was a
RESULTS ANS DISCUSSION significant increase in the yield of the Prajwal
From the results (Table 2), it was evident that compared to that of the local variety i.e. Hyderabad
the improved variety Prajwal showed the highest single (Table 3). The flower yield per plant (165 g)
number of spikes per plant (2.86 no./plant), number was significantly higher in Prajwal than the local
Net return
B:C ratio = ---------------------
Cost of cultivation

Gross return of new variety – Gross return of farmer’s variety

Marginal Benefit Cost Ratio = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(MBCR) Total variable cost of new variety – Total variable cost of farmer’s variety

Net return of new variety – Net return of farmer’s variety

Relative Economic Efficiency = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
(REE) Net return of farmer’s variety

16 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18

 Assessment of Improved Variety of Tuberose

variety as indicated by the more number of flowers
per spike (46.9). InTable 4 data has shown that,
in general for garland making individual higher
weight flowers not preferred by the merchants.
Even though Prajwal flowers fetch higher price per
kilogram compared to the local varieties because of
its quality i.e. fragrance and appearance. Though
there is daily price fluctuation, it fetched an average
of Rs. 45/kg which was 21.62 per cent higher than
the average market price of the flowers of local
variety. Prajwal also used for concrete extraction
and it fetched more price per kilogram as compared
to local varieties which resulted in higher net returns
to the farmers.
The data about interaction effect of year and
variety were found non significant which indicated
that during three years both varieties performed in
the same way. Further, Prajwal performed well with
higher flower yield of 17.73 t/ha than check variety
i.e Hyderabad single 7.42 t/ha. Hence improved
tuberose variety Prajwal was most suitable for
cultivation. Similar results were reported by Singh
et al (2018).
Table 5. Interaction of varieties over three years
Source F-Value P-value
Year 0.774 0.400
Year * Variety 0.035 0.856
Variety 1400** 0.000
** Significant at 1% level
In table 6 economic impact of Prajwal tuberose
variety over Hyderabad single variety was Krishnamoorthy V (2014). Assesment of tuberose (Polianthes
calculated and results revealed that by cultivating tuberosa) varieties for growth and yield characters. The
Prajwal tuberose variety farmers got more benefit
cost ratio (2.22) over Hyderabad single (0.17). This
may be due to higher yield obtained with Prajwal
tuberose variety compared to farmer’s practice.
Similar results were obtained by Mahawer et al
(2013). Suitability of new variety was assessed with
marginal benefit cost ratio (26.5) and economic
efficiency was assessed with Relative Economic
Efficiency (12.92). The cultivation of Prajwal
tuberose variety gave higher net return Rs.5,
49,560/- over three years as compared to Hyderabad
single.
CONCLUSION
Tuberose improved variety Prajwal with more
number of spikes per plant, more flowers per spike
and more flower weight per plant gave higher yield
and B: C ratio. Hence, the farmers were satisfied
with the tuberose variety Prajwal cultivation. Hence,
it was concluded that tuberose variety Prajwal was
most suitable variety for Chittoor district of Andhra
Pradesh. At present, the area under Prajwal in
Chittoor district is nearly 80 per cent of the total
area under tuberose.
REFERENCES
Gurav S B, Katwate S M, Singh B R, Kahade D S and Dhane
A V (2005). Quantitative genetic studies in tuberose.
Ornamental Hort 8: 124-127.
Jadhav P B and Gurav N P (2018). Extension of the Storage
and Post-Storage Life of Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa)
Loose Flowers cv. ‘Local’. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci
7(1): 2798-2807.
Asian J Hort 9(2): 515-517.

Table 6. Economic Impact of Tuberose variety Prajwal.

Tuberose variety Cost of Gross Net B:C Marginal Benefit Relative
Cultivation Returns returns ratio Cost Ratio Economic
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (MBCR) Efficiency
(REE)
T1: Prajwal 246940 796500 549560 2.22 26.5 12.92
T2: Hyderabad 226940 266400 39460 0.17
Single

17 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18

 Pocha et al
Mahawer K L, Bairwa H L and Anil K Shukla (2013). Field
performance of tuberose cultivars for growth, floral and
economic characters under sub-humid southern plains
and Aravalli hills of Rajasthan. Indian J Hort 70(3):411-
416.
Manas M, Soumen M and Debasis M (2018). Production
technology of tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)
Cultivation. J Pharmacology and Photochem 7(6): 2360-
2364.
Ranchana P, Kannan M and Jawaharlal M (2013). The
assessment of genetic parameters yield, quality traits and
performance of single genotypes of tuberose (Polianthes
tuberosa). Adv Crop Sci & Tech 1&3: 1-4.
Sarma A (2018). Numerical Agronomy. Kalyani Publishers.
Economic Studies. 180-185.
Singh Ashish A, Singh Anil K, Sisodia Anjana and Padhi
Minakshi (2018). Performance of Tuberose Varieties
for Flowering and Flower Yield Parameters under Indo-
gangetic Plains of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Int J Curr
Microbiol App Sci 7(8): 1129-1133.
Sood S and Nagar P K (2005). Alteration in endogenous
polyamines in bulbous of tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa)
during dormancy. Sci Hort 105: 483-490.
Received on 11/07/2019 Accepted on 14/10/2019

18 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 13-18

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 19-22 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00063.1

Attitude of Women towards Self Help Groups under Integrated

Watershed Management Programme
M K Bariya1, H S Patel2, K U Chandravadia3, S J Parmar4 and H C Chodavadia5
College of Agriculture, Junagarh Aricultural University, Mota Bhandariya 365 610 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
Self-Help Group (SHG) program is a pragmatic approach to eradicate poverty. It is initiated as a self-
employment program in the jargon of poverty eradication measures as well as empowerment program in
the country. Therefore, a study was undertaken to measure the attitude of SHG member towards self help
groups. A Scale was developed to measure the attitude. The scale consisting of 22 items was developed, for
which Rulon’s formula coefficient of reliability was 0.744. The developed the scale was used to measure
the attitudes of SHG and non SHG members towards self help groups promoted under Integrated Watershed
Management Programme (IWMP). Amreli District of Gujarat State was selected for the study. Different
five talukas of Amreli district were randomly selected where SHGs were formed under IWMP. Two villages
from each taluka were purposively selected where SHGs conducted their livelihood activities more than
four years under IWMP. Ninety SHG and ninety non SHG members were selected from the villages. Thus
total sample size was 180. Frequencies, percentage, mean, Z test analysis were carried out and results
revealed that the independent sample ‘Z’ test showed that there was highly significant difference in the
mean values of SHG members (66.89) and non SHG members (36.86) in case of attitude towards SHGs.
Key Words: Attitude, IWMP, Members, Scale, Self Help group, Self-employment.

INTRODUCTION between the formal institutions and the poor for

In recent years self help groups are emerging providing information, credit and other facilities.
as alternative credit source to the poor. In self help It has been very well established that providing
groups (SHGs), collective actions and solidarity finance to the poor after organizing them into
is an important empowering mechanism. The homogenous group commonly known as SHGs
empowerment of women through SHGs would have given statutory results among the rural poor
lead to benefits not only to the individual women women. Moreover, positive attitude is required to
and women groups but also for the family and foster the socio-economic activities of self help
community as a whole through collective action groups. Attitude plays a great role to take up any
for development. Self help groups also play a very economic venture.. Eagly and Chaiken (1993) had
vital and critical role towards empowering women defined attitudes as a psychological tendency that
in almost all the fields. In recent years, the group is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with
approach to various poverty alleviation programmes some degree of favor or disfavor. Attitude cannot
is getting recognition in India. Mostly, women are be observed directly but can be inferred from
mobilized into groups for undertaking mutually individuals’ self-reports and behavior. Attitudes are
beneficial social and economic activities. The relatively stable and once adopted, they can provide
group provides women, a base for self-employment a long-term positive effect (Olgyaiova et al, 2005).
and empowerment through group dynamics. It is Therefore, a study was undertaken to measure the
being realized that SHGs can establish relationship attitude of SHG members.

Corresponding Author’s Email: minaxibariya@gmail.com

19 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 19-22

 Bariya et al

Table.1. Scale used to measure attitude towards Self Help Groups.

Sr. Statement SA A UN D SD
No.
1 I believe that collective action through SHGs increase the power of
women
2 SHGs are just formed for the purpose of availing loans by its members
3 Group cohesiveness are developed through SHGs
4 SHG lead conflicts among women
5 SHGs change personality of group/women member
6 I agree that SHGs improve work culture
7 Members are treated according to the class and caste in SHG
8 SHGs is a powerful tool for women empowerment
9 SHGs help the women to be an entrepreneur
10 Women position in the family can be enhance through participation in
SHGs
11 Group norms are too rigid to follow
12 Women get appreciation by family members due to participation in
SHGs
13 Domestic violence can be reduced by SHGs
14 Women are unable to spend their leisure time with their family members
due to SHGs
15 SHGs provide opportunities for economic development
16 Group savings don’t help in solving economic problems of its members
17 Living condition of women member can be improved through SHGs.
18 SHGs reduce dependency on money lenders
19 Women becomes aware about human rights due to SHGs
20 Due to SHGs, women are capable to speak during public meetings
21 Maintenance of transparency in records in SHGs is not very important
22 SHG is necessary element to help the poorest poor.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
For measuring the attitude of SHG and non SHG
members, the researcher has developed the scale
(Table 1). Among the techniques available, author
has chosen scale product method which combines
the Thurstone technique of equal appearing
interval scale (1928) for selection of items and
Likert’s technique of summated rating (1932) for
ascertaining the response on the scale as proposed
by Eysenck and Crown (1949).
The scale was administered to 180 each of
SHG members and non members. The final attitude
scale was administered on the sample women who
were asked to express their reaction in terms of
their agreement or disagreement with each item by
selecting any one of five response categories. The
respondents were asked to record their feelings on
a five- point continuum viz., strongly agree, agree,
undecided, disagree and strongly disagree with
scores of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively for positive
statements and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively for negative
statements. The total attitude score for each
respondent was obtained by adding the weights of
her responses made to the individual item. The final

20 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 19-22

 Attitude of Women towards SHG

score was worked out by summing scores obtained adopted villages under IWMP was obtained from
by respondent for all statements. In this study the principal investigator of the project and was
researcher use arbitrary method for formulation of selected for the study. Villages having effective and
groups. Attitude was categorized based on division coordinated working of SHG were also one of the
of difference between maximum and minimum criteria to select. In addition, from each village nine
possible scores of variable with its numbers of women (n = 90) who were not members of SHG were
categories. The respondents were categorized in studied for comparative purposes. SHG member
five groups as under: The attitude of SHG members and non SHG member was the unit of analyses. The
and non-members was compared using Z test. data were collected by personal interviews using a
Sr.No. Category Score
pre-tested structured schedule.
1 Most unfavorable 00.0 to 17.6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2 Unfavorable 17.7 to 35.2
Attitude strength is an important determinant of
3 Neutral 35.3 to 52.8 the attitude-behavior relationship. Strong attitudes
4 Favorable 52.9 to 70.4 are based on past knowledge and may be retrieved,
5 Most favorable Above 70.4 whereas weak attitude is often constructed on the
These respondents were chosen from Amreli spot. Strong attitudes have more impact on behavior,
district of Gujarat state. Different five talukas of are less susceptible to self-perception effects and
Amreli district of Gujarat state were randomly are more stable over time (Holland et al, 2002).
selected where SHGs were formed under Integrated An attitude is operationalized as a tendency to
Watershed Management Programme. Two villages react favourable or unfavourable towards Self Help
from each talukas were purposively selected where Groups. Attitude of the SHG members and non
SHGs are conducting their livelihood activities SHG members under investigation is given in Table
more than four years under IWMP. The list of 1.

Table 2.Distribution of the respondents (SHG and Non SHG members) according to attitude towards
SHGs n=180
Sr. Category/score SHG Member Non SHG Member
No. F n=90 n=90
P F P
1 Very Low 00.0 to 17.6 00 00.00 00 00.00
2 Low 17.7 to 35.2 00 00.00 22 24.44
3 Medium 35.3 to 52.8 08 08.89 68 75.56
4 High 52.9 to 70.4 53 58.89 00 00.00
5 Very High Above 70.4 29 32.22 00 00.00
Total 90 100.00 90 100.00
Mean 66.89 36.86
Mean difference 30.03
Z value 27.23**
F= Frequency P= Per cent

21 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 19-22

 Bariya et al

It was evident (Table 1) that nearly three-fourth REFERENCES

(58.89 %) of the SHG members were high level of Eagly A H and Chaiken S (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes.
attitude towards SHGs followed by 32.22 per cent Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
and 8.89 per cent with very high and medium level Eysenck H J and Crown S (1949). An experimental study in
of attitude, respectively and no one was from the opinion attitude methodology. Int J Attitude Res 3: 47-86.
low and very low level categories. Whereas, in Guilford J P (1954). Psychometric methods. Tata McGraw-
case of non SHG respondents 75.56 per cent were Hill Publication Co. Ltd., Bombay, pp 378-382.
from medium level of attitude followed by 24.44 Holland R W, Verplanken B and Knippenberg A (2002). On
the nature of attitude behavior relations: The strong guide,
per cent with low level of category. No respondent
the weak follow. European J Soc Psychology 32: 869–76.
was found under the category of very low, high and
Likert R A (1932). A technical for measurement of attitude
very high category. The independent sample ‘Z’ test
scale. Arch. Psychol. pp. 140.
showed that there was highly significant difference
Meena M S and Singh K M (2013). Impact of self help groups
in the mean values of SHG members (66.89) and
on attitudes of members. Indian J Agril Sci 83 (9):971-
Non SHG members (36.86) in case of attitude 976.
towards SHGs. Olgyaiova K, Pongra´cz E, Mikkola T, Radoslav S, Kapa R and
It can be concluded that vast majority of the Keiski R L (2005). Attitudes toward waste minimization
SHG members was high to very high level of in Finland and Czech Republic barriers and drivers. In:
Proceedings of the RESOPT Closing Seminar Waste
attitude towards Self Help Groups. This is because
Minimization and Utilization in Oulu Region: Drivers
of the most of the respondents had benefited a lot by and Constraints. Oulu University Press, Oulu, pp 85–109
the project IWMP and due to improvement in their Sangeetha V, Bahal R, Singh P, and Venkatesh P (2013). Impact
socio-economic condition and positive attitude of NGO-led Self-Help Groups on the empowerment of
among the members could be the success of the rural women-experience from South India. Outlook on
SHG in empowering women and promoting gender Agri 42(1): 59-63.
equality. On the other hand in case of Non SHG Thurstone L L and Chave E G (1928). The measurement of
members may have been aware of the benefits of opinion. J Abnormal Soci Psychology 22: 415-430.
SHGs-hence the majority were from medium level Received on 05/07/2019 Accepted on 21/10/2019
of attitude towards SHGs. This finding was in line
with the findings of Meena and Singh (2013) and
Sangeetha et al (2013).

CONCLUSION
From the results it could be perceived that SHG
members had high to very high level of attitude
towards Self Help Groups, whereas, non SHG
members had low to medium level of attitude
towards Self Help Groups. Therefore government
has to take necessary actions to develop favourable
attitude for the non SHG members as this is a
most important underlying factor that affects the
behaviour of the women in SHG functions.

22 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 19-22

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 23-27 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00064.3

Characterization of Households of Marginal and Landless

Livestock Farmers in Rural Tamil Nadu
K M Sakthivel and Narmatha N
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education,
Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University ( Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
A study was conducted in rural areas of Tamil Nadu to ascertain the characteristics of households of marginal
and landless livestock farmers. The investigation was carried out among the households of 100 marginal
farmers and 100 landless livestock farmers owning livestock. Majority of the households were male headed in
the age group of 40-50 yr belonged to most backward caste category, had nuclear family with the family size of
5-7 members. Further, majority of the respondents and their spouse were illiterate and their primary occupation
was agriculture followed by livestock keeping. Most of the respondents had thatched roof type of dwelling
with paid electricity supply. Organization memberships of the households were high in self-help groups as
compared to co-operatives and political parties. Income generation was the prime purpose of livestock keeping
Key Words: Farmers migration, Resources, Rural livelihoods.

INTRODUCTION (Sakthivel, 2017). The characteristics of marginal

Livestock provide livelihood support to millions
of poor households, not only through employment
and income generation but also as a major source
of protein supplement, draught power, manure, fuel
and store of wealth, across the world. Livelihood
of majority of population in India is dependent on
agriculture and out of total agricultural production
and more than 70 per cent is contributed by the
smallholders and landless farmers (Das et al,
2016). Livestock is owned by more than 70 per
cent of rural households and a major portion of the
livestock-owning households are small, marginal
and landless in India (Gupta, 2018). Thus, livestock
form an important resource for marginal farmers and
next to family labour for the landless agricultural
labourers. For the poor, illiterate rural work force,
with the failure of agriculture in the absence of
regular monsoon and decrease in availability of farm
labour, livestock keeping is a boon to rescue and
secure their livelihood particularly for the marginal
and landless livestock farmers of rural Tamil Nadu
and landless livestock farmer households directly or
indirectly influence their behaviour like awareness,
knowledge, adoption of improved animal husbandry
technologies and access to means and ways of
improving their farm and home. Hence, a study
was undertaken to ascertain the characteristics of
households of marginal and landless livestock
farmers in rural Tamil Nadu.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A multistage sampling procedure was
followed to select the respondents of the study.
Thiruvannamalai and Pudukkottai districts of
Tamil Nadu were selected to represent two diverse
agro climatic zones viz., north eastern zone and
south zone. Two blocks each were randomly
selected from both the districts namely Polur and
Chetpet from Thiruvannamalai and Arantangi
and Thiruvarankulam in Pudukkottai districts,
respectively. One village panchayat each, were
randomly selected from each of the selected blocks.

Corresponding Author’s Email: sakthivelvet@gmail.com

23 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 23-27

 Sakthivel and Narmatha

From each of the selected four village panchayats, heads were having high school education. Further,
25 marginal and 25 landless farmers’ households education status of the spouse points out that about
owning livestock were selected following quota 69.0 per cent had no formal education and only 2.1
sampling method. Thus a total of 200 households per cent were educated up to high school and above.
constitute the sample for the study. Further, there was no much variation in spouse
education levels between the two categories of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION livestock farmers and illiteracy was comparatively
Human resource more among women than men. Education level of
About 96.5 per cent households were male women is an important consideration in decision
headed and 3.5 per cent were female headed. All making process than men since women play a
the females in female headed households were vital role in livestock activities. It was observed
widows and are forced to be the head the family that women discontinued their education in their
(Table 1). In Indian rural social system, caste early part of life at primary school and high school
plays a vital role and influences various aspects level than men. Most of the respondents (36.5%)
of social life. Majority of the respondents (58.50 were having two children. It could be inferred that
%) were from the most backward category. None respondents with comparatively more number
of the respondents of landless livestock farmers of children were found among landless livestock
were from forward caste and relatively more farmers than marginal farmers.
number of scheduled caste were landless livestock Occupation of the head
farmers indicating that livestock keeping was more Most of the respondents (35.5 %) had
important to the socially backward, landless and agriculture as their primary occupation followed by
marginalized sections of the rural society. livestock keeping (21.5%), farm labourer (23.5%)
The total number of members in the households and non farm labourer (11.5%) and other income
considerably influences labour availability to generating activities (8. 0%). Livestock keeping
the livestock enterprise. Only five per cent of the as the secondary occupation was reported by
households head were under below 30 yr age groups, majority (63.5 %) of the respondents in the study
indicating that below 30 age old youngsters were area followed by farm labourer (14.5%), agriculture
not much involved in livestock enterprises. The age (11.0%), non farm labourer (9.0%) and other income
of the household head is an important element in generating activities (2.0%). Relatively a higher
the quality of labour that reflects physical capacity proportion of marginal farmers (74.0 %) reported
for labour and decision making in resource use and livestock keeping as their secondary occupation,
access. Thus, as age advances, old age and middle specifying agriculture and livestock keeping are
aged people in rural areas prefer activities requiring complementary to each other for marginal farmers
less labour and livestock keeping becomes their than landless livestock farmers (53.0 %).
paramount choice. Irrespective of the categories,
majority of the households were found to be of Migration pattern
nuclear family type indicating that the nuclear Table 3 depicts the distribution of the household
family type was more predominant in the study members who have migrated in search of livelihood
area. options in urban areas. Around 35.0 per cent of the
households had their family members out of their
Education is one of the factors which can native village and majority were landless livestock
accelerate the growth of farming community. More farmers. It was observed that rural people have few
than two-fifth of the household heads (45.50%) opportunities for their livelihood than urban people
were illiterate and only 7.5 per cent of the household as they are dependent wholly on agriculture and

24 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 23-27

 Characterization of households of Marginal and Cardless

Table 1. Human resources

Category Marginal farmers Landless livestock Total households
(n = 100) farmers (n = 100) (N = 200)
Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Gender of household head
Male headed 96(96.0) 97(97.0) 193(96.5)
Female headed 4(4.0) 3(3.0) 7(3.5)
Social group (Caste)
Forward 2(2.0) -- 2(1.0)
Backward 21(21.0) 6(6.0) 27(13.5)
Most backward 68(68.0) 49(49.0) 117(58.5)
Scheduled caste 8(8.0) 45(45.0) 53(26.5)
Scheduled tribe 1(1.0) -- 1(0.5)
Household size
Small(<5) 48(48.0) 46(46.0) 94(47.0)
Medium(5-7) 51(51.0) 49(49.0) 100(50.0)
Large(>7) 1(1.0) 5(5.0) 6(3.0)
Age of household head
<30 yr 3(3.0) 2(2.0) 5(2.5)
30-40 yr 15(15.0) 20(20.0) 35(17.5)
40-50 yr 40(40.0) 40(40.0) 80(40.0)
50-60 yr 28(28.0) 30(30.0) 58(29.0)
>60 yr 14(14.0) 8(8.0) 22(11.0)
Family type
Nuclear 86(86.0) 92(92.0) 178(89.0)
Joint 14(14.0) 8(8.0) 22(11.0)
Education of head
Illiterate 42(42.0) 49(49.0) 91(45.5)
Primary(1-5) 30(30.0) 30(30.0) 60(30.0)
Middle(6-8) 16(16.0) 18(18.0) 34(17.0)
High school & above 12(12.0) 3(3.0) 15(7.5)
Education of spouse
Illiterate 60(62.5) 73(75.25) 133 (68.9)
Primary(1-5) 24(25.0) 17(17.52) 41 (21.2)
Middle(6-8) 11(11.45) 4(4.12) 15 (7.8)
High school & above 1(1.05) 3(3.0) 4 (2.1)
Number of children
No child 3( 3.0) 3( 3.0) 6 (3.0)
One Child 13(13.0) 12(12.0) 25 (12.5)

25 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 23-27

 Sakthivel and Narmatha

Two children 41(41.0) 32(32.0) 73 (36.5)

Three children 34(34.0) 37( 37.0) 71 (35.5)
Four children 7 (7.0) 14 (14.0) 21 (10.5)
Five children 2 (2.0) 2( 2.0) 4 (2.0)

agriculture related activities and as no alternatives
exist. With the failure of monsoon, people depended
on agricultural related activities i.e. the marginal
and landless livestock keepers were forced to move
out in search of options in distant areas. Thus a
wide spread migration to urban areas was found
among the members of both marginal and landless
livestock farmers households.
Physical resources
Ownership of selected household durables are
indicators of relative wealth. All the households
studied had own house and approximately 54.5
per cent of them had a thatched house and 44.5 per
cent owned tiled roofed house. It is also evident
that vast majority (93.0 %) of the households were
electrified. Among the electrified households also,
around 11.50 per cent were having free supply
i.e., they could use only a single light and cannot
use it for other electric appliances. Electrification
of households is very important today as to make
use of electrically operated mass communication
media like radio, television and it directly assist in
access to information. There was much variation The purpose of keeping livestock perceived by
found in possession of bullock carts among the households
marginal and landless livestock farmers. Bicycles
were possessed in considerable numbers by both the purpose of keeping livestock to assess the
importance of livestock in their livelihood. The
Table 3. Migration pattern of the households .
Category Marginal
farmers
(n = 100)
Frequency (%)
Households with members migrated 30 (30.0)
Number of persons migrated per household
One member 25 (83.33)
Two members 5(16.67)
Three members --
marginal and livestock farmers’ households but
marginal farmers were slightly higher than landless.
Two wheelers were possessed by only 6.5 per cent
of the respondents. It was more among marginal
farmers (11.0 %) than landless livestock farmers
(2.0 %).
Social resources
Membership of households were high in
self-help groups (36.5 %) followed by milk co-
operatives (32.0 %) and political parties (14.0 %).
Though loans are not issued in most of the self-
help groups, people actively take part in meetings
that are conducted in a weekly basis. Some groups
have converted these weekly meetings to monthly
meetings, as they were engaged in household works.
Non availability of time to attend weekly meeting
was the reason stated by households who have not
joined the groups. Though the milk co-operatives are
providing services like milk collection and artificial
insemination, the membership of co-operatives has
declined in general.
The respondents were asked to rank order
Landless livestock Total households
farmers (n = 100) (N = 200
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
40 (40.0) 70 (35.0)
23 (57.50) 48(68.57)
10 (25.00) 15(21.43
7 (17.5) 7(10.0)

26 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 23-27

 Characterization of households of Marginal and Cardless

data reflects the rank order of the purpose of

keeping livestock as perceived by the respondents.
Respondents ranked maximum four purposes and
minimum two purposes. Hence four points were
given to first rank followed by 3 points to second
rank and so on. The overall data showed that
source of income got the highest points (800),
followed by milk sales (483), manure (249),
milk consumption (149), savings (11) and animal
traction (10). The results show that irrespective of
categories, livestock were perceived primarily as
income source, mostly by sale of milk in case of
dairy animals and sale of live animals in case of
small ruminants. Although dung was used for many
CONCLUSION
The characteristics of the marginal farmers
purposes such as fuel, but for those with the land,
and landless livestock farmers in rural area brings
i.e. the marginal farmers considered cow dung from
out the living standards of resource poor livestock
livestock more important than consumption of milk
keepers in rural areas and necessitates intervention
for household. Only a meagre per cent of landless
by policy makers to improve their standard of
livestock farmers perceived livestock as savings and
living. Further these characteristics of marginal
none of the marginal farmers considered livestock
and landless livestock farmers are to be considered
as savings. It is also interesting to note that although
while organizing extension programmes for them.
sheep and goats were maintained by majority of
marginal and landless livestock farmers, none of
them had mentioned their purpose such as sale of REFERENCES
Gupta S (2018). Distribution pattern of livestock and its
animals or consumption of meat for household. implications for small and marginal farmers in India. J
Thus, according to marginal and landless livestock Rural and Agril Res 18 (1): 39-44.
farmers, livestock keeping was more an economic Sakthivel KM (2017). Role and Contribution of Livestock
activity than source of milk and meat products for in the Livelihood of Marginal and Landless Livestock
household consumption. Farmers in Rural Tamil Nadu, India. Indian Res J Ext
Edu. January 2017 (Special issue on Veterinary Research
& Extension) 20-25
Das K S, Roy S K, Mondal S K De, H K, Pal P P, Singh A
K and Rahman F H (2016). Intensification of Livestock
Production by Smallholder and Landless Farmers in
India. Indian Farming 66(5): 34–36,
Received on 18/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

27 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 23-27

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00065.5

Comparative Study between Solar Dryer and Open Sun dried

Tomato under North Plateau Climatic Zone
J Bhuyan, D K Mohanty and D Jayapuria
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mayurbhanj-I, 757 049 (Odisha)

ABSTRACT
The solar dryer consists of transparent glass window, tray, solar photovoltaic fans and solar panel. The
solar radiation passes through the transparent glass window, located on the top of the cabinet. The cabinet
is made of anti-corrosive material and of modular nature to meet the varying sizes and loading capacities
of food products, ranging from 7 to 8 kg .The ambient air enters from the bottom of the cabinet and gets
heated up with solar radiation incident from the top window. The heat energy is trapped in the cabinet
and heats up the air. The hot air passed through the trays, carries the moisture from the product to the
space below the glass. Then it is exhausted by Solar Photovoltaic Fans. The forced circulation of air in
the cabinet is achieved through this solar fan. Assessment of the dryer showed a raised temperature of
about 470c attainable in the drying chamber. The dryer temperature and drying rate was found to be higher
than the natural open sun drying method. The dryer was able to reduce moisture content of tomato from
initial moisture content of 93 per cent wet basis to 4 per cent in three days with effective drying time of
24hr and drying rate of 0.03833 kg/hr, whereas the traditional sun drying was able to reduce moisture
content of tomato from initial moisture content of 93 per cent wet basis to 4 per cent in five days with
drying time of 34hr and drying rate of 0.0272 kg/hr . The results showed a considerable advantage of
solar dryer over the traditional open sun drying method in term of drying rate and less risk for spoilage.
Key Words: Moisture, Solar dryer, Spoilage, Sun, Temperature, Tomato.

INTRODUCTION Short post-harvest life and inadequate processing

Tomato is a climacteric fruit (Vishal kumar et
al, 2015), having a short shelf-life under ambient
storage conditions (Shahnawaz et al, 2012). Tomato
is grown extensively throughout India for fresh
consumption and commercial processing (Maini
and Kaur, 2000; Prakash, 2000, Gupta et al, 2011).
The marketing of fresh tomato during the season is a
great problem because of its short post-harvest life,
which leads to high post-harvest losses (Jayathunge
et al, 2012). Tomatoes are highly perishable and
large quantities of tomato fruits go as a waste due to
poor storage facilities. It has been estimated that out
of 74.41 lac tones of annual tomato production in the
country, 25-30 per cent of tomato fruits get spoiled
in India due to glut in the market and improper
handling and storage conditions (Gupta et al,2011).
facilities result in heavy revenue loss. Therefore, it
is advantageous to develop a preservation method
for tomatoes. Tomatoes are processed in a range
of products, such as concentrated juice and pulp,
which needs high cost technology for good quality
products. Therefore, development of low-cost
processing methodologies to produce shelf-stable
convenience products is the prime requirement of
the present competitive market (Nadia Bashir et al,
2014).
Drying is the best and convenient technique
among all the food preservation and processing
methods, for product moisture content is greatly
lowered which in turn helps to prevent the
microbial degradation (Fellows, 2009). Among the
drying techniques, open sun drying is a seasoned,

Corresponding Author’s Email:jhuni.chutki@gmail.com

28 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33

 Bhuyan et al
simple (requires less technology), cost effective and
familiar food preservation method used to reduce the
moisture contents of all agricultural commodities
(Durance and Wang, 2002). Nonetheless, the
quality of products can be seriously tainted and
occasionally rendered inedible in open sun drying
because of the potential risk from environmental
problems (rain, storm, windborne dirt, dust) and
biological hazards (infestation by insects, rodents
and other animals). Thus the resulting products may
become inferior in their quality and bring adverse
economic effects both in domestic and international
markets (Lahsasni et al, 2004).
To enhance the quality and value of the dried
foodstuffs, the conventional open sun drying method
should be substituted with modern industrial drying
methods such as solar and hot air drying. Solar
drying can be considered as an elaboration of sun
drying and is an efficient system of utilizing solar
energy. The introduction of solar drying system
seems to be one of the most promising alternatives to
reduce post harvest losses. The solar dried products
have better colour and texture as compared to
open sun dried products. The justification for solar
dryers is that they dry products rapidly, uniformly
and hygienically, the traits inevitable for industrial
food drying processes. Solar dryers with typically
attained temperature of up to 60-700 are suitable for
drying a variety of agricultural products ( Adejumo
and Bamgboye, 2004). The present study was
undertaken to compare solar dryer with open sun
drying for tomatoes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of solar dryer
The solar radiation passes through the
transparent glass window, located on the top of the
cabinet, which is oriented to south with a tilt equal
to altitude to collect maximum solar radiation.
The cabinet is made of anti-corrosive material and
of modular nature to meet the varying sizes and
loading capacities of food products, ranging from 7
to 8 kg. The ambient air enters from the bottom of
29 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33
the cabinet and gets heated up with solar radiation
incident from the top window. The heat energy is
trapped in the cabinet and heats up the air. As result
the wavelength of solar radiation shifts to infrared
region, causing green house effect. The hot air
passed through the trays, carries the moisture from
the product to the space below the glass and then it
is exhausted by Solar Photovoltaic Fans. The forced
circulation of air in the cabinet is achieved through
this solar fan.
Specifications of solar dryer
Model : SDM – 8
Solar : 0.9 Sq.m approx
window
Drying area : 0.7 Sq.m approx
Loading : 6-8 Kg
capacity
(Max)
Solar panel : 20 W
No. of fans : 1
Physical : 3.6’L X 2.7’W X 2’H
dimensions
Construction : M.s. square Pipe structured, G.I.
material Cabinet with stainless steel wire
mesh trays, aluminium
Special features of this technology
The special features of these solar dryers are:
the temperatures achieved in the cabinet are in
the range of 40-650C on clear sunny days. The
temperature difference between the ambient and
inside cabinet is 10 to 150C on good sunny days.
The moisture control in the product is achieved
by the regulation of drying time, basing on the
intensity of solar radiation. Closed or mesh trays
are provided for easy loading and unloading of
product. Solar PV fan for air circulation. A clean
and hygienically prepared product, meeting the
cleanliness specifications of ASTA of USA and
other countries, is processed in these dryers. These
dryers are modular and to scalability of the design
to any size of demand.
 Comparative Study between Solar Dryer and Open Sun dried
Operation
The dryer is placed in the open space free from
shade throughout the day. One kilogram of tomatoes
in weight is collected with initial moisture content
of 94 per cent is spread on the empty dryer to study
the maximum obtainable temperature per day for
three days in January, 2019. Secondly a known mass
of tomato slices of 5 mm in thickness of 1 kg with
initial moisture content of 93 per cent were spread
on the dryer tray and equal amount of 1kg with
same moisture content on the control open air i.e.,
in open space free from shed throughout the day.
Temperature of the sample was taken for moisture
content determination in every one hour for three
days @ 8hr/day. The weight of the samples were
measured in every two hours from 9 AM to 5 PM
every day till attains 4 per cent moisture content.
The solar dryer was tested under a period of low
temperature from 23 to 350C and humidity period of
60-88 per cent. The prevailing physical conditions,
temperature, and relative humidity of the dryer
and ambient conditions were monitored using
thermometers and relative humidity sensors located
at strategic points within the solar collectors/heat
storage unit and drying chamber. A similar quantity
and size of tomatoes was spread outside using the
traditional open-air sun drying method as a control.
The moisture content of the sample was determined
from weights of samples before and after drying
by an oven at 80 per cent wet basis. The loss on
product weight is assumed to be equivalent to
product moisture loss during drying.
The dryer’s performance parameters were
evaluated from the testing results using Equation
(1) and Equation (2) below.
Amount of moisture to be removed: .....(1)
Tomato drying rate: Wdr = ....... (2)
where, Ww = Amount of moisture removed, kg;
Wg = Initial mass of wet tomato to be dried, kg; Mi
= Initial ``moisture content, %; Mf = Final moisture
content, %; Wdr = Average drying rate, kg h-1; Td
= Total drying time, h.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result (Table 1) showed that a maximum
temperature of about 49o C is obtainable in empty
chamber of solar dryer compared to maximum open
air temperature of 38oC and the temperature varied
with the time of the day. The temperature obtained
in this work was higher than the temperature range
of 30-450 C for drying foods and fruits.

Table 1. Empty chamber temperature and open air temperature.

Time of the Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Average
day Solar Open sun Solar Open sun Solar Open sun Solar Open sun
Dryer Dryer Dryer Dryer
09.00 25 25 26 26 26 25 25.6 25.3
10.00 33 27 31 28 31 27 31.6 27.3
11.00 35 28 35 29 36 30 35.3 29
12.00 37 30 38 32 39 33 38 31.6
13-00 39 32 41 35 42 35 40.6 34
14.00 49 38 48 37 48 38 48.3 37.6
15.00 42 35 45 38 44 38 43.6 37
16.00 41 34 42 35 41 34 41.3 34.3
17.00 37 29 38 30 38 30 37.6 29.6

30 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33

 Bhuyan et al
Fig 1. Temperature curve for solar dryer empty
chamber and open air
Figure 1 showed the obtained temperature
profile for empty chamber similar to those obtained
by Adejumo and Bamgboye (2004) with high
average temperature of about 49o C.
The data (Table 2) showed that the final moisture
content of tomato at the end of the three days is
lower in the solar dryer than that in the open air.
This was because of the raised chamber temperature
and relative humidity of the open air. The dryer was
found to dry the products to safe storage moisture
content of 4 per cent for long period in three days
drying which is not obtainable in the open air sun
drying in three days. The dryer was able to reduce
moisture content of tomato from initial moisture
content of 93 per cent wet basis to 4 per cent in
three days with effective drying time of 24 h and
drying rate of 0.03833 kg/hrwhereas the traditional
sun drying was able to reduce moisture content of
tomato from initial moisture content of 93 per cent
wet basis to 4 percent in five days with drying time
of 34 hr and drying rate of 0.0272 kg/ hr.
Fig 2 Weight reduction curve for tomato
31 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33
Fig 3 Drying curve for solar dryer and open air
Figure 2 and 3 showed the pattern of weight
reduction and drying curve in both solar dryer and
open air during drying of tomato slices. Extra 10
hr or nearly additional 2d were required to attain
desirable moisture content of tomato slices for safe
storage and use. Weight reduction was also at faster
rate in solar dryer in comparison to open air as
visualised in figure 2. The open air tray was slower
in drying than that of the solar dryer (Adejumo and
Bamgboye, 2004).
Despite the fact that the dryer evaluation was
carried out in January under low temperature of 25-
380 C and a high mean relative humidity of 80–90
per cent , which covers a period of crop harvest and
processing, the dryer attained a higher temperature
range of 25-490 C.
The solar dryer resulted in the shortest drying
time to meet desired moisture content of tomato
slices (4% wet basis), which corresponds to the
highest drying rate comparing to open drying
method. Although the initial investment of dryer
was higher the overall drying efficiency was
more than two times higher in case of solar dryer
compared to open drying.
The greatest moisture reduction was observed
to have occurred between 11.00 to 15.00 PM daily
when the solar intensity and collector drying air
temperature was the greatest. The samples dried in
the solar dryer were clean and of high quality with
no contamination through dust or insect and did
not change colour while those under open air sun
drying showed changes in colour indicating signs
 Comparative Study between Solar Dryer and Open Sun dried
Table 2. Solar dryer performance continues that the solar dryer dried faster than the natural
drying at 08 hr/day. open sun drying method with drying chamber
Time Weight of sample/g Moisture content
temperature of up to 490c. The solar energy can
(WB)/% be harnessed and used to dry tomatoes especially
Solar Open sun Solar Open
during crop harvest. Tomatoes dried under the solar
Dryer Dryer sun dryer gives high quality products and 50 per cent
Day-1
time savings than open air sun drying. The results
showed a considerable advantage of solar dryer
9 1000 1000 93 93
over the traditional open sun drying method in term
11 908 987 84.5 91.8
of drying rate and less risk for spoilage.
13 826 927 76.7 86.3
15 712 838 66 77.8 REFERENCES
17 671 795 62.5 74.3 Adejumo AOD and Bamgboye AI (2004). Development
Day-2 and evaluation of a batch solar dryer under Ibadan
climate. Proceeding Nigerian Institution of Agricultural
9 597 690 55.4 64 Engineers, 26: 412-423.
11 462 604 42.2 55.5 Basunai MA and Abe T (2001). Thin layer solar drying
13 368 533 33 48.6 characteristics of rough rice under natural convection. J
15 330 485 29.5 43.7 Food Engg 47(4): 295-301.
17 290 438 25.6 39.3 Durance TE and Wang JH (2002). Energy consumption,
density, and rehydration rate of vacuum microwave- and
Day-3
hot-air convection-dehydrated tomatoes. J Food Sci 67
9 198 395 17.8 36 (6):2212.
11 120 358 10.8 32.5 Fellows PJ (2009). Food processing technology principles and
13 96 308 8.9 27.5 practices (3rded.). Boca Raton: Wood head Publishing
15 70 276 6.4 24.6 Limited and CRC Press LLC.
17 45 220 4 19.8 Gupta A , Kawatra A and Sehgal S (2011). Physical-chemical
properties and nutritional evaluation of newly developed
Day-4
tomato genotypes. African J Food Sci and Tech 2(7) 167-
9 193 17.3 172
11 160 14.5 Indian Horticulture Database. 2011. National Horticulture
13 130 11.4 Board, Department of Agriculture and cooperation,
15 98 8.5 Government of India. www. nhb.gov.in
17   76   6.1 Jayathunge KGLR, Kapilarathne RANS, Thilakarathne
BMKS, Fernando MD, Palipane KB and Prasanna PHP
Day-5 (2012). Development of a methodology for production of
9 65 5.2 dehydrated tomato powder and study the acceptability of
11   52   4 the product. J Agri Tech 8(2): 765-773.
Kumar V, Singh BR, Singh S, Suresh C and Sweta (2015).
of deterioration in quality. It was concluded that the A Review on Tomato Drying by Different Methods with
solar dryer increased the drying rate significantly. Pretreatments. Int J Food and Fermentation Tech 5(1):
Hence, solar drier was found to be technically and 15-24.
economically suitable for drying of tomatoes under Lahsasni S, Kouhila M, Mahrouz M and Jaouhari JT
the specific conditions. (2004). Drying kinetics of prickly pear fruit (Opuntia
ficus indica). J Food Eng 61: 173-179.

CONCLUSION Maini SB and Kaur C (2000). New Developments in

Processing of Horticultural Crops. In Souvenir of
The result of the performance evaluation showed
32 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33
 Bhuyan et al
“National Seminar on Hi-Tech Horticulture” organized
by NAAS and Hort. Soc. of India, New Delhi and IIHR,
Bangalore ( 2000). 104-109.
Mangal JL and Siddiqui S (2000). Post-harvest Technology
of Vegetable : Present Status and Future Strategies
on Emerging Scenario in Vegetable Research and
Development. Research Periodicals and Book Publishing
House, India. 239.
Nadia B, Mudassir AB, Basharat ND and Manzoor AS (2014)
Effect of different drying methods on the quality of
tomatoes. Adv in Food Sci 36(2) .
Prakash V (2000). New Development in Processing of
Horticultural Crops. In Abstracts published in National
Seminar on Hi-Tech. Horticulture organized by NAAS
and Hort. Soc. of India, New Delhi and IIHR, Bangalore.
Abstr. No. 64: 159.
Shahnawaz M, Sheikh SA, Soomro AH, Panhwar AA and
Khaskheli SG (2012) Quality characteristics of tomatoes
(Lycopersicon esculentum) stored in various wrapping
materials. African J Food Sci and Tech 3(5): 123-128.
Received on 23/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

33 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 28-33

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 34-37 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00066.7

Consumer Acceptance of Household Articles Developed through

Recycled Agro textiles
Pooja Bhatt*, Anita Rani and Sudha Jukaria
College of Home Science,
G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145 (Uttarakhand)

ABSTRACT
The textile technology has widened its purpose of safeguarding the agricultural products by offering
various textile materials that find application in various areas like agriculture, horticulture, fishery, etc.
Agro textiles are the textile materials used to protect, gather and store agro products. Govind Ballabh
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology has different farms where a variety of crops are grown
for research, instructional and commercial purposes. These agricultural farms utilized a variety of
agro textile materials to enhance the productivity of agro products. The major problem arose when the
agro textile materials add up to the solid waste production after their intended use. Hence, the present
study was an attempt to explore the application of used agro textile materials in household value added
products using the approach of sustainability through reuse, reduce and recycling of used materials. The
used textile materials were collected from various agricultural farms. Four value added products were
developed by the used materials collected from the farms namely, hanging basket, lampshade, coaster and
wind chime. The purpose of the study was to assess the consumer acceptability of the developed products
among the rural people. The products focused in awareness generation regarding the product development
from waste materials through the aspects of sustainability and were greatly accepted by the people.
Key Words: Agro textiles, Product development, Recycling, Sustainability.

INTRODUCTION monofil net, harvesting net, cold and frost control

The class of textiles used in the agriculture sector
is referred to as agro textiles. The development in
textiles and their industrial usage has led to the
growth and development of agro textiles. The era
of modernization and technological advancement
has greatly affected the agriculture and helped in
expansion of its horizons. Agro textiles serves
as a boost to the productivity in the textile sector
(Anonymous, 2017).
The agro textiles prevent the soil from drying
and help in increasing the yield. These improve
the quality of the agricultural produce and help the
farmers to minimize the use of harmful pesticides.
About 40 per cent energy can be saved by the usage
of greenhouses. The agro textiles find their use in
products like sunscreen, bird protection net, root
ball net, wind shield, insect protection meshes,
fabric, turf protection net, fishing and aquaculture
net, agro bags, erosion control blankets, mulch
blankets, basket liners, bio-rolls, roof green mats
and grow sticks (Subramaniam et al, 2009). The
vast use of agro textiles in agriculture also demands
the proper disposal of waste generated after its end
use. Thus, the concept of environmental goods
and services should be taken into consideration
by reusing the textile products of daily utility like
jute and polyethylene. Recycling and reusing of
textiles is regarded to bring huge ecological and
financial advantages. The agricultural wastes can
be used extensively in textile product development
which will eventually lead to increased income
generation of the people and will be able to provide
more employment opportunities. The waste can
be reutilized through product development. The

Corresponding Author’s Email: poojabhattalm@gmail.com

34 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 34-37

 Bhatt et al
product should be able to form a liaison between the
customer and the organization and should strengthen
their bond (Annacchino and Heinemann, 2003).
The value addition refers to a product that helps to
increase the value of the product in the market and
provide monetary gains. It also helps to increase
the profit margin involved in development of the
product (Chait, 2017). Siddiqui (2012) suggested
that green fashion products can be developed using
the principles of sustainability. The waste textile and
other waste materials were used for development
of green fashion products. The textile related waste
was recycled to develop the products having high
market demands.
Thus, the present study was planned to use
the agro textile waste of the university farms for
development of value-added products. The main
objective of the study was to assess the acceptance
of the developed recycled products among the
customers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Procurement of used textiles from the
agricultural farms
The available used textiles were collected
from the university farms, Pantnagar to plan the
development of value-added products by using
them. The various types of textile materials were
collected from the farms like storage bags (biaxially
oriented polypropylene bags, jute and cotton bags,
leno and polyethylene bags), nets (shade net, drag
net, fry net and cast net), sheets like polycarbonate
sheet, mulch sheet, cloth and polyvinyl chloride
tarpaulin, ropes (nylon and jute rope) and other
miscellaneous textile materials like bird reflective
tapes, plastic pipe, rubber gloves and hatching cloth.
Product Planning
The value-added household products were
planned like, hanging basket, wind chime,
Selection of respondents
lampshade and coasters for recycling and reuse of
the used textiles available in the agricultural farms.
village Gehna, Block Ramgarh and village Gethia,
The products were useful in the daily household
District Bhimtal.
35 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 34-37
chores and would decrease the expenditure incurred
in purchasing similar products from the market.
Cleaning of procured textile materials
The collected textile materials from the
university research farms were used materials thus
they needed cleaning. The woven textile materials
like jute and muslin were machine washed.
The non-woven textile materials like shade net,
polycarbonate sheet, polyethylene bag, mulch
sheet, bird reflective tape, polyethylene sacks and
biaxially oriented polypropylene bags were wiped
clean by the dampened cloth. This process helped
to enhance the suitability of textile materials for the
planned products.
Product preparation
The products were developed manually from the
used textile materials procured from the university
farms. The common processes used in making the
products involved stitching, pasting and material
shaping. Finally, the prepared products were
brushed to get finished effect.
Cost calculation and assessment of prepared
products
The cost of the prepared products was
calculated by adding up the expenses involved in
manufacturing the product. The expenses involved
the manufacturing cost and cost of materials used in
product development used for value addition.
The developed products were assessed on the
five- point rating scale by thirty respondents (from
the selected villages) based on six parameters and
weighted mean score (WMS). The parameters
on which consumer acceptability of the products
was assessed included parameters like aesthetic
appeal, design innovation, product utility, quality
and craftsmanship, suitability of cost and training
required in product development.
The respondents were randomly selected from
 Consumer Acceptance of Household Articles
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The weighted mean score was highest for
The products developed from the used textile coaster for aspects like suitability of cost (3.93).
materials collected from the agricultural research The majority of respondents also stated that they
farms are given in Figures 1-4 needed training in product development from waste
or used materials. The products were compared for
different parameters on the basis of their average
WMS obtained for different criteria of each product.
Fig 5 compares the average weighted mean scores
obtained by each of the developed product. It is clear
from the figure that lamp shade and coaster was
widely accepted by the respondents while hanging
basket had comparatively less acceptability. The
possible reason for high acceptability of lampshade
and coaster can be the use utility of product and less
cost of products as compared to market price.

Cost calculation of the developed products

from the used textile materials
The raw material charges and production
charges of each product were calculated and Fig. 5: Comparison between different products on
final cost calculation of products was done. The the basis of their average WMS obtained in different
parameters
estimated cost for hanging basket, wind chime,
All the products developed from waste agro
lampshade, coasters and doormat was calculated as
textiles were highly acceptable as utility articles
Rs. 121/-, Rs. 132/-, Rs. 168/-, Rs. 22/- and Rs. 90/-
with design innovation. It was apparent from the
, respectively. Thus, the lampshade had highest
Fig. 6 that the design innovation parameter obtained
cost as compared to other developed products while
highest average weighted mean score while the
coasters had lowest calculated cost. The high cost
suitability of cost obtained least average weighted
of lampshade and hanging basket was due to the
mean score.
cost of electric and metallic wires respectively used
in it. The possible reason stated for high acceptability
was that the products developed were innovative
The weighted mean score was highest for
and aesthetically appealing but the cost of the
lampshade and coaster on the aspect of aesthetic
products were considered high. The products were
appeal (4.46) while weighted mean score was
developed from used textile materials which made
highest for wind chime and coaster on the aspects
the respondents believe the cost of the products to
like design innovation (4.4),hanging basket and
be comparatively high. The figure clearly shows that
coaster on product utility (4.06) and lampshade on
the products developed from used textile materials
quality and craftsmanship (4.33) (Table 1).
procured from the agricultural research farms had

36 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 34-37

 Bhatt et al

Table 1. Weighted mean scores on different parameters for products developed from used textile
materials.
Product Name Weighted mean score of different parameters
Aesthetic Design Product Quality and Suitability of Overall
Appeal Innovation Utility Craftsmanship Cost WMS

Hanging Basket 4.13 4.2 4.06 4.03 3.23 3.93

Wind Chime 4.1 4.4 3.96 4.1 3.46 4
Lampshade 4.46 4.5 4.3 4.33 3.76 4.27
Coaster 4.46 4.4 4.06 4.2 3.93 4.21
Overall WMS 4.28 4.37 4.09 4.16 3.59

good acceptability among the respondents. They
would prefer to buy the products when available in
the market as the WMS value for most parameters
was above 2.5 i.e., more than half of highest WMS
of 5 rating.
among the respondents. The products grabbed
the attention of respondents due to the aspects of
sustainability and design innovation. Further, it also
carves a path to generate a source of income and
supports empowerment. Also, it would be useful
to develop products from the agro textile materials
which will surely cut down the amount of textile
material supposed to be disposed off.

REFERENCES
Anonymous (2012). http://fashionarun.page.tl/
AGRICULTURAL-TEXTILES. htm. Retrieved on 8
February, 2017.
Subramaniam V, Poongodi R G and Veena V (2009). Agro
Fig.6: Comparison between different parameters textiles: production, properties and potential. Retrieved
assessed for products on the basis of their obtained fromhttp://www.indiantextilejournal.com/articles/
FAdetails.asp?id=1999. Retrieved on 8 March, 2017.
average WMS
Annacchino A and Elsevier H (2003). New Product
Development, from Initial Idea to Product Management.
CONCLUSION Elsevier Publications. pp. 88-108.
The used, defective and damaged textile
Chait J (2017). Value addition. Retrieved from https://
materials were collected from the university research w w w. t h e b a l a n c e . c o m / v a l u e - a d d e d - p r o d u c t s -
farms. These materials collected were reused or definition-2538297. Retrieved on 10 June, 2017.
recycled for development for the household utility Siddiqui W (2012). Green fashion-issue awareness and
items like lampshade, doormat, wind chime and product development. Thesis, MSc. G.B. Pant University
coasters. The developed products were assessed for of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar.
their consumer acceptability among the rural people Received on 03/05/2019 Accepted on 14/10/2019
of selected villages. The products were acceptable

37 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 34-37

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 38-42 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00067.9

Design and Development of an Expert Support System for

Fertilizer Calculation
V G Sunil *, Berin Pathrose** and K Prasanth***
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Malappuram
Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Thrissur 680 651 ( Kerala)

ABSTRACT
Expert support system has been recognized as a powerful tool to store human knowledge in computers for the
purpose of making expert’s knowledge available to users. The present study was an attempt to design anexpert
system on fertilizer calculation for 100 crops covered in the package of practices of Kerala. The software
development activities were carried out in five stages. During the first stage the decision making situation was
studied in depth. This was followed by developing the prototype design and defining of variablesas a second
stage. The database was developed in the third stage. The software design was completed and validated in
the fourth stage. The final validation of the tool with the end users was done at the final stage. The developed
software was able to give general and soil test based fertilizer recommendation. The recommendations were
given for a single plant/unit area as well as for the whole field. The fertilizers can also be selected according to
the local availability. The final software was made available in the domain www.farmextensionmanager.com
Key Words: Expert system, Farm extension manager, Fertilizer advisor, Fertilizer calculator.

INTRODUCTION support systemsfor farm management. Decision

Expert system combine heuristics with support systems can either support the decision
computer graphics and hypertext to provide need maker in an on-going decision situation or it can
based and highly specific information.These new prepare the decision-maker to perform better in
tools will help decision makers by reducing the the future through decision training (Alenljung,
time and human resources required for analyzing 2008). In designing expert systems, knowledge
complex alternative decisions.In India, agricultural forms the key component. The way knowledge
sector seeks attention and meticulous planning is collected, synthesized and represented mainly
to enjoy its benefits of increased productivity explains the acceptability of the system (Sunil
growth Vandanatyagi (2012); Mahadevan and and Vijayaragavan, 2009). Hence, proper insight
Renuka, 2003). Educating and training the farmers into the user behaviour during decision-making is
appropriately and reorienting them to take up new very much important. To be more specific, a socio-
activities through adaptation of new technologies psychological and extension approach is basically
are of utmost importance. needed in knowledge engineering. However, this
The emerging technologies are making the job is assigned to computer professionals with little
agriculture ubiquitous and allow potential for input from extension organization and most of these
enriching it with computer-assisted decision experts were found going behind complex software
programmes.
Corresponding Author’s Email: sunil.vg@kau.in
*Assistant Professor, Communication Centre, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Thrissur District, Kerala
** Assistant Professor, Agricultural Entomology, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University,Vellanikkara
***Assistant Professor, KVK Malappuram, Kerala Agricultural University, KCAET Campus, Tavanur, Malappuram District

38 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 38-42

 Sunil et al

Table 1. Problems in the farmer level fertilizer usage.

Sr. Parameter No of
No respondents
(%)
1 There is over usage of nitrogenous fertilizers and under use of potassium fertilizers 83
2 Fertilizer dealers opinion are mostly taken in fertilizer decision 81
3 Liming and fertilizer application are often done simultaneously 76
4 Micro nutrients are not used as per recommendation 71
5 The fertilizer are not applied in correct time and stage 62
6 Farmers are going behind complex fertilizers in most cases 60
7 Some farmers feel organic fertilizers are only needed 56
8 Fertilizer are many times applied without proper soil cover 51

A good fertilizer support system should offer
scope for giving field specific recommendation
on the amount, time, method and type of fertilizer
to be used. There are many fertilizer information
systems available. However, most of them fail to
capture the tacit knowledge and practical needs of
farmers (Lindblom et al, 2017).Some information
system will give recommendation on a single crop
only. The recommendations are mostly in straight
fertilizer format. There is a lack of a comprehensive
system that can work for many crops. So, in the
present study the design and validation of anexpert
and decision support system was undertaken
for fertilizer calculation with the above said
requirements.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The expert system for fertilizer calculation was
developed for the state of Kerala. Before designing,
an in depth analysis of the user requirements and
drawbacks of the existing systems were studied.
The required data were collected from the three
groups of respondents namely farmers, extension
personnel and research scientists and agricultural
students. 
Agile software development is an approach to
software development under which requirements
and solutions evolve through the collaborative
effort of self-organizing and cross-functional teams
and their end users (Collier, 2011). It was used in
the present study for design and development of
an expert and decision support system for fertilizer
calculations. A total of 100 crops included in the
package of practices recommendation of Kerala
Agricultural University were selected for the
development of the fertilizer calculator based on
need analysis. For each crop there can be more
than one recommendation for different growing
conditions. The research scientists and secondary
data sources were used to arrive at the different
recommendations. A total of 350 types of fertilizer
recommendations were identified through the
process.
The software development activities were
carried out in five stages. During the first stage the
decision making situation was studied in depth.
This was followed by developing the prototype
design and operationalization of variables. The
database was developed in the third stage. The
software design was completed and validated in the
fourth stage. The final validation of the tool with the
end users was done at the final stage.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of the decision making situation
The farmer level fertilizer usage behavior was
studied from the selected respondent group (Table
1). The result showed that there was over usage of
nitrogenous fertilizers and under use of potassium
fertilizers among farmers (83 %). It could also read

39 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 38-42

 Design and Development of an Expert Support System
Table 2. Issues with the existing fertilizer calculators.
Sr. No Parameter No of respondents
(%)
1 Fertilizer calculators are crop specific 83
2 Options for selection of fertilizers is rarely available 81
3 Some calculators works only in offline mode 76
4 There is a need for login before taking recommendation 71
5 Blanket recommendations are only provided 62
6 Micro nutrient recommendation are not given 60
7 Details of fertilizers are not provided 56
8 Soil testing ranges and interpretation ignored 51

from the results that fertilizer dealers opinionswere Design of a prototype model for the tool
mostly taken by the farmer in fertilizer decision (81 The prototype design of the interactive tool on
%). fertilizer was done at four basic layers (Fig.1.). The
The fertilizer calculator was considered as an first layer asks for the crop specific details. Here,
option to help the extension workers and farmers the users have to take from the broad crop group
calculate the fertilizer requirement correctly. the required crop and variety. Once, the selection is
Hence, it was decided to take their response on the made, they have to enter the extent of cultivation of
existing fertilizer calculators. A detailed study of 7 the crop. Based on the data entered, the system works
fertilizer calculators developed by various agencies out the nutrient recommendation as per Package of
and relevant to the state of Kerala was made by the Practice of Kerala Agricultural University.
selected respondents (Table 2). The second layer is the soil details. Here, the
The result showed that most of the fertilizer user can enter the soil test values for nitrogen,
calculators were crop specific (83 %). This was phosphorous and potassium and also the soil type.
followed by option for selecting fertilizer according Once the values are entered, the system will modify
to local availability is rarely available in most of the the nutrient recommendation in accordance with
calculators (81 %). the soil test values. It is designed as optional menu,
and hence the users can also skip it.
The third layer is the precision details. Here the
user can go for the blanket recommendation or the
soil test based recommendation. Once, the selection
is made, the system displays the appropriate
recommendation. The recommendation will be
presented in per plant/unit area and also for the
total field. The nutrient recommendation will be
converted to fertilizer format and will be displayed
in accordance with the stages of application. The
fertilizer recommendation is given in the straight
fertilizers format as it is cheaper.
The fertilizer details form the fourth layer
Fig.1. Prototype design of the fertilizer calculator for the system. Here, the user can select market

40 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 38-42

 Sunil et al

available fertilizer and work out their quantity as The development of software was done in such a
per recommendation. The system will show the way so as to work both in offline and online mode.
required nutrient for auto adjustment. Further, the And based on the analysis of data structure, it found
fertilizer button will give specific details of the necessary to develop the software in three basic
fertilizer. layers. The three basic layers include the user side
The prototype model starts working when the interface layer, the business logic layer and the
user makes an entry to the first layer. Once the database layer at the bottom.
user enters all the needed details, the system will The user side interface layer represents the
take the recommendation for the concerned crop layer of the programme that appears in front of us.
and variety and multiply it with the number of The user interface was designed using Hyper Text
plant or area to arrive at the nutrient requirement. Markup Language. The business logic layer acts as
Once the process is complete the system will again the connecting link between the database layer and
convert the recommended nutrient into various client side interface layer. The request from the users
fertilizer format taking the conversion factor from are processed and replied through this layer. The
the database. Hereafter, it will further modify business logic application layer for the programme
the recommendation to splits of application and was developed through Java script. Database layer
places the results in the correct space. In case of represent the area where the basic data to be used by
soil test based recommendation, the interactive tool the system was stored. The data base layer for the
will modify the blanket recommendation based system was developed in java script language.
on soil test values. So, even if the farmer knows The software thus developed tested in three
the soil test value for a crop, he can generate the stages. During the first stage the working of the
recommendation for other crops also. programme were tested. In the second stage, the
Preparation of database for the tool language parts of the software were checked for
The database for the tool was developed in spelling and grammatical errors. In the third stage,
two different stages. During the first stage the the programmes were used in different computers
general recommendation of fertilizer for all crops with different operating systems to see its working.
was collected from package of practice textbooks The problems noticed were rectified every now and
and other literary sources. The recommendation then. And the final software was made available in
was hereafter standardized on a per plant basis by the domain www.farmextensionmanager.com
dividing it with the recommended spacing. A total Final testing and validation of the tool
of 200 number of recommendation was there for The final testing of the interactive tool was
100 crops. The total number of data combination done with a group of selected respondents. The
is 3500. In the next stage, efforts were made to respondents were first asked to calculate the quantity
collect ad-hoc recommendation table for converting of fertilizers needed for any one of the crops from
soil test values into fertilizer format from soil test their area based on standard recommendation. Then
laboratory. Information on the nutrient content of they were asked to check their results with that of
various fertilizers and details of the same was also the system and find the difference. Hereafter, the
collected. respondents were asked to write their observations
Development of software materials about the system (Table 3).
Converting the theoretical design to computer The results showed that 95 per cent of
design is meant by the term software development. the respondents find that the soil test based

41 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 38-42

 Design and Development of an Expert Support System
Table 3. User response about the fertilizer calculator.
Sr. No Parameter No of respondents
(%)
1 Soil test based recommendation can be generated for most of the crops 95
2 Recommendations are available in various units like per plant, total area etc. 88
3 Stage wise fertilizer application recommendation is available 79
4 Users should be able to take recommendation according to market available 74
fertilizer combination
5 Details of chemical fertilizers such as nutrient content, action in soil etc. are 65
given
6 Options for comparing the cost of different fertilizer in terms of nutrient content 63
is available
7 The soil test classification parameters are clearly defined in the system 60
8 The software works online and is free to use 59

recommendation generation as most useful. The REFERENCES

calculation of fertilizer to specific area or per plant Anonymous (2016). Package of practices recommendations:
basis was the most useful (88 %). Based on the
results, it can be inferred that the overall design
of the interactive tool has a very high acceptance Alenljung B (2008). Envisioning a future decision support
among the respondents.
CONCLUSION
The present study was an attempt to design
an expert system on fertilizer calculation for 100
crops covered in the package of practice of Kerala.
The developed software was able to give blanket
fertilizer recommendation and soil test based
fertilizer recommendation. The fertilizers can also
be selected according to the local availability.
Majority of the respondents find that the soil test
based recommendation generation most useful.
Next to it, calculation of fertilizer to specific area/
unit was the most useful. Based on the results,
it can be inferred that the overall design of the
interactive tool has a very high acceptance among
the respondents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Department of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare,
Kerala for the financial assistance provided for the
project
crops 15 th
edition. Kerala Agricultural University,
Thrissur-392 p.
system for requirements engineering: A holistic and
human-centred perspective. Ph.D. Thesis, Department
of Computer and Information Science, Linko¨ping
University, Sweden.
Collier K W (2011). Agile Analytics: A Value-Driven Approach
to Business Intelligence and Data Warehousing. Addison-
Wesley Professional. pp.121.
Lindblom J, Lundstrom C, Ljung M and Jonsson A (2017).
Promoting sustainable intensification in precision
agriculture: review of decision support systems
development and strategies. Precision Agri 18: 309–331.
Mahadevan and Renuka (2003). Productivity growth in
Indian agriculture: the role of globalization and economic
reform. Asia Pacific Dev J 10 (2): 57-72.
Sunil VG and Vijayaragavan K (2009). Validation of
Information and Decision Support System for its Utility
Among Different Users. Indian J. Ext Edu45(1 & 2): 94-
97.
Vandanatyagi (2012). India’s agriculture: challenges for
growth and development in present scenario. J Physical
and Soc Sci 2(5): 116-128.
Received on 13/11/2019 Accepted on 08/10/2019

42 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 38-42

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00068.0

Development of Dot-ELISA Technique for Estimation of Milk

Progesterone and Pregnancy Diagnosis using PVDF Membrane
Ramesh Kumar*1, Taruna Thakur2 and R L Prasad3
Department of Biochemistry, Ranchi Veterinary College, BAU, Ranchi (Bihar)

ABSTRACT
An analytical hormone separation method and dot enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (dot-ELISA) for
quantitation of hormone are described. For extraction of progesterone from milk chloroform methanol
mixture was used. For Dot ELISA, conjugate was prepared by immunoglobulin isolated from whole serum
by ammonium sulphate precipitation method and conjugated with Horse radish Peroxidase by modified
gluteraldehyde procedure. For immobilization of progesterone to PVDF membrane a number of solvents
were tried viz., Methanol, Methanol + Carbonate-bicarbonate buffer, Methanol + PBS, Ethanol and 70 per
cent isopropanol. On observation following Dot ELISA procedure, 70 per cent isopropanol was selected
as best. Dot ELISA of serially diluted progesterone was performed to get the best titre of conjugate selected
for further studies. For standard colour of dot with different progesterone concentration, Dot ELISA
with varying concentration of progesterone was performed. The new technique was thus developed for
estimation of progesterone using PVDF membrane and 70 per cent isopropanol as solvent. The developed
Dot ELISA was also used for estimation of progesterone and pregnancy diagnosis from cattle milk sample
and technique was validated. This techniques may be useful for estimation of other steroid hormones.
Key Words:- Anti progesterone antibody, Progesterone, ELISA, Isopropanol, PVDF, PBS

INTRODUCTION In the current scenario for higher milk production

Sterols are hydrophobic compounds which are
practically insoluble in aqueous media and poorly
adsorb to polystyrene ELISA plates. Determination
of the existence, specificity, and quantity of Ab to
sterols, such as progesterone, requires a sensitive
and reproducible technique for measuring anti-sterol
Ab that accommodates the specific hydrophobic
properties of sterols. In this paper we describe
a dot ELISA technique for both qualitative and
quantitative assessment of progesterone using anti
progesterone-Ab, its quantitation and utilization for
pregnancy determination.
Dot ELISA performed on sheets of nitrocellulose
or polyvinylidene are comparatively
simpler to perform, gave results quickly,
could be assessed qualitatively and requires less
knowledge of technical skills as compared to above
all techniques.
Corresponding Author’s Email: drramesh.nvc@gmail.com
in the world the accurate and earliest pregnancy
diagnosis plays a vital role for an efficient cattle
breeding programme. Increased calving interval
leads to serious financial loss in form of low
milk yield over whole life of cattle and less no of
calves produced, hence, it became very essential to
diagnose non pregnant animals as early as possible
so that profitable decision could be made about
rebreeding / treatment or culling animal. Since the
knowledge of the fact that progesterone level in
blood or milk reflects the ovarian activity during
oestrous cycle or pregnancy (Donaldson et al, 1970)
its detection around 23-25d after insemination has
been extensively used for pregnancy/non pregnancy
detection (Heap et al,1976). The present study was
therefore, conducted to monitor the progesterone
level in serum and milk by EIA (HRP enzyme)
method at various stages of oestrous cycle (0, 12
and 21 day post A.I. / service). Besides these the

43 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Kumar et al

earliest pregnancy diagnosis at farmer’s level/fieldlyophilized whole serum ((Anti progesterone

condition is important in economic development whole serum, sigma, USA) by reconstituting in
of farmers and as such the work on development 1ml distilled water. This was then precipitated with
of Dot ELISA for early pregnancy diagnosis had equal volume of saturated ammonium sulphate
been taken that are cheaper (Svobodova et al, 2013) solution by adding drop by drop with gentle stirring.
requires less technical knowledge and that could The precipitate was kept overnight at 40C and was
be used for development of various kits for on-the- centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 min at 40C. The
spot estimation of results that appears in form of precipitate containing globulin was resuspended
coloured dot, thus visual estimation of the result in distilled water to restore 1/3rd of the original
could be done under field condition. serum volume and was reprecipitated as above. The
globulin containing precipitate was dialyzed at 40C
MATERIALS AND METHODS in carbonate bicarbonate buffer pH 6.8 till free from
Milk sample ammonium sulphate as tested by Nessler’s reagent
Milk and blood samples were collected from (Glaxo, India). Protein estimation of the dialysate
8 normal cycling healthy cattle during four stages was done by the technique of Lowery0 et al (1951).
of reproduction viz., 0 day (day of oestrus), 12th The dialysate was then stored at -20 C till further
day (diestrus) and 21st day after A.I. / natural analysis.
service (Table 1). All the animals were checked for Conjugation of immunoglobulin with enzyme
different stages of oestrous cycle and confirmation Horse-radish-peroxidase
of pregnancy was done by per rectal examination Conjugation of immunoglobulin with Horse
(45-60 days after A.I.). radish peroxidase (Sigma, U.S.A.) was done by
Blood sample modified gluteraldehyde procedure (Avrameas and
Blood was collected at 8.00 a.m.in sterilized Ternynck, 1971 and Prasad, 1983). Horse radish
test tube by jugular vein puncture with the help of peroxidase (2 mg in 0.095 ml of 0.1 M phosphate
sterilized needle and it was kept at room temperaturebuffer pH 6.8) was mixed with 0.005 ml of 25 percent
gluteraldehyde and incubated at room temperature
in slanting position till serum oozes out. It was then
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes to separate for 18 hours. The mixture was dialyzed against one
the serum. The sera samples were stored at – 200 C liter of 0.05 M carbonate bicarbonate buffer pH -
in sterilized glass stoppered vials. All the animals 9.5 at 40C containing 0.1 M NaCl. The dialyzed
were watched for any irregularity, repeat breeding peroxidase was mixed with 4 mg of anti IgG. It
or abortion. was kept at 40C for 24 hours and mixed frequently.
The L-lysine was added at the rate of 5mg/ml of
Isolation of Immunoglobulin from serum HRP immunoglobulin conjugate solution and left
Immunoglobulin was precipitated from for 2 hours at 40C. It was dialyzed against 0.01 M

Table 1. Sample collection schedule from cattle during different stages of oestrus cycle.
Stages of Oestrus Cycle
Total
Sr. During luteal Pregnancy
Sample Species Number of On the day of On day 21 after
No. phase (day diagnosis
Animals Oestrus (0 day) A.I./service
12) (Day 45)
1. Milk Cattle (CB) 8 8 8 5 5
2. Serum Cattle (CB) 8 8 8 5 5

44 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Development of Dot-ELISA
phosphate buffer saline (PBS); pH 7.2 with several dried and 100µl anti progesterone conjugate (1:50
changes. The volume of dialysate was measured dilution with 0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.2 with
and conjugate was precipitated with equal volume BSA 1%) was added into each well and kept for
of saturated chilled ammonium sulphate solution 6 hours at room temperature (370C) in humid
at 40C. The precipitate was dialyzed against PBS chamber. The washing was repeated thrice and
pH 7.2 until the solution was free from ammonium subsequently 100µl of freshly prepared substrate
sulphate. The conjugate was stored at 40C in amber (o-phenylenediamine, Sigma U.S.A.) 30 mg and
coloured bottle after addition of bovine serum hydrogen peroxide 20 µl, 30% W/V were dissolved
albumin (BSA) at the rate of 5 %. in 100 ml 0.2M phosphate buffer pH 6.0) was added
and the plate was incubated for one hour at 370C.
Preparation of standard progesterone for plate The reaction was stopped by adding 2N H2SO4 and
ELISA reading was recorded colorimetrically at 490 nm
Five milligram of progesterone (Sigma U.S.A.) (680 micro plate reader, Bio-Rad laboratories).
was dissolved in 50 ml methanol (Glaxo India). It
was allowed to equilibrate overnight (stock standard Preparation of standard curve
progesterone). Final working standard progesterone Standard curve for each blood and serum
solution was prepared containing 1, 5, 10, 20, 30 immunoassay was prepared. For this 100 µl of
and 40 ng/ml in methanol. standard progesterone of different concentration
(5, 10, 20, 40 and 50ng) was poured in microtitre
Assay procedure well in duplicate. The well was air dried and 100µl
Estimation of progesterone from serum and of methanol was added in each well and again air
milk was done by plate ELISA as per the method dried. Following this 100 µl of 0.1 M carbonate-
described by Akhtar (1988). bicarbonate buffer pH 9.6 was added to each well.
Charging of microtitre plate The microplate was sealed and incubated at 370C
Sample comprising 100 - 500 µl of serum or in humid chamber and further the procedure was
25-100 µl of milk was extracted using 2 – 10 ml followed as described earlier. Standard curve was
and 0.5 -2 ml of petroleum ether (Glaxo, India), prepared using the optical density at different
respectively and 0.25 ml of distilled water was progesterone concentration.
added in each test tube. It was mixed thoroughly Development of Dot ELISA technique for
for 30 seconds. The tube was frozen and ether layer progesterone estimation and pregnancy
was transferred to another tube and was dried at diagnosis
450C and 0.1 ml of methanol was added in each
tube and mixed well. It was transferred to microtitre Selection of proper solvent for binding of
plate and was air dried. Following this, 100 µl of progesterone to PVDF (Poly vinylidene
0.1 M carbonate-bicarbonate buffer pH 9.6 (coating difluoride) membrane
buffer) was pipetted into each well. The micro titre Experiment was carried out (Table - 3) in
plate was sealed / covered and kept for 3 hours / different solvent system with respect to its spread
overnight at 370C in humid chamber. on PVDF (pore size 0.2µm, Whatman International
U.K.) membrane and development of colour
Immunoassay of progesterone using HRP following the dot-ELISA. The different solvents
enzyme conjugate tried were 1 (Methanol), 2 (Methanol + 0.1 M
Previously charged microplate was washed Carbonate-bicarbonate buffer, pH 9.6), 3 (Methanol
3 times with 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 + 0.1 M PBS, pH 9.6), 4 (Ethanol) and 5 (70 %
containing 0.05% tween 20. The plate was shaken, isopropanol). Based on the trial, 70 % isopropanol

45 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Kumar et al

was selected as best as compared to other solvents carefully in a conical flask and dried in vacuum at
for dissolving progesterone and binding. 450-500 C. The content of the flask was then collected
with 1 ml of 70% isopropanol by repeated rinsing in
Selection of extraction method for progesterone a collecting tube (conical bottom). The isopropanol
from milk was again evaporated to dryness in vacuum at 450-
The different methods tried was 1 (Ether 500 C and the content was then transferred to PVDF
extraction, 2 ml ether + 1 ml milk + 0.25 ml DW), membrane using 5 – 15 µl 70 % isopropanol by
2 (Chloroform only, 2 ml chloroform + 1 ml milk + multiple dotting as described earlier.
0.25 ml DW), 3 (Isopropanol only, 2 ml isopropanol
+ 1 ml milk + 0.25 ml DW), 4 (Chloroform:methanol, Preparation of standard progesterone solution
2 ml 2:1 chloroform methanol + 1 ml milk + 0.25 for Dot ELISA
ml DW) and 5 (Chloroform:methanol, Folch et al Standard progesterone (0.001 gm) was mixed
1957 method) and result were recorded. As per in 10 ml of 70% isopropanol to prepare stock
observation two solvent systems were selected. progesterone solution. Twenty micro liter (20
µl) of stock progesterone solution was mixed in
Extraction of progesterone from milk by ether 1 ml of 70% isopropanol to prepare the working
for Dot-ELISA (Prasad 1983 and Akhtar 1988) progesterone solution. Working progesterone
Two milliliter (2 ml) of ether was mixed with solution (10 µl) was then further diluted with 990,
1 ml milk and 0.25 ml of water. It was mixed 490, 240, 190, 90, 40 & 15 µl of 70% isopropanol to
vigoursly for 30 seconds and left for freezing under get required concentration of 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 100
deep freeze for 2-3 hr. There after the top layer was & 200ng progesterone in each 5 µl of final solution
decanted / removed in a collecting tube and was air respectively. The 5 µl of final dilution as described
dried / dried in vacuum. The left over substances above was used for transferring the different (5, 10,
was reconstituted in 10-15 µl 70 % isopropanol and 20, 30, 50, 100 & 200ng) concentration of standard
transferred on PVDF membrane on encircled wells progesterone on to PVDF membrane. Colour
using micropipette slowly by repeated multiple intensity of the respective dots was studied further
dotting / charging, so that earlier dotted spots got following Dot ELISA procedure.
dried up by evaporation of solvents. The result
of transferred extract was studied following Dot Dilution (titre) of HRP antiprogesterone
ELISA procedure. conjugate for Dot ELISA
Conjugate (10 µl) was diluted in 190 µl of 0.1 M
Extraction of progesterone for Dot-ELISA from PBS pH 7.5 to obtain 1:20 times dilution. Further,
milk by Folch et al (1957) method 10 µl of 1:20 diluted conjugate was diluted with
To 19 ml of 2:1 Chloroform methanol (both 15, 40, 90, 240, 390 and 490 µl of 0.1 M PBS pH
Glaxo, India) mixture, 1 ml of milk was mixed 7.5 buffer to get 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, 1:800
in a conical glass stoppered flask, then shaken and 1:1000 times dilution respectively. The diluted
vigorously to dissolve all the lipid substances and conjugate was used in Dot ELISA to select the best
breakdown of proteolipids and filtered through titer using 20ng standard progesterone solution.
filter paper to remove non lipid impurities and left As per the intensity of colour, the best titre was
for few minutes for equilibration, then layered with selected.
4 ml of normal saline (0.9 % NaCl). The mixture
was again mixed several times by gentle inversion Development of Dot ELISA procedure for
and transferred into a separating funnel and kept progesterone estimation
overnight for separation of Chloroform and watery PVDF membrane was cut into ribbon shape and
layer. Lower chloroform layer was collected was mounted on a clean grease free glass slide (Fig.

46 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Development of Dot-ELISA
4), to provide it solid support and was fixed on both of colour of dots + (positive) grades was awarded
top and bottom of slide using non reactive rubber and result was recorded.
based adhesive (Dendrite, Chandra’s Chemicals
Enterprises (P) Ltd, Kolkata, India) so as to RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
prevent its displacement. Then required number of Standard curve for Plate Elisa
encircled area (well) was drawn with lead pencil. The standard curve was drawn with varying
Each well was then charged with 5 µl each of 70% concentration of standard progesterone using HRP
isopropanol in blank, standard progesterone solution anti-progesterone conjugate following plate ELISA
in standard well and extracted progesterone in test technique (Akhtar, 1988). The standard curve
wells. The dotting of samples was done slowly by was drawn using optical density against known
several charging and using small droplets so as to concentration of progesterone (Fig.1) The curve
prevent its spread out of well before drying. After appeared almost straight line. While using HRP
complete charging, the strip was left for complete conjugate, a great precaution was taken as Horse
evaporation of isopropanol. Then rest sites around radish peroxidase is a light sensitive enzyme.
well was blocked with 5 percent BSA (Bovine However, alkaline phosphatase has also been used
serum albumin, Sigma, U.S.A.) in 0.1 M PBS pH as label with comparable sensitivity (Stanley et al,
7.5 buffer (Intapan et al 2003). The strip was then 1985 and Sauer et al, 1986). The quantitation of
incubation for 1 hour at room temperature (370C) progesterone upto the level of 4-8 pg/tube obtained
under humid condition. Subsequently 3 washing by various workers (Arnstadt et al 1981, Van-De-
was given with washing buffer 0.1 M PBS pH 7.5 Wiel and Koops 1982, Munro and Stabenfeldt,
containing 0.005 percent tween 20 and 1 washing 1984). They reported the use of HRP like our present
with 0.1 M PBS pH 7.5 buffer. Again, it was left findings which was found sensitivity of technique
in air till near dryness to remove excess of fluid. comparable to that of RIA.
Then, 5µl of 1:50 diluted HRP conjugate was
added on each well and left for incubation for 2 hr
at room temperature, subsequently washing was
repeated as above and excess fluid was removed in
air till near dryness. Then 5 µl of substrate (0.001
gm diaminobenzedine (Sigma USA) in 10 ml of
0.1 M PBS pH 7.5 and 50 µl of 38 % H2O2) was
added on each encircled well. This was then left
for incubation at room temperature under humid
condition till development of colour. Colour starts
developing within 2-3 minutes and reached to its
maximum intensity up to 15 min, thereafter no
much improvement was found. Reaction was
stopped after 30 min by washing with distilled
water. The results appeared in form of brown
dots and intensity of colour was an indicative of
concentration of progesterone in the sample, which
was compared with dot colour produced by the
standard progesterone solution for estimate on the
pregnancy diagnosis. Depending upon the intensity

47 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Kumar et al

Progesterone concentration in milk of pregnant concentration in comparison to the present findings.

cattle However Choi et al (1976) considered the cows to
Laing and Heap (1971) were the first to report be pregnant when the values exceeded 2.5 and 3.0
that progesterone levels in milk of cow reflected ng/ml respectively between 19 – 21d. Sato et al
the stages of oestrous cycle. On comparison with (1985) measured serum progesterone concentration
the standard curve the concentration of milk by EIA from day of insemination to 22nd day post
progesterone was found to be 19.99 ± 0.36 ng/ml as AI and found that concentration showed an increase
an indicative of pregnancy. While on 0 day and on from day 2nd post A.I. and remained high up to
12th day it was found to be 2.045 ± 0.11 and 15.02 ± day 22 in pregnant cows (1.2 to 8.2 ng/ml) which
0.10 ng/ml, respectively. While in serum Fig. 1. agrees with the present findings. There appears a
Standard curve for enzyme immune it was found general agreement among the workers that serum
to be 0.37 ± 0.02, 4.01 ± 0.91 assay of progesterone progesterone concentration does not decline to the
using HRP conjugate and 6.24 ± 0.12 ng/ml on 0 basal level between day 18 - 22 in pregnant cows as
day, 12th day and on 21st day, respectively (Table it occurs in non-pregnant subjects.
2). As per the present observation 19.99 ± 0.36 ng/ Keeping all the above points in view during the
ml milk progesterone concentration was taken as present investigation 19.99 ± 0.36 ng/ml of milk
standard hormone level for pregnancy diagnosis. progesterone was taken as standard hormone level
Using the above concentration of standard for pregnancy diagnosis.
progesterone, the colour intensity of the dot/spot
was developed in Dot ELISA for comparison on Selection of solvent for progesterone to PVDF
qualitative basis with respect to the progesterone All the earlier experiments for estimation
present in the milk samples. of progesterone were on ELISA plate or beads
Table 2. Progesterone concentration (ng/ml) in (Smersky et al, 2007 and Kaygusuzoglu et al,
milk and serum at various stages of oestrus cycle. 2010). Since no literature was available regarding
solvents for progesterone extraction from milk and
Progesterone Days of oestrus cycle its binding to PVDF membrane, hence different
Concentration 0 day 12th day 21st day solvents (1 Methanol), 2 (Methanol + Carbonate-
2.045 ± 15.02 ± 19.99 ±
bicarbonate buffer 0.1 M pH 9.6, 3 Methanol + PBS
Milk 0.1 M, pH 9.6, 4 Ethanol and 5 70 % isopropanol)
0.11 0.10 0.36
0.37 ± 4.01 ± 6.23 ±
were tried (Table 3). And Dot ELISA procedure
Serum was followed using 1:10 times diluted conjugate to
0.02 0.91 0.11
verify the binding of progesterone on PVDF.
The higher milk progesterone level was recorded
during luteal phase (Simersky, 2007). The level of Iit was observed that, when progesterone
progesterone keeps on rising if pregnancy persists. (standard) dissolved in methanol was transferred
The overall mean serum progesterone concentration on to PVDF membrane, it spreads out to a larger
was 0.37 + 0.02 ng/ml on day of oestrous and A.I. area beyond the well crossing even to other well
The progesterone concentration had been reported area and dries up quickly. Following Dot-ELISA
to increase from the day after insemination. Unlikely no result was obtained indicating there was no
the non pregnant cattle it does not decrease in progesterone present on the surface. To overcome
around 18-20 days in pregnant cows (Akhtar,1988). the binding problem, the carbonate-bicarbonate
However, variations in concentration during buffer 0.1M pH 9.6 was applied (Akhtar, 1988).
pregnancy have been reported by Esfandabadi et The result was again negative (Table 3). In the next
al (2007) who recorded higher serum progesterone trial the binding of progesterone to PVDF was tried

48 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Development of Dot-ELISA
Table 3. Selection of solvent for progesterone.
Solvent’s used Characteristics studied
Spread on PVDF Development of colour Results about bind-
on addition of conju- ing of progester-one
to PVDF
gate and substrate
Methanol Spread more and No -ve
faster
Methanol + 0.1 M Carbonate – Spread more No -ve
bicarbonate buffer pH 9.6
Methanol + PBS (0.1 M pH 9.6) Spread more No -ve
Ethanol Spread more No -ve
70% isopropanol Spread less and Yes +ve
slowly

by application of same concentration of PBS (0.1 M method compared to standard progesterone and
PBS pH 9.6) after transfer of progesterone to PVDF award of + grades.
in methanol. The result was again negative. Test result of No of + awarded
Further binding of progesterone was studied PVDF Dot to each dot based
by dissolving it in ethanol and transferring on to Elisa on intensity of
chromogen
PVDF, this also results in larger spread area and fast
Blank -
evaporation.
The final trial was conducted using 70%
Standards (20 ng) ++++
isopropanol as solvent. It spread slowly on to the
membrane, which helped in delimiting it to well area
only. Its slow evaporation (drying) allowed binding Progesterone ex- ++++
of progesterone to PVDF membrane. Following tracted by chloro-
this, dot-ELISA procedure was followed, which form (Folch et al.
gave result by formation of brown dots, indicating 1957) extraction
method
progesterone binding to PVDF membrane (Table
3, Fig. 2 & 3). The present finding was similar to
observation of Aniagolu, et al 1995, who used in the ether (Table 5, Fig. 2) was used for extraction
case of cholesterol binding to PVDF membrane. (Akhtar, 1988). Progesterone was extracted with the
Hence, 70 % isopropanol was selected for further formation of two separate layers of liquids. But on
study. evaporation of ether large quantities (10-20µl) of
lipidous material were left having oily appearance
Method for progesterone isolation from milk
when transferred to PVDF membrane. It spreads to
Progesterone being fat soluble has to be extracted
a larger area and evaporates slowly. On drying and
from milk in order to know the concentration. For
following normal
this a number of extraction methods were tried
(Table 4). In the first trial, Table 5, Fig. 2. Dot Dot-ELISA procedure, the result was unsatisfactory.
Elisa of progesterone extracted by ether extraction As chloroform was another organic solvent resulted
in formation of lower chloroform and top milky

49 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Kumar et al

Table 4. Various methods used for extraction of progesterone from milk and its transfer.
Immediate Final observation Finally
observation after 2-3 hr kept under deep
freezing
Ether extraction (2 ml ether + Milky layer forms the Ether layer separates Progesterone can be
1 ml milk + 0.25 ml DW) lower layer transferred on PVDF

Chloroform only (2 ml Milky layer forms the Chloroform layer get’s -

chloroform + 1 ml milk + 0.25 top layer entrapped below freezed
ml DW) milky layer, hence separation
becomes difficult

Isopropanol only (2 ml Forms miscible liquid, Liquid do not freezes -

Isopropanol + 1 mil milk + two liquid do not forms
0.25 ml DW) separate layer

Chloroform: methanol (2 ml Forms separate Chloroform layer get -

2:1 Chloroform: methanol + layer but milky entrapped below freezed
1 ml milk + 0.25 ml DW ) layer thickens due to milky layer hence separation
methanol becomes difficult

Chloroform: methanol (19 ml Extracted as per Folch Progesterone can be

2:1 Chloroform: methanol + et al. (1957) where no transferred on PVDF
1 ml milk ) freezing is required

layer. On freezing (2-3hr), the chloroform layer
got entrapped below frozen milky layer. Hence,
separation was difficult. The chloroform was found
to be having higher specific gravity, which may be
one reason, hence it formed lower layer.
In the third trial, isopropanol was used instead
of ether that resulted in the formation of a miscible
milky liquid that did not form distinct separate
(milky and isopropanol) layer not froze even
keeping for longer duration under deep freezing.
Hence progesterone was unable to be extracted.
The fourth trial was done with
Chloroform:methanol mixture in 2:1 ratio in place
of ether. But the result was similar to that obtained
with chloroform method. There was formation of
an additional middle layer of miscible zone which
do not freezes under deep freezing, and hence
extraction was not possible.
Finally, trial for extraction was done with Folch
et al (1957) method. The result appeared in form of
very scanty or no lipid substance left in extracted
mass. The extracted lipids containing progesterone
was able to be transferred to PVDF membrane.
Subsequently Dot-ELISA was performed that
resulted in formation of brown dots (Table 6 Fig.
3). Since, the chloroform:methanol mixture (2:1)
mixed with milk in 19:1 ratio was able to break
almost all fat globules, proteolipids, phospholipids
and other higher long chain fatty acids. Hence
progesterone might appeared in form available for
estimation. The result (Table 6, Fig. 3) in the form
of figure

50 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Development of Dot-ELISA
Table 6. Fig. 3. Dot-ELISA of chloroform standard progesterone and award of + (Positive)
clearly indicated transfer of progesterone to grades.
(Folch et al. 1957) extracted milk progest- The standard colour for variable concentration
PVDF membrane as shown by intensity colour was developed using 5ng, 10ng, 20ng, 30ng,
erone and award of + grades. of coloured profile. 50ng, 100ng and 200ng standard progesterone
Test result of No of + awarded to
and + (positive) grades was awarded to each dots
PVDF Dot each dot based on depending upon intensity of colour developed
Elisa intensity of chro- (Table 7. Fig. 5). On observation of the results it was
mogen found that the lower concentration of progesterone
Blank - 5 and 10 ng produced fainter colour and got only +
(1 positive) and ++ (2 positive grades) respectively.
While 20, 30 and 50ng of standard progesterone
Standard (20 ++++ were found to score ++++ (4 positive grades),
ng) ++++++ (6 positive grades), +++++++ (7 positive
grades). Subsequently, higher concentration scored
Progesterone + only +++++++ (7 positive) grades. For further
extracted by
higher concentrations of progesterone (>50ng) the
ether extraction
method colour intensity of dots was almost static visually,
hence scored same number of positive grades.
Fig. 4. Dot ELISA with serially diluted Table 7,
Development of Dot-ELISA
Fig. 5. Dot-ELISA of varying conce-
The Dot ELISA technique developed utilized
100 times less reagents and gave results instantly. HRP of standard progesterone conjugate
The result could be verified visually, poses less/ ntration of standard progesterone and award
negligible threat to environment due to waste of + grades.
disposal and could be performed by even layman No of + award-
farmers. And because of all these advantages, it Concen- ed to dot of
becomes cheaper as compared to other methods. tr-ation of Intensity of colour each concen-
Keeping in view presently the Dot ELISA technique standard of dot developed tration based
was standardized using 70% isopropanol as solvent, progesterone on intensity of
chromogen
Folch et al (1957) method for extraction and
HRP-antiprogesterone conjugate using following Blank -
procedure.
5 ng +
Selection of titer of conjugate 10 ng ++
The HRP antiprogesterone (antibody developed
in rabbit) conjugate diluted (1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 20 ng ++++
1:200, 1:500, 1:800 and 1:1000) to obtain best 30 ng ++++++
dilution/titer for Dot- ELISA colour (figure 4).
On observation1:50 times dilution was the highest 50 ng +++++++
dilution giving best result with 20ng standard
progesterone following Dot ELISA. 100 ng + ++++++

Dot-ELISA for different concentration of

200 ng +++++++

51 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Kumar et al

giving near intense colour of dot to that produced

by 20 ng standard progesterone (Fig. 6). Hence it
scored ++++ (4 positive) grades, while one of the
negative milk sample one + (1 positive) grades
indicating presence of very low progesterone. One
negative milk sample was having even lower milk
progesterone concentration which had no + grades.
Though both the pregnant milk sample and 20 ng
standard progesterone scored similar + grades, the
intensity of colour of test milk sample appeared
slightly lower This might be because of interference
due to binding of non progesterone substances on
the PVDF membrane. Confirm positive pregnant
cattles were verified for pregnancy by rectal
palpation which gave the authenticity of the present
developed Dot ELISA technique.
Hence it was concluded that Dot ELISA was
giving good result with test milk samples also.
Earlier in the experiment, it was recorded
that 20ng appox. (19.99 ± 0.36ng/ml) of milk Dot-ELISA of test samples and validation
progesterone concentration was considered as Test result of No of + awarded
pregnant cows milk (Table 2), Earlier workers PVDF Dot to each dot based
(Simersky et al, 2007) also used 20ng progesterone Elisa on intensity of
chromogen
/ ml of milk for pregnant animal which is similar
to our present finding with developed Dot ELISA
Blank -
technique. Hence those milk sample getting
equal to or more than ++++ (4 positive) grades Standards (20 ng) ++++
was considered as pregnant. Those getting +++
(3 positive) grades was considered as suspected/
doubtful and those getting less than +++ (3 positive) Confirm positive ++++
grades was considered as non pregnant animal. And milk sample 1
++++ (4 positive) grades was taken as demarcation Confirm positive ++++
for pregnant and non pregnant cattle. The pregnancy milk sample 2
diagnosis was done accordingly using developed
Dot ELISA. Confirm negative +
milk sample 1
Dot ELISA of confirmed pregnant milk sample
As the 20 ng of standard progesterone was Confirm negative -
given ++++ (4 positive) grades, it had been milk sample 2
further verified with the progesterone isolated
from pregnant milk sample. Hence next trial was
conducted with early pregnant cattle milk sample
As per the technique developed progesterone
(Table 8, Fig. 6) and on perusal of result it was
from the entire test samples were extracted,
observed that both the pregnant milk sample was
subjected to Dot-ELISA, awarded respective +

52 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 43-54

 Development of Dot-ELISA
(positive) grades and classified as pregnant, non REFERENCES
pregnant and doubtful. Total 65 milk samples from Akhtar M H (1988). Application of modified enzyme
cattle of unknown pregnancy were subjected to immunoassay technique for estimation of progesterone
in blood and milk to monitor reproductive activity of
pregnancy diagnosis by Dot ELISA procedure. It cows and buffaloes. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Birsa
was found that out of 65 cattle 44,15 and 6 cattle was Agricultural University. Ranchi, Jharkhand.
declared by as pregnant , non pregnant and doubtful Aniagolu J, Swartz G M, Dijkstra J, Madsen J W, Raney J J and
respectively. While on per rectal examination only Green S J (1995). Analysis of anticholesterol antibodies
34 out of 44 (77.27%) was found to be pregnant. All using hydrophobic membranes. J Immun Meth 82: 85-92.
the 15 cattle (100%) declared as non pregnant by Arnstadt K I and Cleere W F (1981). Enzyme immunoassay
dot ELISA was found to be non pregnant. Out of 6 for determination of progesterone in milk from cows. J
doubtful cases 5 (83.33%) was found to be pregnant. Reprodt Fert 62: 173-180.
All the pregnant declared cases were also examined Avrameas S (1959). Coupling of enzymes to proteins with
per rectally after 45-60 days of pregnancy and birth gluteraldehyde: Use of the conjugates for detection of
antigens and antibodies. Immunochemistry 6(1), 43-48.
of fetus. Almost Table 8, Fig. 6. Showing Dot
ELISA of standard progesterone, milk sample Chang C F and Estergreen V L (1983). Development of a
direct enzymeimmunoassay of milk progesterone and its
of confirm positive and negative pregnant cattle
application to pregnancy diagnosis in cows. Steroids 41
and award of + grades all pregnant animals gave : 173-195
birth to fetus except few cases of abortions. Work by
Choi H S, Rittmanannspeger F, Mayer P and Bamberge
Heap et al (1976) by RIA and Chang and Estergreen H (1976). Early diagnosis of pregnancy in cattle by
(1983) by Paper fibers had reported similar findings plasma progesterone determination. Wiener Tierarztliche
with 77.5 and 77.3 per cent accuracy respectively Monatsschrift, 63: 14 – 17. (Cited from Vet Bull 46 :
in estimating pregnancy, while for non pregnant 4040).
animals the accuracy were 85.7-100 and 95-98.3 Donaldson L E, Bassett J N and Thorburn G D (1970).
% respectively. Our present findings was 77.27 per Peripheral progesterone concentration of cows during
puberty, oestrous cycle, pregnancy and lactation and
cent. the effects of endometrium on exogenous oxytocin on
progesterone concentration. J Endocrinol 48: 599-614.
CONCLUSION Folch J, Lees M and Stanley G H S (1957). A simple method
Since, all the pregnant declared animals by per for the isolation and purification of total lipids from
rectal examination were also declared as pregnant animal tissues. J Biol Chem 226: 497-509.
by Dot ELISA technique and no pregnant animal Intapan P M, Maleewong W, Nateeworanart S, Wongkham C,
was declared as non pregnant, this showed that, Pipitgool V, Sukolapong V and Sangmaneedet S (2003).
the developed technique was a valid technique in Immunodiagnosis of human fascioliasis using an antigen
estimating pregnancy. of Fasciola Gigantica adult worm with the molecular
mass of 27 KDa by a dot ELISA. Southeast Asian J Trop
However, it had also showed some false positive Med Pub Health 34, 4: 713-717.
results that reduced the accuracy of the method. The Kaygusuzoglu  E, Yildiz H, Kaya M  and  Cenesiz M (2010).
false positive results found were might be due to Effect of GnRH administered 7 days after insemination on
persistent corpus luteum, early abortion or due to serum progesterone, Luteinizing hormone and duration
pseudo- pregnancy. On the other side, it was 100 % estrous cycle with pregnancy rates in heifer. J Anim Vety
Adv 9(9): 1400-1405.
valid for estimating the non pregnant cattle. Hence
pregnancy could be diagnosed using developed Laing J A and Heap R B (1971). The concentration of
progesterone in the milk of cows during the reproductive
Dot-ELISA technique with 77.27 % accuracy, cycle. Brit Vet J 127: 119-121.
while it could be used for diagnosing non pregnant
Munro C and Stabenfeldt (1984). Development of a microtitre
animals with 100 % accuracy. plate enzyme immunoassay for the determination of
progesterone. J Endocrinol 101 : 41-49.

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Sauer M J, Foulkes J A, Worsfold A and Morris B A Svobodova Z, Jankoviciva B, Horak D and Bilkova Z (2013)
(1986). Use of progesterone 11-glucuronide alkaline Dot-Elisa Affinity Test: An Easy, Low-Cost Method to
phosphatase conjugate in a sensitive microtitre – plate Estimate Binding Activity of Monoclonal Antibodies. J
enzymeimmunoassay of progesterone in milk and its Analytical & Bioanalytical Tech 4:3,DOI: 10.4172 / 2155
application to pregnancy testing in dairy cattle. J Reprod - 9872.1000168
Fert 76: 376-391. Van-De-Wiel D F M and Koops W (1982). Direct measurement
Simersky R, Swacznova J, Morris D A, Franek M and Strnad of progesterone in milk and plasma by a sensitive and
M (2007). Development of an ELISA-based kit for the on- simple enzymeimmunoassay. Brit Vet J 138 : 454.
farm determination of progesterone in milk. Veterinarni
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Medicina 52, (1): 19–28.
Stanley C J, Johannsson A and Self C H (1985). Enzyme
amplification can enhance both the speed and the
sensitivity of immunoassay. J Immunological Methods
83: 89-95.

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 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00069.2

Economic Viability of Crop Diversification in Punjab

Raj Kumar and Sangeet
Department of Economics and Sociology
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141004 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Crop diversification is essential for an agricultural based economy like Punjab. With only 1.53 per cent of
the total geographical area of the country, Punjab state produces about three per cent of rice, two per cent
of wheat and one per cent of cotton of the world. During 2017-18, Punjab’s share in central pool was about
32.5 for rice and about 36 per cent for wheat. However, its contribution has been declining over years
because of the increased contribution of rice to the Central Pool from other states. The area under rice has
increased by six times in the state i.e., from 6.9 per cent (1970-71) to about 39 per cent of total cropped area
in 2016-17. With increased irrigation facilities R-W monoculture has replaced others crops from Punjab’s
cropping pattern. To meet increased irrigation requirement of paddy, the rising dependence on groundwater
resources has led to widespread decline in water table, increased operation and maintenance cost, more
power consumption, and deterioration of groundwater quality affecting the socio-economic conditions of the
farmers. Also, fertiliser consumption has increased from 37.5 kg/ha (1970-71) to about 245 kg/ha in 2016-
17. The excess use of fertilizers above the recommended dose in wheat, paddy and cotton led to an additional
expenditure of about Rs 250 crore. Assured purchase of wheat and rice at MSP by the public agencies
along with lack of marketing infrastructure for other crops explains the concentration on wheat paddy
monoculture. Area under paddy may be replaced either by raising the MSP or by raising the productivity of
competing crops. Therefore, investment in Research and development, marketing infrastructure for alternate
crops to paddy-wheat and strengthening of food processing and value addition industry is need of the hour.
Key Words: Cropping pattern, Diversification, Minimum support price, Returns, Variable costs

INTRODUCTION country, Punjab state produces about three per cent

Diversification oriented from the word diverge
which means to move or extend in a different
direction from common phenomena. In the
agricultural context, diversification is defined as
shift from the regional dominance of one crop (like
rice) to another crops (like oilseeds), or from one
enterprise (like crop based) to another enterprise
(like livestock) or to engage in other complimentary
activities. It is a paradigm shift from one crop to
another, bringing out a desirable change in the
existing cropping pattern towards more balanced
cropping system to meet increasing demand.
Crop diversification is essential for an
agricultural based economy like Punjab. With only
1.53 per cent of the total geographical area of the
of rice, two per cent of wheat and one per cent of
cotton of the world. The state led the country’s
Green Revolution during 1960s and earned for
itself the distinction of becoming Granary of India
or India’s breadbasket. During 2017-18, Punjab’s
share in central pool was about 31 for rice and about
36 per cent for wheat. However, its contribution has
been declining over years because of the increased
contribution of rice and wheat to the Central Pool
from other states. Punjab, known for its prosperity
largely due to the Green Revolution, is under
scrutiny since the 1990s because of concerns for
the sustainability of current cropping system.
Wheat and rice, which have low production risks
and negligible marketing risks due to procurement

Corresponding Author’s Email: rajkumar@pau.edu

55 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62

 Kumar and Sangeet
at minimum support price are now occupying more study was carried out to explore the possibilities for
than 80 per cent of the total cropped area. Cotton is crop diversification in Punjab.
another important crop which was grown at about
3.6 per cent of the cropped area during 2016-17. MATERIALS AND METHODS
However some disturbing trends have emerged in In order to study the present situation of
the agriculture sector of the state during past two agriculture in Punjab state, the secondary data
decades. were collected from different published sources
The over dependence on wheat and rice and like Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Economic
intensive use of farm land with nearly 190 per cent Survey, research papers, reports, newspapers,
cropping intensity have led to a crisis in terms of etc. Information pertaining to variable costs
over exploitation of natural resources viz., soil and for cultivation of different crops in Punjab was
ground water. Cultivation of paddy which covered obtained from the enterprise budgets of different
only about seven per cent of total cropped area of crops prepared by the Department of Economics
the state in 1970-71, has increased to nearly 39 and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University,
per cent of the total cropped area in 2016-17 and Ludhiana. The triennium state average productivity
resulted into over-exploitation of water resources, of each crop has been taken into account for the
increased electricity consumption and also putting analysis. The gross returns from different crops
serious strain on state exchequer to meet cost of have been computed by using the minimum support
free power supply to farm sector. The productivity prices/ prevailing market prices.
level of wheat and rice has almost reached a
plateau. This poses serious threat to long term RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
sustainability of agriculture in the state. Keeping in Shift in cropping pattern
view serious repercussions in terms of overuse of The information relating to area under different
natural resources, ecological problems and growing crops in Punjab indicated that with time, the
farm income risk due to declining crop diversity cropping pattern has shifted towards rice-wheat
in terms of paddy-wheat monoculture, the present monoculture (Table 1). Amongst kharif crops, the
Table 1. Shift in cropping pattern in Punjab. (Per cent to gross cropped area)
Crop 1970-71 1990-91 2010-11 2015-16 2016-17
Wheat 40.5 43.6 44.5 44.5 44.3
Maize 9.8 2.5 1.8 1.6 1.5
Cotton 7.0 9.3 6.10 4.3 3.6
Rice 6.9 26.9 35.9 37.7 38.8
Bajra 3.7 0.2 0.04 - 0.04
Sugarcane 2.3 1.3 0.9 1.2 1.1
Total pulses 7.3 1.9 0.3 0.3 0.3
Total oilseeds 5.2 1.3 0.7 0.6 0.5
Total vegetables 0.9 0.7 2.4 2.7 1.7
Total fruits 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.0
Cropping intensity (%) 140.1 177.9 190 204 204
Gross cropped area (000’ ha) 5678 7502 7882 7872 7823
No. of tube wells (lakh) 1.92 8.00 13.82 14.19 14.19
Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, various issues
56 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62
 Economic Viability of Crop Diversification in Punjab
per cent share of area under rice in the total cropped
area has increased more than five times from 6.9
per cent in 1970-71 to about 39 per cent in 2016-17
while for other crops like sugarcane, maize, cotton,
bajra, barley, pulses, sugarcane and oilseeds has
declined with time. Also the per cent share of area
under wheat increased from 40.5 to 44.5 per cent
during the same time period. All this indicates that
because of increased irrigation facilities in terms of
rising number of tube wells (14.19 lakh in 2016-17)
paddy-wheat monoculture has replaced other crops
from Punjab’s cropping pattern.
Ground water resources
In the past four decades, state has witnessed a
boom in groundwater use and numerous important
works exist on the problem of depleting water
quality and fall in water tables. As far as the water
level is concerned, it has gone down to 20 m or
even below in 50 per cent areas of the state. In
central Punjab, the figure stands at 10 m or more
in about 92 per cent of the area. In 1973, there was
only 3.7 per cent area with sub-soil water at 10 m
(Anonymous, 2013; Krishan et a,l 2014; Rao et
al, 2014 and Sharma et al,2014). During 1980-81,
about 42 per cent of net area was irrigated using
canal water which declined to about 29 per cent in
2016-17 i.e.11.86 lakh ha (Table 2).
With the passage of time, almost entire net
sown area is irrigated and about 71 per cent area
is dependent on tube wells. The share of tube wells
in net irrigated area has risen from 57 per cent in
1980-81 to about 71 per cent in 2016-17. Because of
increased irrigation requirement for water juggling
crop (paddy), the rising dependence on groundwater
resources has led to widespread decline in water
table resulting into high investment for deepening
of tube wells. The situation further led to increased
operational and maintenance cost, more power
consumption, and deterioration of groundwater
quality. This trend of excessive groundwater
drafting for agriculture has created such a situation
that during the past many years the water table
in the state is dropping at an alarming rate. 79
per cent of the groundwater assessment divisions
(water blocks) in the state are now considered over
exploited and critical with extraction exceeding
the supply/recharge. The extensive water use in
Punjab is resulting in falling groundwater levels.
From 1982-87, the water table in central Punjab
was falling on an average of 18 cm per year which

Table 2. Source-wise irrigated area in Punjab (Area in lakh ha)

 Year Source of irrigation Net irrigated % of net irrigated
Canals Tube wells Other sources area area to net sown area
1980-81 14.30 19.39 13 33.82 81.0
(42.28) (57.33) (0.38) (100.0)
2000-01 9.62 30.74 4 40.38 95.0
(23.82) (76.13) (0.10) (100.0)
2014-15 11.75 29.43 - 41.18 99.9
(28.53) (71.47) (100.0)
2015-16 12.01 29.36 - 41.37 99.9
(29.03) (70.97) (100.0)
2016-17 (P) 11.86 29.40 - 41.26 99.9
(28.74) (71.26) (100.0)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to net irrigated area
Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, various issues

57 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62

 Kumar and Sangeet
accelerated to 42 cm per year from 1997 to 2002, Supply of free/subsidized power to farm sector
and to a staggering 75 cm during 2002-06. Water In Punjab, power for agriculture was totally
tables are now falling over about 90 per cent of the free from 1997 to 2002 and from 2005 onwards
state, with central Punjab most severely affected. which is a major reason behind excessive tube well
Many districts of Punjab show 100 per cent or even connections in the state that drain the groundwater.
greater levels of exploitation. Irrigation has been a The ubiquitous practice of annual rice/wheat
major cause for high water level depletion (Rodell cropping system comes with a huge cost, consuming
et al, 2009). With the continuous rotation of paddy- enormous resources, from fertilizers to maintain
wheat cropping system, the soil and water of Punjab high yields to enormous amounts of electricity to
have been degraded and depleted. pump declining groundwater from greater depths.
Table3. Excess use of nitrogen and phosphorous over the recommended doses in wheat, paddy and
cotton crops in Punjab, 2014-15.
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Excess use % Area Qnty Value Excess use % Area Qnty Value
(Kg/ha) farmers (000 (‘000 (Rs (Kg/ha) farmers (000 (‘000 (Rs
ha) tons) Crore) ha) tons) Crore)
Crop: Wheat Crop: Wheat
25 (15.4) 19.50 683.48 17.09 21.92 12.5(16.7) 15.07 528.20 6.60 29.70
50 (30.8) 19.50 683.48 34.17 43.84 25 (33.4) 1.14 39.96 1.00 4.49
75(46.2) 1.71 59.94 4.50 5.77 ≥37.5(100.2) 3.22 112.86 4.23 19.04
≥100 (123.2) 0.50 17.53 1.75 2.25 Total 19.43 681.02 11.83 53.23
Total 41.21 1444.41 57.51 73.78
Crop: Non-basmati paddy Crop: Non-basmati paddy
25 (15.4) 27.91 567.41 14.19 18.20 12.5 (33.3) 2.78 56.52 0.71 3.18
50 (30.8) 4.42 127.96 6.40 8.21 25 (66.6) 10.23 296.16 7.40 33.30
75 (46.2) 2.21 63.98 4.80 6.16 37.5 (99.9) 0.16 4.63 0.17 0.78
100 (61.6) 2.86 82.80 8.28 10.62 50 (133.2) 0.08 2.32 0.12 0.52
Total 37.40 1082.73 33.66 43.19 Total 13.25 383.59 8.40 37.78
Crop: Basmati paddy Crop: Basmati paddy
25 (22.2) 21.89 188.69 4.72 6.05 12.5 (33.3) 1.18 10.17 0.13 0.57
50 (44.4) 8.63 74.39 3.72 4.77 25 (66.6) 3.91 33.70 0.84 3.79
75 (66.6) 2.36 20.34 1.53 1.96 37.5 (99.9) 0.45 3.88 0.15 0.65
100 (88.8) 0.18 1.55 0.16 0.20 50 (133.2) 0.27 2.33 0.12 0.52
Total 33.06 284.98 10.12 12.98 Total 5.81 50.08 1.23 5.53
Crop: Cotton Crop: Cotton
37.5 (25.0) 12.53 52.75 1.98 2.54 12.5 (33.3) 9.39 39.53 0.49 2.22
> 3 7 . 5 9.39 39.53 1.98 2.54 ≥25 (133.2) 34.23 144.11 3.60 16.20
(>25.0)
Total 21.92 92.28 3.95 5.07 Total 43.62 183.64 4.10 18.43
Note: Figures in parentheses denote the excess use of fertilizers in percentage terms.
Source: Field surveys conducted by Department of Economics & Sociology, PAU, Ludhiana

58 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62

 Economic Viability of Crop Diversification in Punjab
The groundwater level is declining at a rapid rate doses of N on about 11 lakh ha area under the crop.
due to increase in the number of tube wells in Majority of the farmers were using an excess dose
the recent years. The consumption of electricity (by about 15.4%) of 25 kg of N per ha on about 28
per irrigation was estimated at about 88 units in per cent area costing about Rs 18 crore. For basmati
2001-02 and at about 157 units in 2010-11, which paddy the figure for overdose of N was worked
showed that the power requirement for lifting the out to be Rs 12.98 crore being the majority of the
same quantity of water increased by 78 per cent in farmers were applying 22.2 per cent excess dose on
10 years (Singh, 2012). The water table has gone about 1.89 lakh ha area under the crop. In cotton
down at a much faster rate in the rice growing areas the additional cost of N accounted about Rs 5
and the electricity (power) required to draw out the crore and farmers were applying the excess dose of
same quantity of water goes on increasing linearly about 37.5 kg/ha and above. For use of phosphorus
with the depth of water.  The power consumption in (P), again expenses incurred for excess dose were
Punjab agriculture has increased from 5105 million maximum for wheat (Rs 53.23 crore) as majority of
KWH in 2001-02 to 10,780 million KWH in 2012- the farmers were found to be applying P in excess
13 and the subsidy burden (due to free supply of of 12.5 kg per ha on about 5.28 lakh ha of wheat
power by Punjab Government) from Rs 385 crore to area. For non basmati paddy about Rs 38 crore were
Rs 6236 crore during this period (Kaur et al, 2015). spent on excess application of P. For basmati paddy,
the additional charges were about Rs 5.5 crore as
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers majority of the farmers were applying over dose to
Punjab state ranks third at national level for the tune of 67 per cent on about 3.4 lakh ha area
fertilizer consumption per hectare (249 kg/ha) with and for cotton about Rs 18.4 crore were spent and
average consumption per hectare being almost that being for over dose of more than 25 kg per
double as compared to national of 131 kg/ha ha on Rs 1.44 lakh ha area. Thus, an over use of
during 2015-16. Paddy is being cultivated in more fertilizers above the dose recommended by PAU
than 30 lakh hectares in the state and controlling led to an additional expenditure of about Rs 135
the use of urea could result in saving nearly Rs crore on nitrogen and Rs 115 crore on phosphorous
200 crore. Urea consumption registered for the application in wheat, paddy (including basmati) and
same is about 10 lakh tonnes which is 3.15 lakh cotton crops.
tonnes over and above the recommended quantity
(Anonymous, 2018). Excessive and indiscriminate Problem of crop residue management
use of fertilizers especially nitrogenous fertilizers Punjab has huge potential of biomass resource
not only increases the cost of cultivation, but alsoavailability in the form of crop residues.A total
causes nutrient imbalance, which adversely affects of about 50 MT of straw is generated every year.
crop yields. More use of phosphorus may decrease The major contributors to the total crop residue
the availability of zinc causing its deficiency in generated are paddy (47.1%) during kharif season
crop. An analysis of data pertaining of the use and wheat (47.3%) during the rabi season (Sangeet
of nitrogenous and phosphate fertilisers above and Kumar, 2016). About 85 to 90 per cent of the
the doses recommended by PAU in major crops total paddy straw generated in Punjab is burnt every
revealed that in wheat crop excess dose of nitrogen year. Two-third to three-fourth of the rice residue
(N) on about 14.4 lakh ha of wheat area was leading is being burnt mainly due to uneconomical options
to an additional cost of about Rs 74 crore to the available to farmers for any alternative use of the
farmers (Table 3). same (Kumar et al, 2015). Burning crop residue
In the case of non-basmati paddy, an additional in one year alone results in the loss of 1.43 MT of
cost of about Rs 43 crore was incurred for excess nutrients from the top soil layer (Mehta et al, 2018).

59 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62

 Kumar and Sangeet
Table 4. Comparative economics of major crop rotations in Punjab, 2017-18. (Rs/ha)
Crop rotation Crop Average yield* Gross Total variable Returns over
(q/ha) returns** costs variable costs
(ROVC)
Paddy-Wheat i. Paddy 62.25 99125.0 47005.0 52120.0
ii. Wheat 49.00 95755.0 36662.5 59092.5
Total (i+ii)   194880.0 83667.5 111212.5
Basmati- i. Basmati 45.50 133807.5 45750.0 88057.5
Wheat-Maize ii. Wheat 49.00 95672.5 31662.5 64010.0
fodder iii. Maize fodder 412.50 61875.0 29270.0 32605.0
Total (i+ii+iii)   291355.0 106682.5 184672.5
Maize-Wheat i. Maize 37.50 57892.5 40472.5 17420.0
ii. Wheat 49.00 95672.5 30412.5 65260.0
Total (i+ii)   153567.5 70885.0 82682.5
Bt-cotton- Bt cotton 17.00 77675.0 64880.0 12795.0
Wheat Wheat 49.00 95672.5 30412.5 65260.0
Total (i+ii) 173347.5 95292.5 78055.0
Paddy- Wheat- i. Paddy 62.25 99125.0 47005.0 52120.0
Summer ii. Wheat 49.00 95755.0 36662.5 59092.5
moong iii. Summer moong 11.25 65122.5 30752.5 34370.0
Total (i+ii+iii)   260002.5 114420.0 145582.5
Pad- i. Paddy 62.25 99125.0 47005.0 52120.0
dy-Wheat-Ba- ii. Wheat 49.00 95755.0 36662.5 59092.5
jra Fodder iii. Bajra Fodder 425.00 53125.0 22897.5 30227.5
Total (i+ii+iii)   248005.0 106565.0 141440.0
Paddy-Po- i. Paddy 62.25 99125.0 47005.0 52120.0
tato-Spring ii. Potato 259.25 136150.0 134835.0 1315.0
Maize iii. Spring Maize 75.00 117750.0 56235.0 61515.0
Total (i+ii+iii)   353025.0 238075.0 114950.0
Sugarcane  Sugarcane 716.00 230837.5 76620.0 154217.5
*State average productivity of Triennium Ending 2016-17
**Includes the value of bi-product
As per the study conducted by Department of Soils, of one quintal extra yield of wheat crop and that
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana in 2010, could be obtained if the farmer ploughs back the
the soil loses 6-7 kg nitrogen per tonne, 1-1.7 kg paddy straw into the fields. So, the monetary losses
phosphorus, 14 to 25 kg potassium and 1.2 to 1.5 at around Rs. 500 crore per annum in terms of loss
kg sulphur due to stubble burning. This leads to an of fertility, cost of additional nutrients and loss of
additional expenditure of Rs. 150 crore per year to yield due to stubble burning are there.
replenish the soil. The loss of fertility leads to loss

60 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62

 Economic Viability of Crop Diversification in Punjab
Assured public procurement of paddy and wheat
Assured purchase of wheat and rice at Minimum
Support Prices (MSP) by the public agencies for its
Public Distribution System (PDS) makes paddy-
wheat crop rotation an obvious choice for farmers
in Punjab. The wheat paddy crop rotation has
been, and remains, the most preferred cropping
pattern across Punjab due to its comparative
economic advantages, assured marketing and stable
productivity levels (Sidhu et al, 2010). Because
of MSP regime, price instability is lower in wheat
and rice which makes it highly stable in terms of
gross returns too. On the other hand, the lack of
marketing infrastructure for crops other than wheat
and rice explains the concentration on wheat paddy
monoculture and a reluctance to try new cropping
systems. Further increase in rice production with
the given technology in Punjab is limited due to
almost no scope of area expansion or productivity
enhancement in rice.
Comparative economics of major crop rotations
in Punjab
Based on Punjab Agricultural University
recommendations, the returns over variable costs
(ROVC) for major crop rotations followed in
Punjab state during 2017-18 were worked out
It was found that ROVC for the most prevalent
paddy-wheat crop rotation were about Rs1,11,200/
ha which were less than all the observed crop
rotations except maize-wheat and Bt cotton-wheat
with ROVC of about Rs82682/ha and Rs78055/
ha, respectively. This implies that alternate crop
rotations can compete with paddy-wheat by either
taking third crop as fodder in the crop rotation, or
adding legume crop like summer crop which saves
nitrogen required for succeeding crop. The solution
to reduce area under paddy is to promote its
competing crops like maize and cotton by enhancing
their economic viability. This can only be done if
returns over variable costs become at par as that
from the cultivation of paddy crop. The break-even
prices at which returns over variable costs of maize
and cotton become equal to paddy at their existing
61 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62
productivity levels are worked out to be about Rs
2400/q for maize and about Rs 6700/q for cotton
crop. Another way to achieve this is by raising the
productivity level of maize and cotton (at their
existing MSPs) to 65 and 27 per q/ha, respectively
through intensive research and development efforts.
Present status of crop diversification in Punjab
Though it was planned during Five Year Crop
Diversification Plan, 2013 to reduce area under
paddy crop by 12 lakh ha over next five years
(from 28.5lakh ha during 2012-13 to 16 lakh ha
in 2017-18).It had to be replaced by less water
demanding crops. Through crop diversification,
the government mainly wanted to achieve three
goals: check the rapidly falling sub-soil water
table, control the mounting power subsidy bill and
break the stagnation in terms of yield in the wheat-
paddy cycle. Several approaches had been pursued
in the past to reduce area under paddy cultivation,
but those met with no success as still more than
30 lakh ha area is there under paddy. On the other
hand, it was proposed in the action plan to increase
the area under cotton and basmati cultivation by 2
lakh ha each; both the crops consume less water as
compared to traditional paddy. Besides, the area
under maize was proposed to increase by 4 lakh
ha, sugarcane by 1.70 lakh ha, pulses 0.70 lakh ha,
fruits and vegetables by 0.85 lakh ha, agro forestry
by 1.45 lakh ha and green fodder by 0.50 lakh ha.
CONCLUSION
The Punjab state made an outstanding progress
in agriculture and contributed extensively to the
food security of the country. The state today stands
at a critical juncture, with ecological thresholds for
soil fertility and water availability nearing their
tipping points. The very sustainability of the current
cropping system is under threat. In order to change
the current trends via use of sustainable practices,
better technology and prudent policy, following
steps may be taken care of.
The major issues blocking crop diversification
have been economic returns from alternative
 Kumar and Sangeet
crops; assured marketing and pricing and a reliable Anonymous (2018). Punjab to help farmers cut down urea
and proven technology for alternative crops. A usage. Business Standard, Chandigarh, July 17
significant investment is required in Research Anonymous (2018). Statistics of Punjab Agriculture. Punjab
and Development (R&D) as well as marketing Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
infrastructure for alternate crops especially to Kaur A, Grover D K and Kaur P J (2015). Study of electricity
paddy. subsidy in Punjab agriculture. Indian J Econ Dev 11 (1):
285-93.
Essential research on crop diversification should Krishan G, Rao M S, Loyal R S, Lohani A K, Tuli N
be taken up in farmer participatory mode. Farmers K, Takshi K S, Kumar C P, Semval P and Kumar S
have to be taken in to confidence by ensuring (2014). Groundwater level analysis of Punjab, India: A
the arrangements for marketing of the produce quantitative approach. Oct J Env Res 2 (3):221-226.
and promotion of agro-industry by educating the Kumar P, Kumar S and Joshi L (2015). Alternative uses of
farmers’ class. crop stubble in socio-economic and environmental
implications of agricultural residue burning. Springer
Concept of sustainable productivity for each Briefs in Environ Sci: 69-89.
unit of land and water through crop diversification Mehta C R, Dixit A and Manes G S (2018). Mechanical
need to be fostered. Strengthening of public private Management of Paddy Straw. In: Proceedings of National
partnership may lead to enhanced investment in Seminar on Sustainable Rice Production Technology for
crop research. Increasing the Farmers’ Income (NSRT-2018) 20-21
January 2018, IGKV Raipur (Chhatisgarh) pp 18-25.
Strengthening of food processing and value
Purushothaman P, Rao M S, Rawat Y S, Kumar C P and Krishan
addition industry in rural areas should be entrusted G (2013). Hydrochemical and isotopic investigation
to increase export avenues of various agricultural of groundwater regime in Jalandhar and Kapurthala
commodities produced under diversified farming. districts, Punjab, India. Int J Earth Sci Eng 7 (1): 6-15.7.
Cattle feed plants should be set up in Punjab for Rodell M, Velicogna I and Famiglietti J S (2009). Satellite-
the promotion of fodder crops in the state. based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. Nature
460 (7258): 999-1002.
Sangeet and Kumar R (2016).Crop residue generation and
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diversification plan. The Tribune, Chandigarh, May 27.
Sharma M, Rao M S, Rathore D S and Krishan G (2014). An
Anonymous (2016). Agricultural Statistics at a Glance.
integrated approach to augment the depleting ground
Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Department of
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Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture,
Earth Sc Eng 7 (1): 27-38.
Government of India.
Sidhu R S, Vatta K and Dhaliwal H S (2010). Conservation
Anonymous (2016). Economic Survey 2015-16. Government
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Received on 13/10/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

62 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 55-62

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00074.6

Effect of Planting Geometry and Fertigation Levels on Growth,

Yield and Quality of Chilli
V N Nandeshwar1 and S G Bharad 2
Department of Horticulture, Post Graduate Institute,
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola - 444 104 (Maharashtra)

ABSTRACT
The present study entitled was carried at University Department of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh
Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola during the year 2014-15 and 2015-16. The experiment was laid out in Factorial
Randomized Block Design with nine treatment combination and each treatment was replicated thrice. The
treatments comprised of three planting geometry (S) viz., S1 (90 x 90 cm), S2 (90 x 60 cm) and S3 (90 x
45 cm) and three fertigation levels (F) viz., F1 (RDF@150:50:50 NPK kg/ha through soil application),
F2 (100% RDF through fertigation) and F3 (80% RDF through fertigation). The pooled data reveal that,
for planting geometry, the treatment S3 (90 cm × 45 cm) and for fertigation levels F3 (80% RDF through
fertigation) was found to be the best treatment in respect to maximum increased the growth parameters
viz., plant height, stem diameter, plant spread and leaf area. Similarly, the same treatment was found best in
respect of yield and yield contributing and quality parameters viz., fruit length, diameter of fruit, number
of fruits per plant, average fresh weight of fruit per plant (g), green and dry fruits yield per plant (kg),
yield (q/ha), ascorbic acid, chlorophyll and crude protein contents. Similarly, the quality parameters viz.,
ascorbic acid, chlorophyll and crude protein content were also found maximum in same treatment. The
interaction effect between planting geometry and fertigation levels i.e., S3F3 (90 cm × 45 cm + 80% RDF
through fertigation) was found superior for obtaining maximum growth, yield and better quality of chilli
Key Words: Planting geometry, fertigation, yield, growth, quality, RDF

INTRODUCTION and improved scientific agro techniques, including

Chilli (Capsicum annum L.) belongs to the the use of high yielding hybrid varieties, suitable
family solanaceae and is also called as red pepper/ planting geometry and fertigation.
hot pepper. According to Hakkim (2014) chillies At present, use of water soluble fertilizers
are indispensable ingredient used in every Indian is increasing day by day, but up till now there is
diet due to its pungency, spicy taste and appealing no basic knowledge regarding the scheduling of
colour and flavour. It has two important qualities, fertigation in vegetable crops. Some progressive
the pungency due to a crystalline acrid volatile farmers are using water soluble fertilizer in tentative
alkaloid called Capsaicin and captivating red colour splits viz., weekly, fortnightly, monthly in different
due to the pigment Capsanthin. The production proportion, but there is lack of technical know-
share of chillies among the major spices in India is how regarding time of application and appropriate
25-26per cent. Andhra Pradesh ranks first in both use of recommended dose of fertilizer through
area and production of chillies. In Maharashtra water soluble fertilizer. Fertigation system saves
it is cultivated on an area about 30.99 thousand water and fertilizers improve growth, higher yield
hectare with annual production of 359.77 thousand and maximum benefits in comparison with normal
metric tonnes (Anon, 2017). There is vast scope to practices of irrigation and fertilizer application.
increase production per unit area by adopting latest
Corresponding Author’s Email:vkknndshwr9@gamail.com,
1
Ph. D. Hort. (Veg. Sci.) Research Scholar, 2 Professor

63 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69

 Nandeshwar and Bharad
In views of this the present investigation was initiation, days to 50 per cent flowering fruit length,
undertaken to find out optimum spacing and diameter of fruit, number of fruits per plant, average
appropriate fertigation levels to boost the production fresh and dry weight of fruit per plant (g), green
potential and productivity in chilli. and dry chilli yield per plant (kg). Biochemical
parameters viz., ascorbic acid, capsaicin,
MATERIALS AND METHODS carotenoids, chlorophyll and crude protein content
The present investigation was carried during was recorded on five randomly selected plants in
Rabi season of 2014-15 and 2015-16. The each plot. The data of various observations were
experiment was laid out in Factorial Randomized subjected to statistical analysis as method suggested
Block Design with nine treatment combination and by Fisher’s (1963).
each treatment was replicated thrice. The treatments
comprised of three planting geometry (S) viz., S1 (90 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
x 90 cm), S2 (90 x 60 cm) and S3 (90 x 45 cm) and Growth attributes
three fertigation levels (F) viz., F1 (RDF@150:50:50 The data (Table 1) revealed that, the maximum
NPK kg/ha through soil application), F2 (100% vegetative growth in terms of plant height, stem
RDF through fertigation) and F3 (80% RDF through diameter, plant spread at 120 DAT and leaf area was
fertigation). The soil of the experimental field was recorded under the closer spacing treatment S (90 ×
3
medium black, rich in potash with good water 45 cm) and 80% RDF through fertigation F . While,
holding capacity and fairly good drainage. The wider spacing treatment (S ) and 100% RDF3through
1
raised beds were prepared of 1.2 m wider with 15 soil application (F ) showed minimum values in all
1
cm height. Entire dose of recommended nitrogen, above parameters. Similarly, interaction of planting
phosphorus and potassium were applied in the geometry and fertigation levels the treatment
form of urea, single superphosphate and muriate of combination S F showed best performance in
potash, i.e., RDF @ 150:50:50 NPK kg/ha through respect of plant 3height, 3
stem diameter, plant spread
soil application and were mix with FYM @ 25 t/ leaf area. There was a significant increase in plant
ha and applied on prepared bed before mulching growth parameters due to application of varying
in the control plot. Immediately after fertilization levels of fertigation and spacing. This increase
drip irrigation were supplied to the crop to avoid might be due to highest absorption of nutrient which
and protect from burning the seedling respectively. promotes the auxiliary buds into new shoots. The
Fertigation was done at every 10 days intervals into results were in agreement with Hazim and Manohar
eight (8) equal split doses. Recommended dose of (2010) in okra.
fertilizers at different levels were applied by using
water-soluble fertilizers 19:19:19 and urea (46% The nutrients element nitrogen promotes
N) through fertigation using drip irrigation system. vegetative growth and enhances cell division
Nutrient concentration in irrigation water was and elongation as well as responsible for greater
well within the prescribed limits. Online drip line chlorophyll synthesis and thus increased activity
spread over the bed and covered with Silver black of leaf formation and development in chilli. Leaves
polythene film having thickness of 40 microns. The are the principle site of photosynthesis which
30 days old seedling of chilli F1 Hybrid (Sitara) were accumulates more carbohydrates to further increase
transplanted according to allotted plant spacing in their numbers and area. The close spacing highly
randomized block of 4.5 m × 3.6 m. responses to the availability of ample amount
of macronutrients (NPK) resulted in a better
The observations recorded were plant height, vegetative growth of the crop and thereby higher
stem diameter, plant spread and leaf area, yield dry matter production per unit area. Similar results
and yield attributing parameters viz., days to flower

64 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69

 Effect of Planting Geometry and Fertigation Levels
Table 1. Planting geometry and fertigation levels influenced the growth parameters.
Pooled (2014-15 and 2015-16)
Treatment Stem diameter Plant spread Leaf area
Plant height (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm2)
Planting geometry (S)
S1 81.53 3.23 72.46 119.97
S2 85.25 3.48 77.63 124.48
S3 86.74 3.56 77.58 126.83
‘F’ test Sig Sig S Sig
SE(m) ± 0.85 0.04 1.07 0.87
CD @ 5% 2.56 0.12 3.20 2.61
Fertigation levels (F)
F1 73.88 3.02 63.88 85.66
F2 87.21 3.44 80.68 124.32
F3 92.43 3.81 83.12 161.30
‘F’ test Sig Sig S Sig
SE(m) ± 0.85 0.04 1.07 0.87
CD @ 5% 2.56 0.12 3.20 2.61
Interaction effect (S × F)
S1 F1 78.97 2.98 66.91 89.49
S1 F2 80.16 3.19 73.17 115.03
S1 F 3 85.46 3.53 77.30 155.40
S2 F1 72.51 3.02 64.08 83.19
S2 F2 90.68 3.61 88.82 127.63
S2 F3 92.55 3.81 79.99 162.61
S3 F1 70.17 3.05 60.64 84.29
S3 F2 90.78 3.53 80.05 130.30
S3 F3 99.27 4.09 92.05 165.89
‘F’ test Sig Sig Sig Sig
SE(m) ± 1.48 0.07 1.85 1.50
CD @ 5% 4.43 0.21 5.54 4.50

were reported by Ayare et al (2012), Sollapur and S3 (90 × 45 cm) and 80% RDF through fertigation
Hiremath (2017) in Brinjal, Bhattarai et al (2015) (F3). While the wider spacing (S1) and 100% RDF
and Ganjare et al (2013) in capsicum. through soil application (F1) recorded lowest values
for all the characters. The treatment combination
Yield and yield attributing characters S3F3 showed best performance for all the characters
The data (Table 2) regarding the yield and yield and it was found on par with the treatment S2F3 and
contributing characters viz., fruit length, diameter S F with each other.
of fruit, number of fruits per plant was recorded 2 2

significantly maximum under the closer spacing Similarly, the highest average fresh weight of
fruit per plant (g), green chilli yield per plant (kg),

65 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69

 Nandeshwar and Bharad
Table 2. Yield and yields attributing parameters influenced by planting geometry and fertigation
levels.
Pooled (2014-15 and 2015-16)
Dia. Of No. of Av. fresh Av. dry Green chilli Total yield
Treatment Length of fruit fruits / weight / weight / yield /plant (q/ ha)
fruit (cm) plant fruits plant fruits plant (kg)
(cm) (g) (g)
Planting geometry (S)
S1 12.78 1.16 126.49 392.11 46.40 1.57 205.08
S2 13.35 1.18 155.07 484.37 49.08 1.94 376.95
S3 13.71 1.19 157.36 488.16 45.85 1.95 504.77
‘F’ test Sig NS Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig
SE(m) ± 0.11 0.02 4.84 8.19 1.19 0.03 5.58
CD @ 5% 0.33 14.52 24.57 3.57 0.09 16.74
Fertigation levels (F)
F1 12.85 1.12 99.10 292.76 34.69 1.17 228.49
F2 13.38 1.19 160.97 535.44 53.75 2.14 427.29
F3 13.60 1.22 178.85 536.43 52.89 2.15 431.02
‘F’ test Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig
SE(m) ± 0.11 0.02 4.84 8.19 1.19 0.03 5.58
CD @ 5% 0.33 0.06 14.52 24.57 3.57 0.09 16.74
Interaction effect (S × F)
S 1 F1 12.74 1.15 103.85 298.78 37.17 1.20 156.71
S 1 F2 13.05 1.16 121.32 446.17 51.93 1.78 233.14
S 1 F3 12.54 1.17 154.29 431.39 50.12 1.73 225.39
S 2 F1 12.57 1.14 97.47 293.20 34.24 1.17 229.86
S 2 F2 13.44 1.21 191.15 583.20 57.36 2.33 453.23
S 2 F3 14.06 1.19 176.59 576.69 55.63 2.31 447.77
S 3 F1 13.24 1.07 95.97 286.31 32.67 1.15 298.91
S 3 F2 13.66 1.19 170.43 576.96 51.97 2.31 595.49
S 3 F3 14.21 1.30 205.66 601.20 52.92 2.40 619.90
‘F’ test Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig
SE(m) ± 0.19 0.03 8.38 14.18 2.07 0.06 9.67
CD @ 5% 0.57 0.09 25.14 42.54 6.21 0.18 29.01

dry chilli yield per plant (kg) green, dry and total
yield of chill (q/ha) was recorded under the closer
spacing S3 and 80per cent RDF through fertigation
(F3). While the wider spacing (S1) and 100% RDF
through soil application (F1) recorded lowest values
for all the characters. The treatment combination
S3F3 recorded significantly maximum for all
characters and was found at par with S3F2. However,
the maximum average dry weight of fruit/plant (g)
was recorded in S2F2 which were found on par with
S2F3, S3F3 and S3F2.
The main focus of cultivating a crop is to have the
maximum yield per unit area for better returns. The

66 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69

 Effect of Planting Geometry and Fertigation Levels
Table 3. Quality parameters in chill parameters influenced by planting geometry and fertigation
levels.
Treatment Pooled (2014-15 and 2015-16)
Ascorbic acid Capsaicin Chlorophyll content Carotenoids Crude Protein
(mg /100 g content (mg/ (mg /100 g fresh content (mg/ content in fruit
fresh weight) 100 g dry weight) 100 g dry (%)
weight) Leaf Fruit weight)
Planting geometry (S)
S1 102.45 0.16 16.56 0.71 0.31 16.33
S2 126.11 0.18 15.82 0.88 0.32 20.81
S3 126.51 0.17 16.61 0.86 0.32 20.69
‘F’ test Sig NS Sig Sig NS Sig
SE(m) ± 1.13 0.01 0.16 0.02 0.01 0.25
CD @ 5% 3.39 0.48 0.06 0.75
Fertigation levels (F)
F1 81.53 0.13 13.51 0.49 0.29 17.53
F2 120.97 0.19 17.01 0.98 0.33 19.91
F3 152.56 0.21 18.47 0.98 0.32 20.40
‘F’ test Sig NS Sig Sig S Sig
SE(m) ± 1.13 0.04 0.16 0.02 0.01 0.25
CD @ 5% 3.39 0.48 0.06 0.75
Interaction effect (S × F)
S 1 F1 84.66 0.13 14.43 0.79 0.32 16.20
S 1 F2 107.03 0.18 18.33 0.69 0.32 16.27
S 1 F3 115.68 0.16 16.94 0.64 0.29 16.53
S 2 F1 79.36 0.14 12.97 0.38 0.27 18.01
S 2 F2 131.07 0.21 16.17 1.22 0.34 21.63
S 2 F3 167.87 0.22 18.32 1.04 0.33 22.80
S 3 F1 80.57 0.12 13.13 0.30 0.28 18.39
S 3 F2 124.82 0.19 16.53 1.03 0.33 21.83
S 3 F3 174.12 0.22 20.17 1.27 0.34 21.85
‘F’ test Sig NS Sig Sig - Sig
SE(m) ± 1.95 0.03 0.28 0.02 0.02 0.44
CD @ 5% 5.85 0.84 0.06 1.32

interaction effect of planting geometry and fertigation
levels were found significant on the green fruit yield
per plant in kilogram. The maximum green fruit yield
per plant in chilli was recorded under S3F3 and the
minimum green fruit yield per plant was recorded
by the treatment S3F1. The total yield increased with
higher planting densities. This was probably due to
increase in the number of plants per unit area, which
might be contributed to the production of extra yield
per unit area leading to high yield (Aminifard et al,
2012). Lower planting densities per unit area produces
more vigorous crops than at higher population density,
but this could not compensate for a reduced number
of plants per unit area.

67 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69

 Nandeshwar and Bharad
Higher fruit yield per plant in the treatment
combination S3F3 may be due higher plant population
and fertigation of optimum levels of RDF which
supplied best amount of fertilizer, thereby increased
plant height, increased leaves, increased leaf area,
and dry matter production and due to increased
length of fruit and fruit girth, which enhanced
the yield. The results clearly demonstrated the
advantage of fertigation over soil application of
N and K fertilizers and irrigation by drip method.
The increased chilli yield under drip fertigation
can be attributed to the uniform distribution and
adequate availability of water around the root zone.
The increased yield under fertigation may be due
to the efficient use of nutrients at various stages of
crop growth and relatively less leaching and runoff
loss of nutrients. Also, this might be attributed by
highest fertilizer use efficiency of water soluble
fertilizers. Similar results were reported in chillies
by Sanchita et al (2010) in capsicum.
Quality parameters
The data (Table 3) of quality parameters viz.,
ascorbic acid, chlorophyll content in fruit was
registered maximum in the closer spacing S3 and 80%
RDF through fertigation (F3). Highest crude protein
content was recorded at moderate plant spacing
S2 (90 × 60 cm and 80% RDF through fertigation
(F3). Significantly the highest amount of ascorbic
acid was registered in S3F3 The maximum leaf and
fruit chlorophyll content was registered by the same
treatment combination and it was found on par with
S2F2 with respect to fruit chlorophyll content. The
highest crude protein content was registered in S2F3
which were found on par with S3F3, S3F2, S2F2. The
capsaicin and carotenoids content was significantly
not influenced by the levels of planting geometry
and fertigation.
Increase in ascorbic acid content (Table 3) Anonymous (2017). Horticultural Statistics at a Glance pp.
might be due to closest spacing, resulted to increase
plant competition for nutrients and water, and thus Ayare B L, Thokal R T, Thorat T N and Dabke D J (2012).
enhanced the vital metabolic activity and production
of organic acids. The results of present study were
68 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69
in accordance with the findings of Aminifard et
al (2012) in capsicum. This might be due to the
slow but continuous supply of all major and micro
nutrients in F3 treatment, which might have resulted
in the assimilation of carbohydrates and in turn
synthesis of ascorbic acid.
Nitrogen is the main constituent of all amino
acids in proteins and lipids that act as structural
compounds of the chloroplast. The results were
in conformity with the findings of Verma and
Guhey (2012). The total chlorophyll content, leaf
N concentration and shoot dry weight of pepper
increased with increasing N fertilization. Amended
with 80 and 100 per cent RDF through fertigation
proved to accumulate more nitrogen in plant tissues
than those with only fertigation. This might be
attributed to the enhanced metabolic activity of
the plants under frequent fertigation resulting in
increased protein synthesis. The positive influence
on crude protein content due to potassium was
noticed by Rani and Jose (2009).
CONCLUSION
From economic point of view, the individual
effect of planting geometry S3 (90 cm × 45 cm) and
80per cent RDF through fertigation (F3) were found
to be the best treatment. The interaction effect of
the treatment combination S3F3 were found superior
for achieving maximum growth, higher yield per
unit area and better quality fruit in chilli, in addition
to 20 per cent saving of cost of chemical fertilizers
were applied through fertigation.
REFERENCES
Aminifard M H, Aroiee H, Karimpour S and H Nemati (2012).
Effect of plant density and nitrogen fertilizer on growth,
yield and fruit quality of sweet pepper (Capsicum annum
L.). African J Agril Res 7 (6): 859-866.
1-514.
Effect of microirrigation systems and fertilizer levels on
growth and yield of green chilli (Capsicum annuum). Int
J Agric Engg 5 (2): 220-224.
 Effect of Planting Geometry and Fertigation Levels
Bhattarai P, Kaushik R A, Ameta K D, Jain H K, Kaushik
M K and Sharma F L (2015). Effect of plant geometry
and fertigation on growth and yield of cherry tomato
(Solanum lycopersicon var. cerasiforme) under zero
energy polyhouse conditions. Indian J Hort 72 (2): 297-
301.
Fisher’s R A (1963). Statistical Methods for Research Workers,
14th Edition, Hafner.
Ganjare H, Futane N V, Dagwar S and Kurhade K (2013).
Growth and yield characters of capsicum in response to
planting distance and sources of nutrients. Scholarly J
Agril Sci 3 (9): 386-39.
Hakkim A V M (2014). Effect of site specific drip fertigation
on yield of chilli. IOSR J Engg 4 (1): 33-41.
Rani B and Jose A I (2009). Studies on the dynamics of
potassium and magnesium in okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus (L). Moench.). The Proceedings of the
International Plant Nutrition Colloquium XVI UC Davi.
Sollapur D L and Hiremath S M (2017). Effects of planting
geometry and fertilizer levels on growth and yield of
hybrid brinjal. Int J Agric Sci 13 (1): 97-100.
Verma R and Guhey A (2012). Growth, physiology and yield
of chilli (Capsicum annum L.) genotype under different
fertility levels. M. Sc. Agri. Thesis. Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, C.G, India.
Received on 11/07/2019 Accepted on 14/10/2019

69 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 63-69

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 70-75 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00076.X

Effect of Processing Techniques on Quality and Acceptability of

Bitter Brinjal Pickle
Y. Prabhabati Devi
ICAR-Manipur Centre, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chandel ( Manipur)

ABSTRACT
The present study aimed at the formulation of organoleptic accepted bitter brinjal pickle. Commonly used
preservatives vinegar, acetic acid, salt and oil were added at different ratios to study the shelf life for a period
of one year and also changes in colour, flavor, texture and appearance of fungus. The results showed that bitter
brinjal pickle stored successfully for 45 d at ambient temperature (26 ± 4◦ C) without any significant change in the
quality attribute after incorporation of vinegar as a common preservative. The result showed that preservation
of bitter brinjal with vinegar was the best method for extending the shelf life and to retard microbial load.
Key Words: Bitter brinjal, Preservatives, Sensory, Shelf life.

INTRODUCTION The process of pickle production is carried

Bitter brinjal is a fruit plant from the genus
solanum family of the solanacene. It is widely used
as vegetables and also as a traditional medicine.
It is highly perishable and the shelf life can be
extended by preserving in the form of pickle. Pickle
is a good appetizer consumed by all age of people
which contain large amount of lactobacilli bacteria
which are important for the digestion of grains and
vegetables which have usual beneficial probiotic
properties used by the body. For pickling proper
concentration of salt is very important for better
shelf life and also to reduce the infestation of mold,
yeast and bacteria. If salt concentration is less, the
product gets slimy, soft and holds lots of water.
Therefore the average salt concentration should
not be less than 5.3 per cent. Sensory attribute is
one of the important factors govern the consumers
acceptance of food products and their purchase
intent. The overall quality of any food product is
related to several sensory attribute like appearance,
texture and flavor (Barrett et al, 2010; Nandane
and Jain, 2011). Texture is also one of the most
important sensorial quantitative characteristics of
pickle and its effect on product acceptance by the collected from Imphal market and other ingredients
buyer is crucial (Sadeghizadeh et al, 2018).
out under optimal condition, some changes occur
in the texture of primary products which affects
the quality of pickle as reported by Rodrige and
Alvarruiz (2010). Mustard oil, salt, and vinegar are
the common preservative used for long time back
(Devi, 2013). The popular common pickle prepared
by the women entrepreneurs are mango, chilli,
bitter brinjal, mixed vegetable, garlic, wild apple,
hog plum, fish pickle etc. But the quality and shelf
life of these pickles are of question. The problem of
shelf life of bitter brinjal pickle is higher in Manipur
as it is highly perishable and hence an attempt is
made to minimize the spoilage by the proper use
of preservatives and also to select good quality
bitter brinjal. The present study was undertaken
to prepare bitter brinjal pickle by use of different
preservatives, to observe shelf life at different
storage period, to evaluate the fungal growth and
also to assess the overall acceptability of pickle by
sensory evaluation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fresh, matured, healthy bitter brinjal were
like spices, oil, acetic acid and vinegar were also

Corresponding Author’s Email: prabhayumnam@rediffmail.com

70 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 70-75

 Prabhabati Devi
Table1. Method of selection of sample with different treatment.
Sample Treatment
Sample 1 Blanched bitter brinjal +3.5 per cent salt + spice + 15per cent mustard oil and store in sterialised
glass bottle
Sample 2 Blanched bitter brinjal + 5per cent salt + spice + 20per cent mustard oil and store in sterialised
glass bottle
Sample 3 Blanched bitter brinjal + 6per cent salt + spice + 25per cent mustard oil and store in sterialised
glass bottle
Sample 4 Blanched bitter brinjal + 9per cent salt + spice + 30 per cent mustard oil + 1.5 per cent Acetic acid
and store in sterialised glass bottle
Sample 5 Vinegar cured blanched bitter brinjal +10per cent salt + spice+35per cent mustard oil and store in
sterialised glass bottle

collected from the local market. The experiment was Fig 1. Flow chart for the preparation of
conducted for a period of one year. Observation was bitter brinjal pickle.
recorded at the end of every month for the period of TREATMENT – 1
2m and at 2m interval for the period up to12m in Select fresh and healthy bitter brinjal
order to see any change in colour, flavor, texture
and appearance of fungus. Method of collection of
Remove stalk and wash to remove dust
sample along with treatment was shown in Table1.
Method of preparation pickle Cut in to half and blanched
The recipe of the bitter brinjal pickle is given
in Table 2. Select fresh, mature bitter brinjal and
Fry spices in oil
wash thoroughly with tap water to remove dust and
dirt. Then remove stalk and cut in to half. Blanch it
for 5 min at a temperature 96-98º C and drain water Add blanched bitter brinjal to fried spices
properly. Fry spices in oil and add blanched bitter
brinjal and mix it properly. For storing pickle glass Add salt and fry the mixture for about 5 minutes
jar was sterialised at 100°C and dry it properly. In
some treatment like T4 acetic acid was used and in T5
vinegar was used. For making bitter brinjal pickle, Cool and fill in sterilized jar
mustard oil was heated and put all the spices, fry for
few seconds and added the blanched bitter brinjal Seal and store in cool dry place
and fry for 4-5 minutes in low flame till it blended
properly. Salt and remaining oil were added. The RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
fried bitter brinjal pickle was cooled, filled in to Observation of fungus growth
sterilized glass bottle and sealed airtight. The flow The fungal growth developed in bitter brinjal
chart for the preparation of bitter brinjal pickle was pickle at different storage period was examined
shown in fig 1. For treatment like T4 acetic acid was through visual observation. Details of the observation
added just before removing from fire and in case were given in Table 3. Up to 45 days storage, no
of T5, blanched bitter brinjal was cured in vinegar fungal growth was observed. During 2nd month of
overnight and drain vinegar water and other process storage, the fungal growth was observed inT1 due to
remain same with other treatments.

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 Effect of Processing Techniques
Table 3. Visual observation of fungus growth developed in bitter brinjal pickle at different storage.
Storage Sample Fungal Growth Storage Period Sample Fungal Growth
Period (Month)
(Month)
1month S1 No Growth S1 Excessive
S2 No Growth 8 month S2 Excessive
Slightly
S3 No Growth S3
No Growth
S4 No Growth S4
No Growth
S5 No Growth S5
2month S1 Slightly Growth 10 month S1 Excessive
S2 No Growth S2 Excessive
Slightly growth
S3 No Growth S3
No Growth
S4 No Growth S4
No Growth
S5 No Growth S5
4 month S1 Slightly Growth 12 month S1 Excessive
S2 No Growth S2 Excessive
Excessive
S3 No Growth S3
No Growth
S4 No Growth S4
No Growth
S5 No Growth S5
6 month S1 Excessive
S2 Slightly Growth
S3 No Growth
S4 No Growth
S5 No Growth

low concentration of salt and mustard oil. Whitish
fungal growth was observed on the surface of the
pickle may be due to spices, other ingredients, from
the air or from lid of the jar. From 6th m to 12 m,
excessive growth of fungus was observed in case
of T1 and T2 and other treatments like T3 there was
slight growth by fungus. In treatment like T4 and T5,
there was no fungal appearance on the surface of the
pickle due to high concentration of salt, mustard,
acetic acid and vinegar. The covering of oil as well
as proper concentration of salt helped to prevent
microbial contamination and vinegar and acetic
acid helped to maintain the proper pH of the pickle.
Storage studies of bitter brinjal pickle
Bitter brinjal pickles were stored at room
temperature. The deterioration of the product was
observed at a regular interval of one month up to 2 m
and at 2 m interval for a period up to 12 months. The
change in color, flavour and texture were observed
for a period of 1 year. Five different sample bitter
brinjal pickles were used for storage studies at room
temperature of 260 – 300 C from 1m to 12m. The
effect of storage time on physical properties such
as colour, flavour and texture of the pickles were
studied. The processed bitter brinjal pickles were
in good condition up to 45 days in case of T1 and
in case of T5, it was up to 12 months. For T1 and
T2, change in color, flavour and texture started from
4th months onwards which was shown in Table 4.

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 Prabhabati Devi
Table 4. Storage life of bitter brinjal pickle.
Shelf life Sample Colour Flavour Texture Remark
(month)
1 S1 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S2 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S3 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S4 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good
2 S1 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S2 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S3 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S4 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good
4 S1 Change Off flavour Soft Slightly spoiled
S2 No change Slightly off flavour Slightly soft Fair
S3 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S4 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good
6 S1 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Spoiled
S2 Change Off flavour Soft Slightly spoiled
S3 Slightly change Slightly off flavour Slightly Soft Fair
S4 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good
8 S1 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Completely spoiled
S2 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Spoiled
S3 Change Off flavour Soft Slightly spoiled
S4 No change No off flavour Firm Good
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good
10 S1 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Completely spoiled
S2 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Spoiled
S3 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Spoiled
S4 Slightly change Slightly off flavour Soft Slightly spoiled
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good
12 S1 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Completely
S2 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Completely
S3 Change Off flavour Extremely soft Spoiled
S4 Change Off flavour Soft Slightly spoiled
S5 No change No off flavour Firm Good

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 Effect of Processing Techniques
Table 5. Mean score for performance of colour flavour, texture and overall acceptability of various
sample of bitter brinjal pickle.
Sensory attributes
Sample Code
Colour Flavour Texture Taste Overall acceptability
S1 6.0 6.2 6. 8 6.5 6.6
S2 6.3 6.5 7.0 6.8 6.8
S3 6.5 6.8 7.2 7.1 7.0
S4 7.0 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5
S5 7.5 7.6 7.8 7.6 8.0

This may be due to lack of proper concentration of the others.

preservatives like salt and mustard oil. In case of
T3, changes started from 6m onwards and for T4, CONCLUSION
changes started from 10m onwards due to lack of Bitter brinjal pickle is highly perishable.
right concentration of preservatives like vinegar and Therefore, proper preservatives like salt, mustard
acetic acid. For T5, there was no change in color, oil, acetic acid and vinegar should be used in
flavour and texture up to 12m as the blanched bitter proper concentration to extend the shelf life of the
brinjal was cured in vinegar for overnight and right pickle. From this study, it was found that fungal
concentration of salt and mustard oil were added growth was a great problem of pickle. If we add
which helped to extend the shelf life up to 12m. proper concentration of preservatives, the fungal
growth becomes very low. The panelists also tested
Sensory evaluation of bitter brinjal pickle the product and gave the score for color, flavour,
The consumer’s acceptability of processed texture, taste and overall acceptability. The score of
bitter brinjal pickle was evaluated by a taste panel test indicated that among the five treatments,
testing panel. The hedonic rating test was used the pickle which was prepared with vinegar cured
to determine the acceptability of pickle. The 20 blanched bitter brinjal (T5) was the most acceptable.
panelists were selected from women entrepreneur In case of shelf life, T5 have better shelf life than
of Imphal, Manipur. Panelists were asked to give other 4 treatment. It was proved thatT5 is the best
scores for characteristic color, flavour, texture, method for extending the shelf life and also for
taste and overall acceptability of the processed improving the quality of the pickle. This study gives
bitter brinjal pickle. The scale was arranged such a good prospect on processing of bitter brinjal. This
that 9 = like extremely, 8 = like very much, 7 = technology may be adopted on large scale by the
like moderately, 6 = like slightly, 5 = neither like or women entrepreneurs and farm women in order to
dislike, 4 = Dislike slightly, 3 = Dislike moderately, generate income and occupy a space in the market.
2 = Dislike very much, 1 = Dislike extremely. The
mean score of performance of bitter brinjal pickles
REFERENCES
were presented in Table 5. From the table, it is seen Goel A K, Kumar R and Mann S S (2007). Postharvest
that T5 secured the highest score: 7.5 for colour, 7.6 Management and Value Addition. Daya Publishing
for flavour, 7.8 for texture, for taste 7.6 and 8.0 for House, Trinagar, New Delhi - 110 035.
overall acceptability and was ranked 8 (like very Devi Y Prabhabati and Roy S S, Devi Y I , Kabui G B and
much). It also showed that T1 got the lowest value Prakash N (2013). Delights of Fruits and Vegetables,
than the other sample. So, this indicated that color, published by ICAR, Manipur Centre, Imphal.
flavour, texture, taste of T5 is more acceptable than

74 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 70-75

 Prabhabati Devi
Shanta F, Rajib R, Alim M and Haque M (2014). Studies
on preparation of amaranth pickle. J Bangladesh Agril
Univ 12(1): 177-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jbau.
v12i1.21409
Girdhari L and Siddapa G S (2014). Chutney, sauce, pickle,
preservation of fruits and vegetables. ICAR Publication,
New Delhi.
Hoque F (2001). Processing of Pickle from Mango, Tomato,
and Green Chilli, M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Food
Technology and Rural Industry, Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh.
Mishra P, Verma M,  Mishra V, Mishra  and Rai GK (2011).
Study on development of ready to eat amla chutney and
its preservation by using class one preservative. Am J Fd
Tech 6 (3):244-252
Mudabi S R and Rajagopal M V (1982). Fundamentals of
Food and Nutrition, Wilsey Eastern Publication, New
Delhi.
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Rani U M (1992). Studies on Quality Standard of India
Commercial Pickle, Indian Food Packers, India 40 (6).
Sangeeta A Pingale and Vaibhav R Dabhade (2015)
Development and sensory attributes of the pickle made
from Bitter gourd and Bottle gourd. Int J Sci Res 4(10):
1787-1790
Shahzor Gul Khaskheli , Wen Zheng , Saghir Ahmed sheikh ,
Ashfaque Ahmed Khaskheli , Ying Liu , Yan-Feng Wang
and Wen Huang (2015). Effects of processing techniques
on the quality and acceptability of Auricularia auricular
Mushroom pickle’. J Food and Nutr Res 3(1):46-51
Srivastava R P and Kumar S (2003). Fruit and Vegetable
Preservation. Indian Food Packer, Lucknow.
Received on 03/07/2019 Accepted on 14/10/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 76-80 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00078.3

Effect of Various Silicon Sources on Nutrient Uptake in Rice

GuntamukkalaBabu Rao1*,Poornima Yadav P I2 and Elizabeth K Syriac3
Department of Agronomy
Kerala Agricultural University, Thiruvananthapuram 680654 (Kerala)

ABSTRACT
Silicon nutrition is gaining importance in agriculture owing to its positive effects in rice production. A field
experiment was carried out at the farmer’s field in Kerala during Kharif, 2016 to evaluate different silicon
sources on nutrient uptake by rice and available nutrient status of soil after the harvest. The experiment was
laid out in randomised block design with seven treatments and three replications. Different silicon sources
viz., potassium silicate, fine silica, rock dust, rice husk ash were involved in the treatments and fertilizer
application was done according to the recommended dose of fertilizers as per Package of Practice of Kerala
Agricultural University. Silicon nutrition have shown significant influence on the total nutrient uptake by the
crop and available soil nutrient status of soil after the harvest. Among the treatments, the Treatment T6 i.e., fine
silica @ 50 kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 250 kg/ha, has shown the better results with respect to nutrient uptake {N
(189.74 kg/ha); P (17.19 kg/ha); K (127.38 kg/ha) and Si (345.14 kg/ha)} by the crop and available nutrient
status of the soil {N (377.73 kg/ha); P (36.37 kg/ha); K (206.25 kg/ha) and Si (83.61 kg/ha)} after the harvest.
Key Words: Laterite soils, Nutrient Uptake, Nutrient status, Rice, Silicon.

INTRODUCTION viz. diseases, insect pests, drought, salinity, heavy

Rice is the main staple food crop of Kerala.
The rice farming sector of Kerala is facing a series
of problems which leads to a drastic decline in
production due to numerous soil related constraints
like Iron and Aluminium toxicity and high acidity
of the soils of the state (Maneesha et al, 2016).
Majority of Kerala soils are lateritic in nature which
are low in Organic carbon, N and K, very low in
Ca and Mg coupled with the iron and aluminium
toxicitieswhich need separate management package
(Annonymous, 2016). The foremost reasons behind
the low productivity of rice in laterite soils of
Kerala mainly in lowland situations are due to the
low nutrient status of the soil
Silicon (Si) is one of the abundant element in
the earth’s crust which is known to have several
beneficial effects on crop growth, especially for
Poaceae crops like Rice (Devanur, 2015; Rao,
2017). The potential of silicon in enhancing rice
yield has been demonstrated in numerous studies
especially under biotic and abiotic stress conditions farmer’s field in Kerala, during Kharif 2016. The
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: sekhar2486@gmail.com
1*
M.Sc. Scholar. 2Assistant Professor. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kottarakkara, Kollam, Kerala and 3Professor (Agronomy).
metals (Epstein, 2001). Silicon is known to reduce
the concentration of toxic elements like Fe, Al, other
heavy metals in laterite derived paddy soils and
also improve soil physical properties and available
nutrient status in soil (Devanur, 2015). Rice being a
high Si demanding crop, increasing rice yield per unit
area is relatively associated with Silicon depletion,
which is a matter of concern. In general farmers
export silicon from field by removing straw residues
with the harvest and the exogenous application of
silicon in rice is overlooked. Therefore, a continued
supply of silicon would be required predominantly
for the healthy and productive development of plant
during all growth stages (Epstein, 2001). Hence,
the present investigation was undertaken with an
objective to assess the effect of silicon nutrition
in rice on total nutrient uptake by the crop and
available nutrient status of soil after the harvest.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted at a

76 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 76-80

 Rao et al
soil of the experimental site was sandy clay loam,
acidic in nature (pH 4.50), high in OC (1.01%) and
safe EC (0.10 dS/m). The initial nutrient status of
the soil were N (550.5 kg/ha.), P (16.86 kg/ha), K
(196.90 kg/ha) and Si (45.02 kg/ha) respectively.
The experiment was laid out in randomized block
design with seven treatments and three replications
with each plot size of 5 m x 4 m using Rice variety
Uma, which was transplanted during first week of
July with a spacing of 20 x 15 cm. All treatments
were supplied with similar recommended dose
of fertilizers i.e., Lime @ 150 kg/ha + farm yard
manure @ 5 t/ha + NPK @ 90:45:120 kg/ha (KAU,
2016) The treatments were, T1-Fine silica @ 100
kg/ha; T2-Fine silica @ 75 kg/ha + rock dust @ 25 kg/ha;
T3 -Fine silica @ 75 kg/ha + foliar application of K2SiO3 at
maximum tillering stage @ 0.5%; T4 -Fine silica
@ 50 kg/ha + rock dust @ 25 kg/ha + foliar application of K2SiO3 at
maximum tillering stage @ 0.5%; T5-Fine silica
@ 75 kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 125 kg/ha; T6-Fine
silica @ 50 kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 250 kg/ha;
T7- Fine silica @ 50 kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 125
kg/ha + foliar application of potassium silicate at
maximum tillering stage @ 0.5%. Silicon sources
such as fine silica, rock dust, and rice husk ash were
applied basally as per treatments at transplanting,
and foliar application of potassium silicate @ 0.5
% at maximum tillering stage. Soil samples were
analysed for available nutrient status before and
after the harvest of the crop and expressed as kg/
ha. Plant samples were collected at harvest stage
and analyzed for different nutrients viz., N, P, K
and Si. The total uptake of N, P, K and Si by the
plant at harvest was calculated as the product of
the respective nutrient content and plant dry weight
and expressed as kg/ha. The data obtained were
subjected to statistical analysis and were tested at
five per cent level of significance to interpret the
treatment differences.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of silicon nutrition on nutrient content in
rice straw, grain and total nutrient uptake
The silicon nutrition had no shown significant
77 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 76-80
influence on N content in grain and straw, but total
N uptake increased significantly by silicon nutrition.
With respect to total N uptake, T6 (Fine silica @ 50
kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 250 kg/ha) was superior with
an uptake of 189.74 kg/ha. The available N content
of soil was also low for the above treatment after
harvest compared to the initial soil N. This might
naturally be due to enhanced absorption of N by the
crop ultimately leading to higher N uptake by plant,
resulting in low available N status in soils. Similar
results have also been reported by Rao (2018) and
Devanur (2015).
Phosphorus concentration in plant and uptake of
P were positively influenced by silicon application.
Treatment T6 (fine silica @ 50 kg/ha + rice husk ash @
250 kg/ha) produced significantly higher content of
P in grain and total P uptake, this treatment received
the highest quantity of silicon i.e. 200 kg/ha. The P
content of straw was also found to be the highest in
T6 (0.07 %), followed by T7 (0.06 %). The available
P content in the soil after the experiment was also
high in the above treatments. The monosilicic acid
anions released from silicon sources might have
replaced the phosphate anions released from Fe
and Al phosphate, which might have resulted in
higher P content and uptake by the plants. Increase
in P uptake by the rice crop increased from 26 to
34 per cent when P as single superphosphate was
applied along with a silicate fertilizer. Tavakkoli et
al. (2011) reported that overall beneficial effect of
silicon may be attributed to a higher P: Mn ratio
in the plant shoot due to the decreased Mn and Fe
uptake, and thus indirectly improving P utilization
within the rice plants. Addition of silicon fertilizers
also increased the pH in acid soils which will release
P from Fe-P and Al-P complexes (Rao, 2017)
The data with respect to K content in grain,
straw and total K uptake are presented in Table 2.
The content of K in grain, straw and total uptake of
K by rice crop increased with silicon application.
Fine silica @ 50 kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 125 kg/
ha + foliar application of potassium silicate at
maximum tillering stage @ 0.5 % spray (T7) and
 Effect of Various Silicon Sources
Table1. Effect of silicon nutrition on the N and P content in grain, straw and total N and P uptake
by Rice.
N content (%) Total N uptake P content (%) Total P uptake
Treatment Grain Straw (kg/ha) Grain Straw (kg/ha)
T1 1.46 0.97 166.73 0.15 0.04 12.08
T2 1.45 1.01 164.49 0.14 0.03 10.39
T3 1.45 0.95 166.02 0.14 0.04 11.52
T4 1.42 1.03 169.30 0.15 0.05 12.86
T5 1.51 0.97 175.25 0.16 0.06 14.49
T6 1.55 1.04 189.74 0.18 0.07 17.19
T7 1.56 0.99 181.36 0.17 0.06 15.44
S E m± 0.096 0.051 4.582 0.000 0.000 0.112
CD (0.05) NS NS 9.985 0.005 0.009 0.243

fine silica @ 50 kg/ha + rice husk ash @ 250 kg/ha
(T6) were significantly superior with respect to K
content in straw. However, T7 was found to be the
treatment with highest grain K and total K uptake.
Soil application of silicon has synergistic interaction
with applied K and also promotes the release of K
from the exchange sites to the soil solution by the
hydrogen ions produced during the oxidation of Fe
and Al compounds. Silicon application increased
yield response to applied potassium in upland rice.
Similar beneficial effect of silicon fertilizers on K
content in plant and K uptake are reported by Singh
and Singh (2005) and Sunil kumar (2000).
Effect of silicon nutrition on Silicon content in
rice straw, grain and total uptake
The data with respect to Si content in grain,
straw and total Si uptake are presented in Table 2.
The silicon nutrition of rice evaluated in terms of
concentration and uptake of silicon was influenced
by silicon fertilization. With respect to silicon content
in grain and straw, T7 and T6 were significantly
superior to other treatments. Silicon supply in T7
was less, but foliar application of potassium silicate
helped to improve silicon uptake. However, with
respect to available silicon in soil, T6 was superior
to T7. The increase in plant available silicon in the
soil was usually accompanied by increased silicon
accumulation in the plant, which might have result
in increased growth and productivity in several
crops, especially rice. Silicon content of rice straw
shows large variations from 1.7 to 9.3% and is
influenced by several factors such as soil, irrigation
water quality, amount of fertilizers applied, rice
cultivars and season. The straw silica content of rice
at harvest ranged from 4.8 to 13.5% in dry season
and from 4.3 to 10.3%, in wet season (Devanur,
2015).
Effect of silicon nutrition on available nutrient
status of soil
The data on available nutrient (N, P, K and
Si) content in soil are presented in Table 3. The
available N content in the soil was not significantly
influenced by the treatments. The treatments had
not shown significant effect on available N in soil,
but when compared to initial soil N status, there
was a decline in soil N status in all the treatments.
This decrease in available N in soil might be due
to enhanced uptake of soil N, because silicon in
soil has the ability to raise the optimum N rate,
thus enhancing the productivity of existing lowland
paddy fields (Rao, 2017).

78 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 76-80

 Rao et al
Table 2. Effect of silicon nutrition on the K and Si content in grain, straw and total K and Si uptake
by Rice.
K content (%) Total K uptake Si content (%) Total Si uptake
Treatment Grain Straw (kg/ha) Grain Straw (kg/ha)
T1 0.40 0.95 105.81 0.76 3.20 322.78
T2 0.36 0.93 99.82 0.61 2.8 273.89
T3 0.39 0.97 107.25 0.68 3.11 311.19
T4 0.37 0.95 104.84 0.59 2.9 282.27
T5 0.50 0.96 113.10 0.85 3.21 330.11
T6 0.56 1.06 127.38 0.92 3.29 345.14
T7 0.86 1.09 147.07 0.96 3.37 352.93
S E m± 0.115 0.036 1.414 0.051 0.057 2.192
CD (0.05) 0.059 0.082 3.082 0.108 0.125 4.778

The available P content in soil was significantly
higher in the T6, followed by T7 and T5. This
increase in P might be due to the possibility of
replacing the phosphate anion [HPO4]2- from Al
and Fe phosphates by monosilicic acid [Si(OH)3]-
of silicon sources. Guntzer et al. (2012) observed
that there was an increase in the response of applied
phosphorus in rice, when applied along with silicon
fertilizers.
The available potassium content in soil was
significantly influenced by the silicon application.
The highest available K was found in T6, which was
followed by T7, T1, T5 and T4. The production of
hydrogen ions during reduction of Fe and Al might
have helped in the release of K from the exchange
sites or from the fixed pool to the soil solution.
Yadav (2017) stated that beside yield enhancement
in rice, silicon also has many fold advantages of
increasing availability of major nutrients and also
alleviating iron toxicity problems in soils. These
results were confirmative with the findings of and
Mali and Aery (2008).
Silicon nutrition significantly influenced soil
silicon status also. The soil silicon was found to be
higher in all the treatments after harvest compared
to the initial status, but the highest soil available
silicon was found in T6, followed by T5. The silicon
applied through various silicon sources, would
have prevailed in soil as monosilicic acid (H4SiO4)
due to its residual activity and enhanced soil silicon
availability. These findings were in agreement with
those reported by Singh et al (2006) and Korndorfer
et al (2001). Prasanta and Heinz (2009) reported
that changes in the pH of soils due to soil flooding
significantly influence the solubility of Fe, P and Si
in soil; so also plant available soil silicon increases
due to increase in soil reaction. In the present study
also, the increase in soil reaction compared to the
initial value might have resulted in significantly
higher silicon content in soil.
CONCLUSION
The silicon in soil is decreasing at a rapid rate
due to intensive cultivation of Rice and also due
to lack of incorporation of rice crop residues into
the soil. In general, the farmers remove all the rice
stubbles after the harvest of the crop in order to
prepare the field for next crop. By this process soil
silicon is not getting replenished. Nowadays the
importance of silicon is much felt by researches as
it have many advantages in the rice crop production.
To solve the deficiency of silicon in soil, the rice
stubbles should be incorporated and along with that

79 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 76-80

 Effect of Various Silicon Sources
Table 3. Effect of silicon nutrition on available nutrients (N, P, K and Si) in soil.
Available nutrients (kg/ha)
Treatment
N P K Si
T1 356.10 32.58 199.10 75.40
T2 323.33 31.87 183.40 74.92
T3 363.43 29.54 177.87 74.17
T4 315.53 27.49 187.84 74.06
T5 370.99 34.72 196.06 80.76
T6 377.73 36.37 206.25 83.61
T7 366.68 33.96 204.89 79.33
S E m± 19.971 1.567 8.675 1.547
CD (0.05) NS 3.415 18.904 3.372

various organic and inorganic sources can be used. context of food security. Int J Agric Res Rev 4(8): 538-
In the present research the treatments were sources 546.
like rice husk ash and fine silica were applied in- Prasanta K P and Heinz UN (2009). Dynamics of water soluble
addition to the Package of practices followed by silica and silicon nutrition of rice in relation to changes
in iron and phosphorus in soil solution due to soil drying
Kerala Agricultural University, resulted in the and reflooding. Archives Agron Soil Sci 56(6): 605–622.
better nutrient uptake by rice and also the available
Rao G B, Yadav P I and Syriac E K (2017). Silicon nutrition
nutrient status was also increased. in rice- A review. J. Pharmacognosy Phytochem 6(6):
390-392.
REFERENCES Rao G B, Yadav P I and Syriac E K (2018). Effect of silicon on
Annonymous (2016). Soils of Kerala [On-line]. Available: soil physico-chemical properties in laterite derived paddy
http://www.keralaagriculture.gov.in [25 DEC.2016]. soils of Kerala. J Krishi Vigyan 6(2): 75-77.
Devanur V (2015). SILICON-Solution for tomorrow, Concept Singh K K and Singh K (2005). Effect of N and Si on growth,
note. Available: http://www.privilifesciences.com/ yield attributes and yield of rice in Alfisols. Int Rice Res
download/silicon-supplement.pdf. [25 Dec. 2016]. Notes 12: 40–41.
Epstein E( 2001). Silicon in plants. Stud Plant Sci 8: 1-15. Singh K, Singh R, Singh J P, Singh Y and Singh K K (2006).
Guntzer F, Keller C and Meunier J D (2012). Benefits of plant Effect of level and time of silicon application on growth,
silicon for crops: A review. Agron, Sustain Dev 32: 201– yield and its uptake by rice. Indian J Agric Sci 76(7): 410-
213. 413.
KAU (Kerala Agricultural University). 2016. Package of Sunilkumar B (2000). Suitability of upland rice (Oryza sativa
Practices Recommendations: Crops (15th Ed.). Kerala L.) cultivars for shaded situations. M.Sc. (Ag) thesis,
Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, 393p. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, 117p.
Korndorfer G H, Snyder G H, Ulloa M, Powell G and Datnoff Tavakkoli E H, English P and Guppy N C (2011). Silicon and
L E (2001). Calibration of soil and plant silicon analysis phosphorus to mitigate manganese toxicity in rice in a
for rice production. J Plant Nutr 24: 1071-1084. highly weathered soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Analysis
Mali M and Aery N C (2008). Silicon effects on nodule 42: 503-513
growth, dry matter production, and mineral nutrition of Yadav P. P I, Manu C R and Noble Abraham (2017). Silicon
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 171: nutrition for sustainable rice production in iron toxic
835–40. laterite soils of Kollam district in Kerala. J. Krishi Vigyan
Maneesh P and Deepa N R (2016). Trend analysis of area, 5(2): 150-153.
production and productivity of rice in Kerala in the Received on 08/06/2019 Accepted on 08-09-2019

80 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 76-80

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00081.3

Evaluation of Cropping System of Medium Duration Rice

Followed by Toria under Medium Land Situation
R Bezbaruah1and R S Deka2
Regional Agricultural Research Station
Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur 787 032(Assam)

ABSTRACT
The study was carried out during Kharif and rabi season of2016-17 and 2017-18 at different locations.
Existing farmers’ practices were treated as control for comparison with recommended practices. All the
demonstrations have been carried out with an objective to demonstrate how double cropping can be
adopted such as rice followed by toria which can be adjusted in a cropping system considering the early
harvesting of the first crop rice so that toria seeds can be sown on recommended date as per package
of practice. The improved technologies consisting use of medium duration rice variety TTB 404, Toria
variety TS 36 and TS 38, balanced fertilizer application and other cultural practices. Rice and toria cropping
system gave the average rice equivalent yield of33.15q/ha compared to 24.69q/ha obtained at farmer’s
practice. The average percentage increase of rice-toria system in two years recorded 34.3percentover
farmer’s practice. The cropping system with improved varieties recorded higher average gross return (Rs
92,064/-), net return (Rs.45,535/-)with higher benefit cost ratio(1.99)as compared to farmer’s practices.
Key Words: Benefit cost ratio, Cropping system,Economics, Medium duration rice, Rice equivalent yield,

INTRODUCTION Moreover, introduction of oilseeds can provide a

There has been a rapid increase in the availability sustainable production base to the continued rice
of improved and short duration varieties, early mono-cropped system, which is otherwise leading
crop establishment techniques, pest management to decline in total factor productivity. Crop growth,
alternatives, farm machinery and supplemental development, water use, and yield under normal
irrigation. Rice fallows have a great potential for conditions are largely determined by weather
cultivation of oilseeds. However, very little efforts during the growing season. Most pronounced
has been made to efficiently utilize these rice fallow effect of climate change is a drastic change in the
with appropriate technical and developmental back- rainfall pattern in the form of delayed monsoon,
up. It is expected that nearly 3.0 million hectare area early withdrawal or inadequate precipitation with
of rice fallows can be brought under cultivation, poor distribution leading to either drought or
which can provide about 1.5±2.0 million tonnes waterlogged conditions, particularly in rainfed
of additional food grain production (Anonymous, ecosystem. Therefore, timing of rice transplanting
2013) and help in meeting the increasing demands plays an important role in getting higher yield of
of oilseeds. Development and popularization of rice and sowing of succeeding dry season crops
improved varieties of oilseeds suiting to rice fallows mainly oilseeds (Lal et al, 2017).
of different agro-ecological regions coupled with India is a predominantly agriculture based
improved agro-technology will boost production, economy country. The productivity of crop increased
and thus improve income and livelihood security as in India due to increase in improved production
well as nutritional security of farming community. technologies. Rice-rice and rice –fallows are no
Corresponding Author’s Email : ranjitabezbarua@gmail.com
1
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Assam Agricultural University, North Lakhimpur, Assam
2
KVK, Morigaon, Assam

81 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86

 Bezbaruah and Deka
longer productive in Assam. Crop and varietal

Harvesting
diversification of the rice based cropping systems

20.03.16
01.02.17
may improve the productivity and profitability of
the system. Diversification is also a viable option
Toria

to mitigrate the risk of climate change. In Eastern

India farmers cultivate rice during rainy season
15.12.16
24.11.17
Sowing

(June-Sept) and land leftover fallow after rice

harvest in the post rainy season(Nov-May) due to
lack of sufficient rainfall or irrigation amenities.
Farmer’s practice

Harvesting

However in low land areas, sufficient residue soil

04.12.16
06.11.17

moisture are available in rice fallow in the post

rainy season(Nov-March) which can be utilized for
raising second crop in the region. Implementation
Transplanting

of suitable crop /varietal diversification is thus

13.07.16
17.06.17

very much vital to achieve this objective. Due to

Rice

cultivation of long duration rice varieties timely

sowing of toria is difficult. The medium duration
rice varieties TTB 404(Shravani) has been taken
with medium duration of 135-140 d and timely sown
21.06.16
22.05.17
Sowing

toria variety TS 36 and TS 38 has been taken to see

Table 1. Year wise sowing dates and harvesting dates of Rice and toria

the performance in cropping system to maximize

the production utilizing optimum resources.
Harvesting
22.02.17
13.02.18

The study was undertaken in rainfed based

cropping system in Morigaon district of Assam
during, 2016-17 and 2017-18 with an objective to
Toria

explore the possibility of growing medium duration

20.11.16
08.11.17
Sowing

rice variety followed by high yielding varieties of

toria to for double cropping and timely sowing of
crop as per recommended date.
Demonstration

Harvesting

30.10.17
10.11.16

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried in 8 locations in
Morigaon district situated in central Brahmaputra
zone (920 E to 95.50 E longitude and 26.150N to
Transplanting

26.50N latitude ) during 2016 and 2017 of Assam

13.07.16
17.06.17
Rice

covering total 8 villages with four hectare area.

Farmers were selected based on land situation for
double cropping. The required inputs were supplied,
and regular visits to the demonstration fields by
21.06.16
22.05.17
Sowing

the KVK scientists ensured proper guidance to the

farmers.
The sowing of rice was done during June in
kharif season and harvested during October and
Year

2016
2017

82 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86

 Evaluation of Cropping System
November whereas toria was sown within mid
November in rabi season and harvested in February
(Table 1).Using the recommended package of
practices, total 8 demonstrations were conducted
covering total area of 4.0 ha in both the years. Seeds
were sown in rows in case of rice and broadcasted
in case of toria.The soil was acidic and medium
land situation. The demonstration (Demo) yield
was compared with farmer’s practice (FP) where
long duration rice verities Aijung was practiced
followed by toria. At maturity, ten plants of each
treatment were randomly selected to measure yield
attributes(excluding the border plants). Number
of panicles was counted from each treatment, and
five panicles per plant were randomly selected for
measuring panicle length, number of spikelet per
panicle and 1000 grain weight was determined. The
rice crop was harvested and sun dried for 3 days,
then total produce was weighed. The produce was
then threshedand grains were separated, dried (up
to 14% moisture content) and weighed for grain
yield.The rice grain yield was determined with the
moisture content being adjusted to 14%. Similarly
yield of non-rice crops was also recorded.
Rice Equivalent yield(REY) was calculated to
compare system performance by converting the
yield to non-rice crops into equivalent rice yield on
a price basis, using the formula REY=Yx (Px/Pr)
where Yx is the yield of non-rice crops(q/ha),Px is
the price of non-rice crop(Rs /q) and Pr is the price
of rice.
Gross return: The total monetary returns of the
economic produce obtained from the crop included
in the system were calculated based on the local
market prices. The total return was expressed in
terms of unit area, usually one hectare
Net return: This has been calculated by subtracting
the total cost of cultivation from the returns. This
value gives the actual profit obtained by the farmer.
Return per rupee invested: This is befit-cost ratio or
input-output ratio (Gross return/Cost of cultivation)
83 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yield attributing charactersandYield
The yield attributing characters of demonstration
plots were found to be more compared to farmers
practices (Table 2). The average plant height of rice
was found 112.5 cm in HYV of rice compared to
FP of 121 cm. The number of tillers/plant(16.95),
the number of spike per tiller (14.65).Spike length
(23.8 cm), number of grains per tiller (298) and 100
grain weight (20.5 g) have been recorded in medium
duration rice variety which were higher than the FP.
Likewise the yield attributing characters of high
yielding variety of toria were also found higher. The
yield of individual crop rice ( 44 q/ha and 47 q/ha)
and toria (11 q/ha and 11.8 q/ha) also found to be
more in demonstration plots during 2016 and 2017
respectively compared to farmer’s practice plots
(Table 3). These may be due to use of high yielding
varieties of rice and toria and adoption of improved
packages and practices from sowing to harvesting.
Among the crop production tools, proper time and
method of sowing are the prerequisites that allow
the crops to complete its life phase timely and
successfully under a specific agro-ecology. Among
the different components of agronomic packages for
rice cultivation, the date of transplanting is one of
the important factors as early or late transplanting
may face different types of abiotic stress (Nahar et
al, 2009). It is also crucial for successful dry season
cropping following rice especially if conditions are
dependent on rains, particularly at the end of the
rainy season or the beginning of the dry season, the
temporal variability within each site associated with
rainfall could mask this trend (Ghosh et al, 1998). In
this study timely planting (July) resulted in higher
biomass accumulation, yield and productivity.
Rice Equivalent Yield
The average of three years data of rice-toria
system, the demonstration plot has shownhigher
rice equivalent yield of the system compare to
the farmer’s practice (Table 3). The average rice
equivalent yield of 33.15q/ha recorded in rice and
toria cropping.
 Bezbaruah and Deka
Table 2. Yield attributing characters of Medium duration rice and toria during kharif& rabi
season(Average of two years)
Demonstration Farmer’s practice
Sr. No Particular Rice Toria Rice Toria
1 Plant height (cm) 112.5 39.2 121 29.7
2 No of tillers /plant 16.95 - 9.9 -
3 No of spike /tiller 14.65 - 8.85 -
4 Spike length(cm) 23.8 - 19.15 -
5 No of grains/tiller 298 - 173.5 -
6 1000 grain weight(g) 20.5 - 19.35 -
7 No of branches/plant - 5.4 - 3.9
8 No of siliqua/plant - 92.4 - 60.85
9 No of seeds/siliqua - 7.65 - 5.1

System compared to average rice equivalent
yield of 24.69 q/ha at farmer’s practice. The
average percentage increase of rice-toria system in
two years recorded 34.3 per cent was over farmer’s
practice. The increases of the REY was mainly
due to more yield of timely sown of toria , high
yielding variety as per recommendation. But in case
of farmer’s practice the yield of toria was not as per
due to late sowing as harvesting of long duration
rice took place in late November or first week of
December due to which toria couldn’t be sown on
normal time(mid Oct-mid Nov) and the yield of
toria declined compared to demonstration plots.
Economics and Benefit-cost ratio
The economic analysis revealed that the
highest cost of cultivation (Rs 51,546/-) incurred
on rice –toria system during 2017 in demonstration
compared to lowest(Rs 35,336/-) at farmer’s field
in 2016 (Table 5).The highest system gross return
(Rs 96,928 /-)was recorded in demonstration in
2017 and lowest in farmer’s field (Rs 62,135/-) in
2016 .The cropping system with improved varieties
recorded higher average gross return (Rs 92,064/-),
net return (Rs.45,536/-)with higher benefit cost ratio
(1.99) as compared to farmer’s practices where the
average gross return (Rs.63,064/-) and net return
(Rs 26,506/-) have been recorded with benefit cost
ratio of 1.81.
Similarly when post-rainy crops were grown
after rice in the same field the highest net return
was achieved in rice-groundnut, rice-lentil and rice-
rapeseed crop combination compared to farmer’s
practice reported by Singh et al ( 2014) reported.
The benefit cost ration of the system was recorded
highest(2.10) on demonstration plot in 2016
followed by 2017(1.88) whereas the farmer’s plot
recorded lowest (1.69) during 2017.This may be due
to higher gross return received in 2017.Net returns
were directly related to the system productivity and

Table 3. Economical yield of Rice and Toria and Rice Equivalent yield (q/ha) of the system (Average)
Year Economic yield of Economic yield of REY of REY of FP Percentage
Demo(q/ha) FP(q/ha) Demo (q/ (q/ha) increase over
Rice Toria Rice Toria ha) FP
2016 44.0 11.0 32.0 7.9 34.81 25.98 33.99
2017 47.0 11.8 35.0 7.8 31.5 23.40 34.61
Average 45.5 11.4 33.5 7.85 33.15 24.69 34.3

84 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86

 Evaluation of Cropping System
Table 4. Economics of individual crops (Average of both 2016 & 2017).
Sr. No Particular Demonstration Farmer’s Practice
Rice Toria Rice Toria
1 Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) 25899 20629 22359 14381
2 Gross return (Rs/ha) 49339 42725 35216 36887
3 Net return (Rs/ha) 23439 22096 12857 12506
4 B:C ration 2.01 2.15 1.58 1.89

the production cost, which may depend on the price CONCLUSION

that producer received for the product. Production
cost of dry season crops was lower due to its low
labour and less land preparation requirement which
led to higher net return, B: C ratio and economic
efficiency of the system (Hassan et al, 2003). The
average of the two years data ( Table 5) recorded
the higher gross return (Rs 92,064/-) and net return
( Rs 46,529/-)of the system in demonstration
plots whereas Rs.63,555/- and Rs 26,506/-have
been achieved in farmer’s practice respectively.
Therefore, intensification and diversification of
cropping system with the proper use of available
limited irrigation facility will provide higher yield
as well as better net returns under the climatic
conditions of Assam (Baishya et a,l 2016).
Likewise the average benefit cost ration also found
higher 1.99 compared to the farmer’s practice of
1.81. The result can be supported by the findings
of Kalita et al (2018).This may be due to higher
production accompanied with higher price of good
quality toria of high yielding variety.In cropping
system; inclusion of pulse, oilseed and vegetable is
more beneficial than cereals after cereals.
The high yielding variety of medium duration
rice followed by toria was suitable for farmer’s
field to fit in the double cropping and it is a good
cropping sequence which each and every farmer
can adopt to higher the production in a system as
well as higher return from the same area of land.
Selection of high yielding variety and timely sowing
will definitely enhance the yield of the crops and
also will encourage the farmers to adopt a system.
The farmers who generally keep fallow their field
after rice can adopt the cropping system of medium
duration rice followed by toria to maximize the
production from the same land.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2013). MoA. Report of Expert Group on Pulses
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of
Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi: 9±10.
Baishya A, Gogoi B, Hazarika J, Hazarika J P, Bora A S,
Das, Bora M and Sutradhar P (2016). Indian J Agron 61
(3):274-280.
Ghosh D C and Singh B P(1998). Crop growth modeling for
wetland rice management. Environ Ecol 16(2): 446-449.
Hassan G, Khan N U and Khan Q N (2003). Effect of
transplanting date on the yield and yield components of

Table 5. Economic and benefit cost ratio of the system.

Sr. No Particular Average of 2 years
Demonstration Farmer’s practice
1 Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) 46528.5 36555
2 Gross return (Rs/ha) 92064 63063.5
3 Net return (Rs/ha) 45535.5 26506
4 B:C ratio 1.99 1.81

85 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86

 Bezbaruah and Deka
different rice cultivars under high temperature of D.I.
Khan. Science Khyber 16(2): 129±137.
Kalita J, Deka B and Kalita D (2018).Assessment of rice-
based cropping systems for maximizing productivity and
profitability inKamrup district of Assam. Int J Agri Sci 10
(8):7209-7211.
Kumpawat B S (2001). Production potential and economics
of different crop sequences. Indian J Agron 46(3): 421–
424.5958/2349-4433.2018.00158.7
Lal B, Gautam P, Panda B B, Raja R, Singh Teekam, Tripathi
R, Shahid M and Nayak A K (2017).Crop and varietal
diversification of rainfed rice based cropping systems
for higher productivity and profitability in Eastern India.
Research article Plos ONE 12(4): 1/23-23/23.
Nahar K, Hasanuzzaman M and Majumder R P (2009). Effect
of low temperature stress in transplanted aman rice
varieties mediated by different transplanting dates. Acad
J Plant Sci 2 (3): 132-138
Singh A K, Chakraborti M and Datta M (2014). Improving
rice-based cropping pattern through soil moisture and
integrated nutrient management in mid-tropical plain
zone of Tripura, India. Rice Sci 21(5): 299-304.
Received on 28/05/2019 Accepted on 08/09/2019

86 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 81-86

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 87-91 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00071.0

Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Productivity and

Economics of Rabi Onion (Allium cepa L)
Iqbal Singh Dhillon and Didar Singh
PG Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar 143 005 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was conducted to know the effect of integrated nutrient management (INM)
on productivity and economics of rabi onion (Allium cepa L.) cultivar PRO 6. The experiment was
laid out in randomized block design with twelve treatments with three replications viz., T1: Control,
T2: 100% Recommended dose of nitrogenous fertilizers (RDNF), T3: 75% RDNF + 25% N Farm
yard manure (FYM), T4: 75% RDNF + 25% N Vermicompost (VC), T5: 75% RDNF + 25% N Poultry
manure (PM), T6: 50% RDNF + 50% N (FYM), T7: 50% RDNF + 50% N (VC), T8: 50% RDNF
+ 50% N (PM), T9: 50% RDNF + 25% N (FYM) + 25% N (VC), T10: 50% RDNF + 25% N (FYM)
+ 25% N (PM), T11: 50% RDNF + 25% N (VC) + 25% N (PM), T12: 25% RDNF + 25% N (FYM) +
25% N (VC) + 25% N (PM). The results revealed that among different treatments, T2 (RDNF) recorded
maximum plant height (64.60 cm), number of leaves (10.47), bulb diameter (7.26cm), fresh weight of
bulb (73.13g), dry weight of bulb (9.29g), dry weight of leaves (1.19g) per plant and bulb yield (421.23q/
ha) in terms of growth and yield attributes whereas lowest observation were recorded with treatment
T1 (control). Treatment T2 also recorded highest net return (Rs 2,44,286/ha) and B:C ratio (1.63).
Key Words: Economics, Farm Yard Manure, Integrated nutrient management, onion, Productivity, Rabi.

INTRODUCTION and poultry manure supply all major as well as minor

Onion has been described as the queen of nutrients. Incorporation of organic manures along
kitchen and one of the most important vegetable with inorganic fertilizers help in increasing the yield
crop grown in India. It is a rich source of minerals of onion crop as compared to sole use of inorganic
like phosphorus, calcium, carbohydrates, proteins fertilizers (Thangasamy and Lawande, 2015). They
and vitamin C (Rahman et al, 2013). In the year also influence the physico-chemical properties and
2017-18, onion was grown over an area of 1285 enhance the biological activities in soil (Jat et al,
thousand hectares with annual production of 23262 2015). The supply of nutrients from integrated
thousand MT in India and annual production 214.48 source of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers
thousand MT from an area of 9.36 thousand hectare help not only in improving soil fertility but also
in Punjab (Anonymous, 2018). Though the total help in sustaining crop productivity. Keeping this
production has been increased but the escalating cost in view, a field experiment was evaluated to study
of inorganic fertilizers along with their undesirable the integrated effect of different nutrient sources on
effects on soil properties are hitting the small and productivity and economics of onion.
marginal farmers.
To regulate the nutrients supply and to MATERIALS AND METHODS
overcome the rise in price of inorganic fertilizers, The field experiment was conducted at
use of organic manures should be prompt. Organic Research Farm, Khalsa College, Amritsar during
manures such as farmyard manure, vermicompost rabi 2017-18. The geographical coordinates of the

Corresponding Author’s Email: iqbaldhillon14@gmail.com

87 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 87-91

 Dhillon and Singh
experimental sites are 31.6376 °N and 74.8370°E
and height above sea level is 234m. The soil of
the experimental site was sandy loam in texture.
The initial physico-chemical properties of the
experimental soil were bulk density (1.48 g/cm3),
particle density (2.62 g/cm3), porosity (43.5%), pH
(8.26), EC (0.33 dS/m), organic carbon (0.41%),
available N (192.74kg/ha), available P (14.28 kg/
ha), available K (262.54 kg/ha) and available S
(6.34kg/ha). The experimental field was laid out in
randomized block design with twelve treatments
with three replications. Experiment comprised
of T1: control, T2: 100% Recommended dose of
nitrogenous fertilizers (RDNF), T3: 75% RDNF +
25% N through farmyard manure (FYM), T4: 75%
RDNF + 25% N through vermicompost (VC), T5:
75% RDNF + 25% N through poultry manure (PM),
T6: 50% RDNF + 50% N (FYM), T7: 50% RDNF
+ 50% N (VC), T8: 50% RDNF + 50% N (PM), T9:
50% RDNF + 25% N (FYM) + 25% N (VC), T10:
50% RDNF + 25% N (FYM) + 25% N (PM), T11:
50% RDNF + 25% N (VC) + 25% N (PM), T12:
25% RDNF + 25% N (FYM) + 25% N (VC) + 25%
N (PM).
The onion cultivar Punjab Round Onion (PRO
6) was sown in nursery during November and
transplanted in last week of December (27th Dec,
2017) with a spacing of 15 x 7.5 cm between rows
and plants, respectively. Recommended dose of
fertilizers for rabi onion was 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha.
Nitrogen was supplied through urea, phosphorus
through single super phosphate and potassium
through muriate of potash. Nitrogen was applied in
two splits i.e. one half of N before transplanting and
remaining dose of N after six weeks as top dressing.
Entire quantity of phosphorus and potassium was
applied as basal dose. All the manures in required
quantities were applied as per the treatments duly
taking into account their nitrogen content based
on dry weight basis and incorporated in soil 15
d before transplanting the onion seedlings. The
nitrogen of farmyard manure, vermicompost and
poultry manure were 0.88 percent, 1.74 percent and
88 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 87-91
2.31percent, respectively. The crop was harvested
manually when most of the leaves dried and neck
fall down indicating maturity. The benefit:cost
ratio was calculated with the help of gross and net
income. The analysis of the statistical data was done
with the help of OPSTAT software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth parameters
The perusal of data related to plant height and
number of leaves per plant (Table 1) signifies a
progressive increase with the advancement in crop
age as influenced by various treatments. The result
showed that the increase in plant height and number
of leaves per plant was rapid from 30 to 60 days after
transplanting (DAT), thereafter height increased up
to 90 DAT but at a slower rate. Among different
treatments, T2 (100% RDNF) recorded highest
plant height and number of leaves per plant at 60
and 90 DAT which was at par with T5 (75% RDNF
+ 25% PM) and T4 (75% RDNF + 25% VC) but
significantly superior than all other treatments. This
might be due to quick release of nutrients and more
availability of nitrogen from inorganic fertilizers.
These results were in close conformity with the
findings of Assefa et al (2015) and Mahala et al
(2018) in onion. Moreover, nitrogen is associated
with increase in protoplasm, cell division and cell
enlargement resulting in taller plants (Tisdale et
al, 2016). Among organic manures, better plant
growth in terms of plant height and number of
leaves per plant in poultry manure might be due
to higher N content that become readily available
to crop (Farooq et al, 2015) and involvement
of certain growth promoting substances such as
NAA, cytokinines, gibberellins which might have
accelerated the higher production of carbohydrates
which ultimately results in maximum number
of leaves per plant (Ramesh et al, 2017). Better
performance of vermicompost over FYM treated
plots might be due to its presence of macronutrients
and micronutrients (Reddy and Reddy, 2005).
 Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management
Table 1. Growth attributes of onion as influenced by different integrated nutrient sources.
Treatment Periodic plant height (cm) Periodic no. of leaves/plant
30 DAT 60DAT 90DAT 30DAT 60DAT 90DAT
T1 16.87 22.51 28.57 1.85 3.30 5.51
T2 25.33 54.93 64.60 4.60 8.43 10.47
T3 22.76 44.90 55.51 3.59 6.53 8.97
T4 23.03 49.93 60.20 3.68 7.69 9.90
T5 24.97 50.87 62.83 4.14 7.90 10.33
T6 20.03 32.57 39.62 2.68 4.49 7.06
T7 21.23 35.45 48.13 3.04 5.17 8.02
T8 21.61 42.47 54.33 3.13 5.98 8.85
T9 20.13 34.67 42.33 2.77 4.69 7.14
T10 20.57 35.85 43.42 2.83 4.72 7.22
T11 21.50 37.43 49.61 3.07 5.23 8.05
T12 19.67 27.54 34.91 2.00 3.98 6.21
LSD (p=0.05) N.S 5.02 4.68 N.S 0.74 0.79
N.S= Not Significant
Yield attributes (T2), 75% RDF + 25% N through poultry manure
The result on yield attributes like bulb diameter, (T5) and 75% RDNF + 25% N through vermicompost
fresh weight of bulb, dry weight of bulb, dry weight might be due to the higher N content which result in
of leaves and bulb yield were significantly influenced increased growth performance with respect to plant
by different integrated nutrient treatments (Table height and number of leaves per plant resulting in
2). The maximum bulb diameter (7.26 cm), fresh better photosynthesis and better translocation of
weight of bulb (73.13 g), dry weight of bulb (9.29 g), photosynthates in storage organ of bulb resulting
dry weight of leaves (1.19 g) and bulb yield (421.23 in increased weight of bulb, bulb diameter and
q/ha) was recorded with the application of 100% ultimately bulb yield. Similar results have been
RDNF (T2) which was at par with 75% RDNF + reported by Kaswan et al (2017) and Mahala et al
25% N through PM (T5) and 75% RDNF + 25% N (2018). Moreover, the nitrogen application might
through VC (T4) and significantly superior than all have influenced the availability of other nutrients
other treatments. The minimum bulb diameter (3.78 also especially phosphorus and sulphur and thus
cm), fresh weight of bulb (33.83 g), dry weight of better nutrition, ultimately leading to increased bulb
bulb (3.96 g), dry weight of leaves (0.44 g) and bulb yield (Assefa et al, 2015).
yield (163.20 q/ha) was noticed in absence of organic The increased yield and yield parameters
and inorganic fertilizers (T1). The magnitude of with poultry manure might be because of rapid
increase in bulb diameter, fresh weight of bulb, dry availability and utilization of nitrogen for various
weight of bulb, dry weight of leaves and bulb yield internal plant processes for carbohydrates
in T2 over T1 was 92.06, 116.17, 134.60, 170.45 and production. Later on these carbohydrates may
158.11 percent, respectively. Numerically the trend undergo hydrolysis and get converted into reducing
in various treatments for all yield parameters was sugars which ultimately helped in increasing yield.
T2>T5>T4>T3>T8>T11>T7>T10>T9 >T6>T12>T1. The The higher carbohydrates content due to application
increase in yield parameters under 100% RDNF of poultry manure may be attributed to balanced

89 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 87-91

 Dhillon and Singh
Table 2. Yield attributes of onion as influenced by different integrated nutrient sources.
Bulb Fresh weight of Dry weight Dry weight of Bulb yield (q/ha)
Treatment diameter bulb (g/plant) of bulb leaves
(cm) (g/plant) (g/plant)
T1 3.78 33.83 3.96 0.44 163.20
T2 7.26 73.13 9.29 1.19 421.23
T3 6.48 63.79 7.88 0.99 361.20
T4 7.05 68.98 8.68 1.10 394.23
T5 7.19 70.80 8.92 1.14 407.00
T6 5.12 45.29 5.57 0.68 250.20
T7 5.74 54.47 6.80 0.84 305.73
T8 6.34 60.95 7.49 0.95 346.90
T9 5.16 48.03 5.98 0.73 268.00
T10 5.21 49.58 6.04 0.74 276.83
T11 5.81 56.07 6.84 0.85 315.90
T12 4.59 40.41 4.87 0.55 206.30
LSD (p=0.05) 0.52 4.86 0.64 0.09 27.03

Table 3. Effect of integrated nutrient management on economic analysis.

Treatment Total cost (Rs) Gross return(Rs) Net return(Rs) B:C ratio
T1 87536 130560 43024 0.49
T2 92698 336984 244286 2.63
T3 94724 288960 194236 2.05
T4 97911 315384 217473 2.22
T5 95462 325600 230138 2.41
T6 94880 200160 105280 1.10
T7 103598 244584 140986 1.36
T8 98637 277520 178883 1.81
T9 99256 214400 115144 1.16
T10 96800 221464 124664 1.29
T11 99682 252720 153038 1.53
T12 102087 165040 62953 0.61
Note: Selling price (Rs/kg) : Onion bulb: 8.00
Input Price (Rs/kg) : FYM : 0.5, Vermicompost : 2.50, Poultry manure : 1.00, Urea : 6.57, SSP : 7.24,
MOP : 19.4

C : N ratio and increased activity of plant Economics

metabolisms. These results were in close conformity Among various treatments, the highest benefit:
with the findings of Chattoo et al (2010) and Farooq cost ratio of 2.63 was recorded in treatment T2
et al (2015). (RDNF) while minimum benefit : cost ratio of 0.49
was observed in T1 (control) as presented in Table

90 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 87-91

 Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management
3. The Treatment, T2 recorded highest B:C ratio Farooq M, Shah A H, Malik A A, Ali N, Khan U, Majid A,
due to maximum yield obtained with less cost of Ahmad H (2015). Nutrient management for improving
onion productivity. J Agric Environ Sci 15:220-225.
production as compared to all other treatments.
Jat L K, Singh Y V, Meena S K, Meena S K, Parihar M, Jatav
H S, Meena R K, Meena V S. (2015). Does integrated
CONCLUSION nutrient management, enhance agricultural productivity.
It can be concluded that among different J Pure Appl Microbiol 9:1211-1221.
treatments, application of 100% RDNF found the Kaswan P K, Yadav P K, Kumar H, Jakhar R K, Kumawat A,
most effective treatment in respect of growth, yield Kumar H (2017). Effect of different varieties and FYM
attributes, bulb yield along with highest net return levels on yield and quality of onion (Allium cepa L.) in
and B:C ratio. It was at par with 75% RDNF + 25% Arid Western Rajasthan, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App
N (PM) and 75% RDNF + 25% N (VC). Sci 6:497-503.
Mahala P, Chaudhary M R, Garhwal O P (2018). Yield and
quality of rabi onion (Allium cepa L.) as influenced by
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
Integrated Nutrient Management. Int J Curr Microbiol
The authors are thankful to the Department App Sci 7:3313-3321.
of Soil Science, Khalsa College, Amritsar for
Rahman M A, Mahmud J A, Islam M M (2013). Influence of
providing them viable sources and space for the mulching on the growth and yield of onion. J Eng Appl
research work. Sci 3(24):3497-3501.
Ramesh G, Ajithkumar K, Amaresh Y S, Savitha A S (2017).
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Anonymous (2018). Horticultural Statistics At a Glance. parameters, yield and severity of disease in onion (Allium
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers cepa L.). Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 6:1020-1028.
Welfare. Pp:3
Reddy K C and Reddy K M (2005). Differential levels of
Assefa A G, Mesgina S H, Abrha Y W (2015). Effect of vermicompost and nitrogen on growth and yield in onion
inorganic and organic fertilizers on the growth and yield (Allium cepa L.) - radish (Raphanus sativus L.) cropping
of garlic crop (Allium sativum L.) in Northern Ethiopia. J system. J Res ANGRAU 33:11-17.
Agric Sci 7(4):80-86.
Thangasamy A and Lawande K E (2015). Integrated nutrient
Barakade A J, Lokhande T N, Todkari G U (2011). Economics management for sustainable onion production. Indian J
of onion cultivation and its marketing pattern in Satara Hort 72(3):347-352.
district of Maharashtra. Int J Agric Stat Sci 3:110-117.
Tisdale S L, Nelson Werner L, Beaton James D (2016). Soil
Chattoo M A, Najar G R, Mir S A, Faheema S (2010). Effect fertility and fertilizers. Mac Millan Publishing Company,
of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers on growth, New York. Pp:121-186.
yield, nutrient uptake and economics of onion cv. Yellow
Received on 25/10/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
Globe J Eco-friendly Agric 5:12-14.

91 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 87-91

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 92-95 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00072.2

Effect of Nutrition Education on Knowledge

Level of Farm women
Rashmi Limbu, Manisha Arya 1 and Ankita
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bharsar 246123, Pauri Garhwal, (Uttarakhand)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in five villages namely Sainji, Sakanayana, Dhulet, Dhor and Simkhet
of block Pabou, in Pauri Garhwal district. Twenty farm women from each village were randomly
selected and socio- economic profile was recorded. Nutritional education regarding four selected
topics was imparted. Scores for pre test knowledge and after imparting education, scores for gain in
knowledge and retention of knowledge were recorded. Maximum gain (65.5%) and retention (51%)
was observed for the message related to importance of nutrition garden followed by message on
nutrition for children. For all the formulated messages, post test scores after one week and one month
was higher. Significant increase in gain and retention of knowledge was recorded. Findings indicated
that nutritional education intervention was helpful in gaining knowledge in the selected topics.
Key Words: Anemia, Education, Farm women, Millets, Nutrition, Nutritional garden

INTRODUCTION and underweight in children under 5 years of age

Farm women in hill areas significantly contribute
to agriculture and allied activities along with taking
care of the family. They play vital role in the well
being of the family by directly influencing the
nutrients uptake. Information regarding balanced
diet, nutrient rich food, special nutrition needs
of infants, growing children, adolescent girls,
pregnant and lactating women; elderly etc. must
be imparted for the holistic health improvement of
a family. Such information is important because
in rural areas women generally receive low level
of formal education and thus awareness regarding
nutritional well being is also low. Data as per
National Family Health Survey 4 indicate that
only 48.40 per cent of women in district Pauri
Garhwal have 10 or more years of schooling.
Studies conducted on farm women in Uttarakhand
indicated that nutritional status was unsatisfactory
and nutritional knowledge was very low (Upadhyay
et al, 2011 and Jethi et al, 2013). The result of low
awareness in rural Pauri Garhwal region is evident
by percentage of stunting, wasting, severe stunting
*Corresponding Author’s Email: rashmilimbu@gmail.com
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR-VPKAS), Chinyalisaur 24916, (Uttarkashi) Uttarakhand
i.e. 22.90, 25.10, 16.90 and 27.10 respectively and
37.40 per cent of anemic non pregnant women in
the age of 15-49 yr (NFHS-4). Nutrition education
intervention through activities conducted by Krishi
Vigyan Kendras like imparting training, method
demonstrations, front line demonstrations, group
interaction are helpful in enhancing the knowledge.
Positive effect of nutrition education on knowledge
level and behavior change has been reported by
several studies (Shukla et al, 2014; Jyoshna et al,
2017; Arora and Kochar, 2016).
Nutrition education can be a tool for sensitization
and alleviation of above mentioned challenges.
Therefore, relevant messages related to importance
of millets, anemia, nutrition garden and child
nutrition were formulated. The present study was
designed to assess effect of nutrition education on
farm women with the objective to assess gain in
knowledge and its retention level.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in five villages

92 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 92-95

 Limbu et al
namely Sainji, Sakanayana, Dhulet, Dhor and personal communication, method demonstrations,
Simkhet of block Pabou, in Pauri Garhwal district. front line demonstrations and field day with
Objectives of this study were explained to the farm suitable support materials like chart, poster folders
women and their oral consent to participate was and power point presentation. Knowledge scale
taken. A total of 20 farm women were randomly used by Shukla et al (2014) was applied and farm
selected from each village. Four messages on topics women were assessed individually in three stages:
viz message I Importance of millets in the diet; In the first stage, the nutritional knowledge of farm
message II Anemia- risk and prevention; message women was assessed and scores were computed
III Importance of nutrition garden and message IV (pre- test score). After imparting nutrition education
Nutrition for children were formulated. Importance in second stage, the knowledge was assessed after
of millets in the diet included information on the one week (post- test score I). In the third stage the
nutritive value and nutritional benefits of millets knowledge was assessed after one month (post- test
like finger millet, barnyard millet etc. Ways to score II). A score of two for correct answer and zero
incorporate these in the diet, processing of millets for wrong answer was given to the farm women.
at household level to improve nutritional quality The summation of all scores at pre-exposure stage
and its inclusion for improving the health of infants, and post-training for each subject was calculated
children and elderly were also explained in detail. and recorded. Effect of nutrition education was
For the message on Anemia- risks and prevention; assessed in terms of gain in knowledge and
causes of anemia were explained, inclusion of retention in knowledge. For statistical analysis one-
iron and vitamin C rich food was emphasized. For way ANOVA was applied.
the message on importance of nutrition garden, Table 2. Socio Economic Profile of participants.
importance of growing nutritious vegetables in
home gardens (seasonal vegetables). Demonstration Sr. No. Attribute Value
for layout and organic cultivation of nutrition garden 1. Age 34.05 ± 7.85
was imparted. For the information on nutrition for A Marital status
children, nutrition education on special needs of 2 Unmarried 21
infants and school children were explained in detail. 3 Married 79
Importance of including locally available food in B Educational level
the diet was explained in detail (Table 1). 4 Uneducated 29
Table 1. Messages imparted to the farm women 5 Undermatric 41
Sr. Message Methods 6 High School 27
No. 7 Graduate 3
I Importance of Lectures, method C Caste
millets in the diet demonstration 8 Hindu 100
II Anemia-risks and Lectures , Power point 9 Any other -
prevention presentation, D Food habits
III Importance of Front line demonstration, 10 Vegetarian 47
nutrition garden group discussion , field 11 Non- vegetarian 53
days
E Income annual (Rs.)
IV Nutrition for Lectures, method
12 <50,000 22
children demonstration
13 50,000-100000 63
These messages were given to the selected farm 14 >100000 15
women through lectures, group discussions; inter

93 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 92-95

 Effect of Nutrition Education on Knowledge Level
Table 3 Scores of messages imparted to farm women.
Message No. Max Pre test (A) Post test (B) Post test (C) Gain in Retention in
Score knowledge knowledge
D=B-A E=C-A
Score % Score % Score % Score % Score %
I 20 4.02 20.1 15.36 76.8 12.92 64.6 11.34 56.7 8.9 44.5
II 20 3.92 19.6 15.58 77.9 12.8 64 11.66 58.3 8.88 44.4
III 20 3.62 18.1 16.78 83.9 13.7 68.5 13.1 65.5 10.2 51
IV 20 4.16 20.8 16.38 81.9 13.3 66.5 12.22 61.1 8.84 44.2
*CD at 5 %
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cent respectively. For message on Nutrition for
The mean age of farm women was 34.05 ± children, gain and retention in knowledge was
7.85 years. Majority of farm women (79 %) were 61.10 and 44.20 per cent respectively (Table 3).
married. Information regarding educational level Maximum scores for gain and retention were
reveals 71 per cent farm women (41 % had primary observed for message III related to nutrition
education, 27 per cent were high school passed and garden. Front line demonstrations and field day was
3 % were graduates) were literate. Age and literacy conducted on nutrition garden, which could have
level of the farm women made it ideal to study resulted in the increase in knowledge. Significant
the effect of nutrition education. More over target difference among mean scores for pre-test, post-test
group has significant role in the overall health of (I), post-test (II), gain in knowledge and retention
the family. All the farm women were hindu and in knowledge for all the messages indicate that
engaged in farming activities. Majority (53 %) of imparting nutrition education had positive effect
farm women were non-vegetarian. Majority i.e. 63 on the knowledge levels of farm women. The
per cent had family annual income between fifty to findings of the present study were in line with the
ten thousand rupees (Table 2). other studies conducted on the effect of nutrition
Effect of nutrition education intervention on education. Rani et al (2013) reported significant
knowledge level gain in knowledge scores of mothers in rural
Mean scores for pre-test, post- test (I), post- test areas after imparting nutrition education. Shukla
(II), gain in knowledge and retention in knowledge et al (2014) reported that nutrition education
was recorded for all the formulated messages. For intervention helped in gaining knowledge amongst
message I, II, III &IV post test score after one week farm women in Uttarakhand. Jyoshna et al (2017)
was higher than pre test scores, the difference was reported significant differences in food consumption
significant. Post test scores after one month of pattern, nutrient intake and work participation in
intervention was also higher. Significant difference farm women after nutrition education intervention
was observed for gain and retention of knowledge. porgramme. Arora and Kochar (2016) indicated a
For message on Importance of millets in the diet, strong relation between nutrition education and
gain and retention in knowledge was 56.70 and 44.50 the rise in the level of knowledge and awareness
per cent respectively. For message on Anemia- risks among the female adolescent students after
and prevention, gain and retention in knowledge intervention. Sarojani et al (2012) concluded that
was 58.30 and 44.40 per cent, respectively. For imparting nutrition education about nutritional
message on Importance of nutrition garden, gain importance, processing and use of soyabean in
and retention in knowledge was 65.05 and 51 per the diet resulted in increase in knowledge index in

94 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 92-95

 Limbu et al
rural women and men. Arya et al (2018) reported Jethi R and Chandra N (2013). Nutritional Status of Farm
that imparting nutritional education increased the Women in Hills of Uttarakhand. Indian Res J Ext Edu
13 (3): 92-96
knowledge level in aganwadi workers of district
Uttarkashi in Uttarakhand. Jyoshna E, Kumar J H, Kumar NK and Reddy P (2017).
Impact of nutritional education on nutritional status and
work participation of farm women in Khammam district.
CONCLUSION J Pharmacogn Phytochem 6(4): 48-51
The findings reinforce that imparting nutrition National Family Health Survey 4, 2015 -16. GOI. District fact
education has a positive effect on knowledge level sheet Garhwal Uttarakhand retrieved on 6-5-2019 from
of the farm women. Utilizing methods like frontline http://rchiips.org/nfhs/pdf/NFHS4/India.pdf
demonstration, field day, method demonstration Rani P and Sangwan V (2016). Impact of nutrition education
along with lectures for imparting trainings could on knowledge gain of mothers and rural school going
have resulted in significant improvement of children of Fatehabad District, Haryana. Int J Sci Res
5(9):296-299.
knowledge. More messages should be formulated
in simple language to increase awareness. Sarojani J K, Devendrappa S and Tpanasuya (2012).
Promotion of health through participatory nutrition
intervention programmes and nutrition education in rural
REFERENCES areas of Karnataka. Int J Farm Sci 2(2):129-133.
Arora G and Kochar GK (2016). Impact of nutrition
education on knowledge, attitude practices and beliefs Shukla P, Limbu R and Rajkumari (2014). Impact of IEC
of adolescent girls belonging to rural and urban area of on nutrition knowledge of rural women in Uttarakhand.
district Kurukshetra. Int J Nutr and Food Sci 5(4): Asian J Home Sci 9 (1): 324-326.
278-283. Upadhyay S, Kumar AR, Raghuvanshi RS and Singh BB
Arya M, Sachan V, Limbu R, Nautiyal P and Papnai G (2018). (2011). Nutritional Status and Knowledge of Hill Women
Effect of training on nutritional knowledge of Anganwadi on Anemia: Effect of Various Socio-demographic Factors.
workers of Uttarkashi District in Uttarakhand. J Krishi J Hum Ecol 33(1): 29-34.
Vigyan 27(1): 105-108. Received on 05/07/2019 Accepted on 13/10/2019

95 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 92-95

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 96-100 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00070.9

Effect of Date of Sowing and Cutting Management on Seed Yield

in Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.)
Ajmair Singh, Rakesh Sharma and Amanpreet Singh*
Department of Agronomy, Khalsa College Amritsar, 143001(Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Berseem is an important rabi fodder crop for dairy animals as it helps to maintain the availability of
green fodder from month of October to April in addition to its easy digestibility and high nutrient content.
The field was laid out in split plot design with fifteen treatments and three replications. Five dates of
sowing i.e., D1:5 November, D2:15 November, D3:25 November, D4:5 December and D5: 15 December
comprised main plots, whereas sub plot treatment consisted of three last cutting dates C1:5 April, C2:
15 April and C3: 25 April. The later sown crop (15th December) gave the highest seed yield (4.69 q/ha),
which was statistically similar to 5th December sowing (D4). In case of last cutting date, treatment C1
recorded the highest seed yield of 5.08 q/ha which was followed by C2 (4.28 q/ha) and C3 (3.83q/ha).
Key Words: Berseem, Fodder, Crop and Seed yield.

INTRODUCTION practices for realizing higher productivity of

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium L.) is an berseem. Crop yield is influenced by genetic and
important rabi fodder crop for dairy animals in environmental factors. Due to little variation in
India, as it helps to maintain the availability of green germ-plasm of berseem, there is emerge scope of
fodder from month of October to April besides genetic improvement in this crop. However, there is
its easy digestibility and high nutrient content. It ample scope for enhancing productivity of berseem
contains 18 to 21 per cent protein, 1.98 per cent by tailoring various pheno-phases of crop with
calcium and 0.64 per cent phosphorus. It is grown the optimum environment conditions. This can
on 1900 thousand hectares and gave green fodder be achieved by selecting appropriate sowing time
productivity of 60 to 110 t/ha (Anonymous, 2017 for fodder crop and then leaving the crop for seed
a). It is very prominently grown in Punjab state over purpose at appropriate time.
2.24 lakh ha with production of 213.3 lakh tones Careful selection of ideal sowing time to take
and fodder yield of 95.1 t/ha (Anonymous.2017 b). maximum advantage of environmental conditions
In Punjab, the availability of green fodder supply during growth of berseem may help in increasing
is quite low (29.8 kg/animal/day) as compare to seed yield. Sufficient time is required after fodder
recommended supply of green fodder (40 kg green cutting for optimum vegetative growth, attainment
fodder/adult animal/day).As per future projection of bloom, pollination and seed setting. The late sown
of fodder are very high i.e., 911 lakh tones of berseem may greatly improve upon the existing
fodder will be required to meet the green fodder poor supply of its seed in the state and can also help
requirement to animals. To achieve this there is need to improve the availability of green fodder during
to increase area and production per unit land per April-May, a scarcity period for green fodder and
unit time by adopting better agronomic practices. leguminous crop and it further helps in building the
Among the agronomic practices, optimum dates of soil fertility.
sowing and cutting management are the important
Corresponding Author’s Email:Amanniku7592@gmail.com*

96 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 96-100

 Singh et al
The time of last fodder cut after which crop
should be left for seed production is another
crucial factor for enhancing green fodder yield and
seed productivity. Under Punjab conditions seed
production of berseem is also low due to the fact
that farmers pay less attention to seed production,
thereby causing serious seed shortage of quality
seed. Farmers continue fodder cutting till late
March to mid-April, which results in low foliage
retention, poor flowering and finally low seed
production. Reduced viability of pollen grains due
to high temperature and low relative humidity at the
reproductive stage are the major factors responsible
for low seed yield of berseem (El-nably et al,
2012). Further clover seed production also depends
upon conditions such as temperature and relative
humidity prevailing during the reproductive phase
(Bakhei et al, 2012).The seed yield could be
enhanced through proper cutting management
at the last forage cut. High temperature during
flowering stage, stimulates respiration and reducing
photosynthesis (Hayat et al, 2009). The last cut for
fodder should be timed in such a way that blooming
and seed development stages coincide with the
favourable weather conditions which may be
decided by manipulation of suitable date of sowing
and last cut management. Keeping the above view
in consideration, the present study entitled Effect
of date of sowing and cutting management on seed
yield in berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) was
conducted.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was laid out in split plot design
with fifteen treatments and three replications.
Five dates of sowing i.e. D1:5 November, D2:15
November, D3:25 November, D4:5 December and
D5:15 December comprised main plots, whereas sub
plot treatment consisted of three last cutting dates
C1:5 April, C2:15 April and C3: 25 April. The soil
of the experimental field was sandy loam in texture
with normal pH (7.82) and electrical conductivity
(0.26).Soil rated medium in organic carbon (0.47),
97 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 96-100
low in available nitrogen (203.70) and medium
in available phosphorus (18.23) and potassium
(295.50). The preparation of the experimental field
was done by following local package and practices.
Various observations recorded were as days taken
to 50 and 100 percent flowering after last cut,
number of days taken for seed setting and maturity,
Number of heads per tiller, number of seeds /head,
number of tillers/plant, test weight and seed yield.
Data were analysed statistically as per Snedecor
and Cochran (2001)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Days to 50 percent flowering after last cut
The data on days to 50 per cent flowering
presented (Table1) revealed that late sown crop
(December 15) took the highest number of days
(25.7) to reach 50% flowering stage. However the
difference among different sowing dates was non-
significant. In case of last cut treatments, C1 (34.8)
took significantly more number of days for 50%
flowering than C2 (24.7) and C3 (13.8). The lowest
number of days to 50 per cent flowering in C3
might be due to more number of cuttings that leads
to low regeneration potential. The results were in
agreement with the findings of Srivastava (2015).
All interactions were found to be non significant.
Days taken to 100 percent flowering
after last cut
The data (Table 1) indicated that date of sowing
did not affected number of days taken to 100 per cent
flowering. However, date of last cut had significant
effect on days taken to 100 per cent flowering after
last cut. The highest number of days to reach 100%
were noted under the treatment C1 (44.8) followed
by C2 (31.1) and C3 (22.4). All these treatments were
significantly varied with each other. The lowest
number of days taken to maturity after last cut in
C3 might be due to span of reproductive phase was
decreased with increase in photo and thermo period.
Similar results are reported Yadav et al (2015). All
interactions were found to be non significant.
 Effect of Date of Sowing and Cutting Management
Table 1. Effect of date of sowing and cutting management on growth and yield parameters of late
sown berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.)”.
Treatment Days taken Days Days taken No. of No. of Test Number Seed
to 50% taken to to maturity Heads/ seeds / weight of tillers yield
flowering 100% After last cut tiller head / plant (q/ha)
After last cut flowering at
after last harvest
cut
Sowing dates
5th November 24.2 33.0 66.0 3.16 35.2 2.99 4.21 4.07
15th November 23.9 32.5 64.8 3.31 37.2 3.08 4.89 4.22

25th November 24.9 32.9 64.2 3.41 40.0 3.14 5.23 4.39

5th December 23.3 32.8 63.0 3.56 42.4 3.28 5.52 4.61
15th December 25.7 32.7 61.8 3.72 45.0 3.32 5.85 4.69

CD(p=0.05) NS NS NS 0.20 3.32 NS 0.27 0.30

Date of last cut

5th April 34.8 44.8 70.6 3.73 42.5 3.24 5.83 5.08

15th April 24.7 31.1 63.6 3.46 40.4 3.15 5.05 4.28

25th April 13.8 22.4 57.7 3.11 37.2 3.10 4.48 3.83
CD(P ≤0.05) 1.94 1.61 5.1 0.17 1.96 NS 0.16 0.26

Days taken to maturity after last cut resulted in consistent decrease in number of heads
The data (Table 1) indicated that date of sowing per tiller but difference between the consecutive
did not affected number of days taken to maturity sowing dates were not significant. The lesser
flowering. The date of last cut showed significant number of heads per tiller under early sowing date
effect on days taken to maturity. The highest number may be associated with preliminary weather. The
of days to reach maturity was observed in C1 (70.6), last cutting date treatments had significant effect
which was significantly higher than C2 (63.6) and on number of heads per tiller. Among last cutting
C1 (57.7). The lowest number of days taken to dates, C1 had maximum value of 3.73 which was
maturity after last cut in C3 might be due to span of significantly higher than C2 (3.46) and C3 (3.11).
reproductive phase was decreased with increase in The decrease in number of heads per tiller might
photo and thermo period. Yadav et al (2015) also be due to increased temperature that reduced pollen
reported similar results. All interactions were found fertility resulting in reduced seed set. The results
to be non significant. were in conformity with the findings of Yadav et
al (2015). All interactions were found to be non
Number of heads per tiller significant.
Number of heads per tiller varied significantly
under the influence of date of sowing. Delay in Number of seeds per head
sowing from November 5 to December 15 through The date of sowing had significant effect
November 15, November 25 and December 5, on number of seeds per head and presented in

98 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 96-100

 Singh et al
Table 1. The highest number of seeds per head were
observed under D5 (45.0) followed by D4 (42.4),
D3 (40.0), D2 (37.2) and D1 (35.2). D5 (45.0) and D4
(42.4) were at par with each other but significantly
better than D3 (40.0), D2 (37.2) and D1 (35.2). Increase
in number of seeds per head with delayed sowing
was in conformity with the findings of Srivastava
(2016). The date of last foliage cut affect number of
seeds per head and maximum number of seeds per
head was recorded under C1 (42.5), C2 (40.4) and
C3 (37.2) where C1 , C2 and C3 were significantly
differ from each other. The reduction in number of
seeds per head in treatment C3 due to inadequate
transport of photosynthates to developing berseem
seeds and also due to the increasing atmospheric
temperature at the last foliage cut. The data were in
conformity with the findings of Srivastava (2016).
All interactions were found to be non significant.
Test weight (g)
The data (Table 1) showed that test weight did
not varied significantly with date of sowings. The
maximum test weight was recorded under D5 having
value of 3.32 followed by D4, D3, D2, D1 having test
weight of 3.28, 3.14, 3.08, 2.99 g respectively.
Similarly, last foliage cut had non-significant effect
on test weight where maximum test weight was
recorded with C1 (3.24) and minimum was recorded
with C3 (3.10). All interactions were found to be non
significant.
Number of tillers per plant at harvest
The perusal of data (Table 1) showed that date
of sowing had significant effect on number of tillers
per plant at harvest. The highest number of tillers
were recorded under last sowing date i.e. D5 (5.85)
followed by D4 (5.52), D3 (5.23), D2 (4.89) whereas
minimum value was found in D1 (4.21). Because
of more number of cuttings in early sowings, the
regeneration potential of plants might have been
adversely affected which caused the number of
tillers per plant at harvest to remain low. Similar Anonymous (2017 a) Area and production of berseem in
results were reported by Mahar et al (2017).
Among the date of last cut C3 had highest value of Anonymous (2017 b). Package and Practices of Rabi Crops
5.83, whereas C2 and C1 had values 5.05 and 4.48.
However, all these treatments varied significantly
with each other. The decrease in number of tillers /
plant at harvest in last cutting date C3 might be due
to an increase in temperature at this date.
Seed yield (q/ha)
The perusal of data (Table 1) revealed that date
of sowing had significant effect on seed yield. The
later sown crop (15th December) gave the highest
seed yield (4.69 q/ha), which was statistically
similar to 5th December sowing (D4). Likewise
seed yield D3 with D4 but significantly lower than
D5. Sowing the crop on November 5 gave the
least seed yield that was similar to 15th November
sowing but 25th November sowing out yield the
earliest sown crop. The results were in conformity
with the finding of Din et al, (2014). In case of last
cutting date, treatment C1 recorded the highest seed
yield of 5.08 q/ha which was followed by C2 (4.28
q/ha) and C3 (3.83q/ha). It was found that all the
treatments varied significantly amongst each other.
The higher seed yield might be the reason of fewer
fodder cuttings that resulted in more translocation
of photosynthates to seed. The present data is in
conformity with the findings of Kumar and Patel
(2017). All interactions were found to be non
significant.
CONCLUSION
From the results of this experiment it may be
inferred that depending upon the growing resources,
cropping system adopted and interests of farmers,
the sowing and last cut dates of berseem can be
manipulated. For instance, a grower interested
mainly in seed production should sow the crop on
first week of December. Similarly, for higher seed
yield the last cutting should be taken at an early date
i.e. first week of April.
REFERENCES
India. https://www.indiastat.com.
from Agriculture University, Ludhiana.

99 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 96-100

 Effect of Date of Sowing and Cutting Management
Bakheit B R, Ali M A and Amal A H (2009). Effect of sowing
date or fertility traits and yield, Egypt J Pl Breed 13:
141-153.
Din S, Ullah I, Khan G D, Ramzan M, Ahmad B and Hameed
M (2014). Sowing dates and irrigation schedule influence
on yield and yield components of berseem in district
Peshawar. J Natural Sci Res 4: 91-95
El-Nably S A, Salama A A, Kandil S A and Abido W A (2002).
Productivity of egyptian clover as affected by seeding
rates and cutting schedules, Indian J Forage Crop 5(12)
:1-18.
Hayat Q, Hayat S and Alyemeni M N (2009). Salicylic acid
mediated changes in growth, photosynthesis in Cicer
arietinum L. Plant Soil Environ 58 (9) 417-423.
Kumar A and Patel A G (2017). Effect of date of sowing and
cutting intervals on yield attribute, yield, quality and soil
fertility of Lucerne [Medicago sativa L.] under North
Gujarat agroclimatic conditions J Pharmacognosy and
Phytochem 6(2): 245-255.
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Mahar P A, Soomro A A, Solangi M H, Chandio M A , Malik
M A , Ali Shar Z (2017). Effect of different sowing dates
on growth and yield of berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum
L.) . National J Adv Res 3: 36-43 .
Sardana V and Narwal S S (2000). Influence of time of sowing
and last cut for fodder on the fodder and seed yields of
Egyptian clover. J Agril Sci Cambridge 134 :285-291.
Srivastava S (2016). Maximization of seed yield and quality
seed production in berseem (Trifloium alexandrinum).
M.Sc.Thesis,CCS Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar,
Haryana.
Virender Sardana (2000). Influence of dates of sowing and last
cut of fodder on the seed yield. Indian J Agron 6:176-181.
Yadav P S, Vijay D and Malaviya D R (2015) Effect of cutting
management on seed yield and quality attributes in
tertapolid berseem. Range Management and Agroforestry
36(1): 47-51.
Received on 26/07/2019 Accepted on 20/10/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 101-104 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00073.4

Effect of Plant Spacing on the Growth and Yield of Blackgram

(Vigna mungo)
P Veeramani
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Vellore – 632104 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Experiments were conducted to determine the optimum plant spacing for different varieties of blackgram
during Rabi 2015-16 season. The experiments comprised of three varieties viz. VBN (Bg) 4, VBN (Bg) 6
and MDU 1 and five different crop spacing viz., 15 cm × 10 cm, 15 cm × 15 cm, 20 cm × 10 cm, 20 cm
× 15 cm and 30 cm × 10 cm and laid out in a factorial randomized complete block design (FRBD) with
three replications. Varieties showed significant difference for plant height, total number of pods per plant,
seed weight per plant, seed yield, haulm yield and harvest index while different crop spacing showed
significant difference for plant height, seed yield, haulm yield and harvest index. Pooled analysis exhibited
a significant variation among three varieties. VBN (Bg) 6 revealed the highest seed yield of 741 kg/
ha while the lowest seed yield of 590 kg/ha in MDU1. Interaction also produced significant effect on seed
yield. The crop spacing of 20 cm x 10 cm showed highest seed yield 714 kg/ha when compared with
other crop spacing treatments. Low potential varieties and improper crop spacing are serious causes low
productivity in pulses. The interaction of variety VBN (Bg) 6 and 20 cm x 10 cm crop spacing exhibited
significantly higher seed yield and harvest index than other treatments. Optimum plant spacing of 20 cm x
10 cm enhanced seed yield by 20.3 percent and harvest index by 29.4 percent compared with recommended
crop spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm. The higher harvest index varieties showed wider adaptability and
higher stable yield over environments and therefore can be recommended for cultivation by the farmers.
Key Words: Harvest index, Seed yield, Spacing and Varieties.

INTRODUCTION many crop production constraints, appropriate

The pulses are grown on 304 lakh ha area in varieties and crop spacing are the most important,
India with production of 14.77 million tones with which contribute substantially to the seed yield of
a productivity of 617 kg/ ha. The total area under blackgram. Many research studies have revealed
pulses in Tamil Nadu is 8.32 lakh ha with total that most of the growth and yield contributing
production of 3.67 lakh tones and productivity of attributes were significantly and positively
441 kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu blackgram occupies an correlated with the seed yield of crop plants viz.,
area of 2.0 lakh ha with total production of 0.88 blackgram (Siddique et al, 2006), soybean (Malik
lakh tones and the productivity of 425 kg /ha. The et al, 2007) and sunflower (Vahedi et al, 2010).
average yield obtained at farmers’ field is low, Plant density can have a major effect on the
because no systematic efforts have been made in final yield of most of the legumes and the general
the past to develop a package of technology, which response of yield to increasing population is
may ensure high seed yield of this crop. Important well documented. The low productivity is due to
reasons for low average yield of black gram at decreasing day by day yielding ability and non use
farmers’ field were the continuous cultivation of of improved varieties and proper spacing. To realize
traditional low potential cultivars, use of low seed the maximum yield potential of black gram grown
rate and improper agronomic practices. Among during summer and rainy season, maintenance of

Corresponding Author’s Email : veera.agri@yahoo.com

101 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 101-104

 Veeramani, P
optimum space made available to individual plant
is of prime importance. A compromising balance
between the variables of row and plant spacing
has to be worked out to get desired spacing. The
spacing requirement depends upon the growth
behavior of genotype. So it is required to maintain
spacing and variety for higher yield. Therefore
present studies were carried out to look into the
production potential and growth behavior of three
blackgram varieties to different crop spacing under
the prevailing environmental conditions, with a aim
to determine optimum crop spacing and identify the
best variety to North Eastern Zone of Tamil Nadu.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was carried out at Agricultural
Research Station, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Virinjipuram, Tamil Nadu during Rabi
season 2015-16. The experiment was laid out in
factorial randomized complete block design (FRBD)
and replicated three times. The gross plot size was
5m x 4 m and net plot size 4.7m x 3.8. Details of
the treatment along with symbols summarized as
Factor I (Varieties) V1- VBN (Bg) 4 V2 -VBN (Bg)
6 V3 - MDU (Bg) 1. Factor II (Spacing) S1- 15 x 10
cm S2 -15 x 15 cm S3 - 20 x 10 cm S4 - 20 x 15 cm S5
– 30 x 10 cm. Recommended dose of fertilizer for
black gram is 25 kg N/ha and 50 kg P2O5 /ha. Being
short duration and leguminous crop, the complete
dose of nitrogen and phosphorous was applied at the
time of sowing to each plot as a starter dose. Before
sowing, the seed was treated with Rhizobium @ 4 g/
kg of seed followed by thirum @ 4g/kg of seed. The
sowing was done by line sowing, keeping distance
as per treatments. All other agronomic practices
were kept normal and uniform in all treatments.
Observations like plant height, number of branches
per plant, dry matter production per plant, number of
plants per plot at harvest, number of pods per plant,
number of seeds per pod, seed weights per plant,
seed yield, haulm yield and harvest index were
recorded. Data were analyzed statistically using
Fisher’s analysis of variance techniques and Least
Significant Difference (LSD) test at 5% probability
102 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 101-104
level was employed to test the significance among
treatment’s means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of pods per plant
Number of pods per plant is a key factor for
determining the yield performance in leguminous
plants. The productive capacity of black gram plant
is ultimately considered by the number of pods
per plant. A perusal of data (Table 2) show that
varieties significantly differed for number of pods
per plant. The maximum number of pods per plant
(11.5) was produced by VBN (Bg) 6. The lowest
numbers of pods per plant (10.1) were produced
by variety MDU 1. The effect of crop spacing was
non-significant on the number of pods per plant.
The interaction of varieties and inter-row spacing
also non significantly affected the number of pods
per plant.
Seed yield
Dry matter production and its transformation into
economic yield is the ultimate outcome of various
physiological, biochemicals, phenological and
morphological events occurring in the plant system.
Seed yield of a variety is the result of interplay of its
genetic makeup and environmental factors in which
plant growth. The data (Table 1) elucidate that
varieties, crop spacing and combinations of these
significantly affected the seed yield of black gram.
Maximum seed yield (741kg/ha) was obtained
from variety VBN (Bg) 6. The lowest seed yield
(590 kg/ha) was obtained from variety VBN (Bg) 4
which was statistically at par with MDU 1, which
produced 621kg/ha. It might be due to genetic
differences among the varieties. These findings
were in line with the findings of Abbas (2000) who
had reported significant differences in the yield of
various cultivars.
Crop sown at crop spacing of 20 x 10 cm gave
maximum seed yield (714 kg/ha) while lowest seed
yield (482 kg/ha) was obtained at inter-row spacing
of 30 x 10 cm. These results were in line with the
 Effect of Plant Spacing on the Growth and Yield
Table 1. Effect of different varieties and spacing on yield components of black gram.
Treatment No. of Pods/plant Seed Yield (kg/ha) Haulms yield (kg/ha) Harvest index (%)
Variety (V)
V1 10.4 590 1312 31
V2 11.5 741 1187 40
V3 10.1 621 1570 28
Mean 10.7 651 1356 33
SEd 0.37 32.8 44.6 1.05
CD(P=0.05) 0.77 67.3 91.4 2.16
Spacing (S)
S1 7.5 538 2142 31
S2 8.3 644 1642 33
S3 11.8 714 1367 36
S4 9.1 518 1875 32
S5 9.0 482 1741 33
Mean 9.36 579 1753 34
SEd 0.48 42.4 57.6 1.4
CD(P=0.05) 0.99 56.9 118.0 2.8
Interaction (V x S)
SEd 0.84 73.52 99.80 2.36
CD(P=0.05) 1.72 150.61 204.40 NS

findings of Ali et al (2010). Interactive effect of
varieties and crop spacing was also found to be
significant. The highest seed yield (876 kg/ha) was
obtained when variety VBN (Bg) 6 sown at crop
spacing of 20 x 10 cm while the lowest seed yield
(402kg/ha) was obtained when MDU 1 was sown
at crop spacing of 30 x 10 cm. The plant population
per unit area was the prime factor in determining
the yield. It also indicated that the fewer yields per
plant in case of high density were compensated
by increased number of plants. Higher grain yield
at closer spacing might be due to the higher plant
population, there was increase in the proportion of
number of pods produced more seed yield. Similar
results were also reported by Bhairappavar et al
(2005). It is prime necessity to maintain optimum
plant population by maintaining inter and intra row
spacing properly. Hence appropriate plant spacing
with adequate plant population may increase crop
yield of black gram. Increase in seed yield as
population density is increased has been reported
by many workers in black gram (Sekhan et al 2002)
and in soybean (Graterol and Montilla, 2003).
Harvest index (%)
Harvest index is a measure of physiological
productivity potential of a crop variety. It is the
ability of a crop plant to convert the dry matter
into economic yield. It is the ratio of seed yield to
biological yield and those varieties that had more
seed yield and less biological yield than other would
have higher harvest index value. Higher the harvest
index value more will be the production efficiency
or vice versa. The calculated values of Harvest
index (Table 1) indicate that varieties differed
significantly on account of conversion efficiency
of assimilate. The maximum value of harvest
index (40 %) was obtained with the variety VBN
(Bg) 6. The minimum harvest index value (28 %)
was obtained from variety MDU 1. Crop sown at

103 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 101-104

 Veeramani, P
crop spacing of 20 x 10 cm gave maximum highest Bhairappavar S T, Jaydeva H M, Gowda T H and Shivanna
harvest index (36 %) while lowest harvest index (31 S (2005). Effect of nutrients and spacing on the yield of
urdbean under late sown condition. Legume Res 28(1):
%) was obtained at crop spacing of 15 x 10 cm. 48-50.
Garaterol Y and Montilla D (2003). Effects of row spacing and
CONCLUSION plant population on performance of two indeterminate
From the present studies it can be concluded soybean cultivars. Bioagro 15(3): 193-199
that the variety VBN (Bg) 6 out crossed the other Khan A (2000). Studies on determining comparative yield
varieties in the performance and the crop spacing potential of mungbean cultivars. M.Sc.Thesis. Dept of
of 20 x 10 cm showed significantly better results Agro, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.
towards seed yield and harvest index. Hence it can Malik M F, Ashraf A, Qureshi S and Ghafoor A (2007).
be recommended that black gram variety VBN (Bg) Assessment of genetic variability, correlation and
6 should be grown preferably in crop spacing of 20 path analyses for yield and its components in soybean.
x 10 cm under the north eastern agro-climatic zone Pakistan J Bot 39: 405-413.
of Tamil Nadu in order to achieve higher black Sekhon H S, Singh G and Brar J S 2002. Effect of population
density and planting geometry on the growth and yield of
gram yield.
mungbean (Vigna radiata) genotypes. Environ and Ecol
20(4): 897-901.
REFERENCES Siddique M, Malik M F A and Awan S I (2006). Genetic
Abbas S (2000). Effect of various levels of phosphorus on
divergence, association and performance evaluation of
growth and yield of two mungbean cultivars. M.Sc. Thesis.
different genotypes of mungbean (Vigna radiata). Int J
Dept of Agro, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.
Agric Biol 8: 793-795.
Ali M, Abbas G, Mohy-ud-Din Q, Ullah K, Abbas G and
Vahedi B, Gholipouri A and Sedghi M (2010). Effect of
Aslam M (2010). Response of Mungbean (Vigna Radiata)
planting pattern on radiation use efficiency, yield and
to phosphatic fertilizer under arid climate. The J Anim
yield components of sunflower.
Plant Sci 20(2): 83-86
Received on 18/09/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

104 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 101-104

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 105-108 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00075.8

Effect of Plastic Mulch on Growth, Yield and Economics of

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) under Nimarplains Conditions of
Madhya Pradesh
S K Tyagi1#and G S Kulmi2
RajmataVijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Khargone 451 001 (Madhya Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at farmers’ fields in Khargone during kharif 2016 and 2017 with
view to assess the effect of plastic mulch on growth, yield and economics of chilli. Two treatments
were T1 Farmers practice (without mulch) and T2 (30 micron silver on black plastic mulch) replicated
at five farmers field. Thirty two days old seedlings of chilli hybrid Sonal were transplanted on raised
beds at a spacing of 1.20 m between row to row and 0.40 m plant to plant spacing. The Treatment T2
(Silver on black plastic mulch) recorded significantly maximum plant height (104.56 cm),number
of structural branches/plant (9.93), fruit length (16.48 cm), fruit girth (1.29 cm), green chilli weight
(8.19g), number of fruits/plant (212.80), dry chilli weight/plant (267.50g) and dry chilli yield (53.50q/
ha). The maximum net return per hectare (Rs 2,87,856/ha) and benefit cost ratio (2.71) were recorded
under treatment T2. However the minimum net return and benefit cost ratio were recorded in control (T1).
Key Words: Chilli, Economics, Growth, Plastic mulch, Yield

INTRODUCTION condition and suppresses weed growth and could

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is an important
spice essentially used in every Indian cuisine for
its pungency, taste, colour and aroma. It is rich
in proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, fibres, mineral
salts (Ca, P, Fe) and vitamins like A, D, E, C, K,
P, B2 and B12 with good medicinal properties.
Keeping the high export potential chilli, production
can be increased by a combination of advance
production technologies viz., high yielding hybrids,
mulching, application of growth regulators,
staking, drip fertigation and integrated pest and
disease management. Chilli, being a long duration
and energy rich crop require proper manuring and
balanced fertilizers along with sufficient moisture
level for higher yield and quality produce (Prasad
et al 2009). Mulching stimulates the microbial
activity in soil through improvement of soil agro-
physicalproperties. It also minimizes the use of N
fertilizer, warms the soil, improves the soil physical
Corresponding Author’s E-mail: suniltyagikvk75@gmail.com
1
Scientist (Horticulture) ,2Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, Khargone (M.P.)
account for increased yield (Nagalakshmi et el
2002).
To increase the productivity, developing
comprehensive package of practices of chilli
using plasticulture techniques isnecessary. With
this in view, experiments were conducted to study
the Effect of plastic mulch on growth, yield and
economics of chilli under Nimar Plains conditions
of Madhya Pradesh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted for two
consecutive years i.e. 2016 and 2017 during
Kharif season at five farmers’ field in Khargone.
The Khargone district comes under Nimar Plains
Zone of Madhya Pradesh which is situated at the
Latitude of 21.833525(DMS Lat 21° 50’ 0.6900’’
N) and longitude of 75.614990 (DMS Long 75°

105 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 105-108

 Tyagi and Kulmi
36’ 53.9640’’ E).The maximum temperature
ranges from 43 to 46oC during summer season and
minimum temperature fluctuates between 6 to 10oC
during winter season. The average annual rainfall
of the region is 835 mm. The treatments comprised
of T1 Farmers’ practice (without mulch) and T2(30
micron Silver on black plastic mulch) replicated
at five farmers field. The area of experiment plots
were 0.40 ha of each farmers. Thirty two days old
seedlings of chilli hybrid Sonal were transplanted
on raised beds with the spacing of 1.20 m between
row to row and 0.40 m plant to plant spacing.
The farm yard manure (25t/ha) was applied in the
bed at the time of preparation of raised bed. The
recommended dose of fertilizers (180:80:80 kg NPK/
ha) was applied. The 75 per cent of recommended
dose of P applied through single superphosphate as
basal application. Water soluble fertilizers (Urea,
19:19:19, 13:0:45 and 12:61:0) were given through
drip twice in a week as per recommendation of
TNAU, Tamil Nadu. The raised beds were covered
with silver on black polythene sheet (mulch) in
treatment T2 and Treatment T1 remained without
mulch. The data on plant growth, yield and yield
attributes, cost of cultivation, gross return, net
return and benefit cost ratio were estimated as per
paired “t”test of significance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth Attributes
Plant height
Plant height was measured from 30 DAT to 90 yield per plant because of the better plant growth
DAT at 30 days interval. The data (Table1) revealed that due to favourable hydro-thermal regime of soil
the maximum plant height (104.56 cm) in treatment and complete weed free environment.
T2 and minimum plant height (85.96 cm) in treatment
T1 at different growth stages and increased with plant
age. Plastic mulch showed superior performance
in plant height over control, indicating mulch had
positive effect on the growth and development of
chilli. The increased plant height in mulched plants
was possibly due to moisture conservation, higher
soil temperature, weed control, and increased
mineral nutrient uptake. Changes in the plant height
106 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 105-108
of chilli have been observed with different mulches
and plastic mulch found to increase plant height
than other mulches (Shinde et al, 1999).
Number of structural branches
The value (Table 1) showed that the plastic
mulch had a significant effect on the number
of structural branches per plant. The number of
structural branches per plant continually increased
with plant age. The highest number of structural
branches (9.93 at 90 DAT) per plant was observed
in T2. However T1 showed the least number of
structural branches (7.89 at 90 DAT). Favourable
weather condition and moisture of the soil are the
important factors affecting the number of branches
per plant. It was reported that mulched tomato
plants had more branches than that of unmulched
plants, which supported the present results .
Yield and Yield Attributes
Fruit length and girth
The data (Table 2)indicated that silver on black
plastic mulch(T2) records highest mean fruit length
(16.48 cm), fruit girth (1.29 cm) and minimum fruit
length (13.79 cm), fruit girth (1.20 cm) in comparison
to(T1). Nagalakshmi et al (2002) reported the
maximum number of fruits per plant (97.67), length
of fresh fruit (6.93 cm) and circumference of fruit
(3.57 cm) with the application of black plastic mulch
compared to organic and no mulch (control).These
researchers observed that plants under polyethylene
mulch produce larger fruit and have higher fruit
Fruits per plant and green chilli weight
The perusal of result indicated that silver on
black plastic mulch (T2) produced more number
of fruits per plant as compared to control (T1)
indication the positive influence on fruit setting
in chilli. The highest number of fruits per plant
(212.80) and average green chilli weight (8.19g)
were recorded in silver on black plastic mulch (T2)
 Effect of Plastic Mulch
Table 1. Effect of plastic mulch on average plant height and primary branches at different ages of
chilli . (Av. data of 24r)
Particular Plant height Plant height Plant height No. of No. of Primary No. of
(cm) at (cm) at (cm) at Primary branches/ Primary
30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT branches/ plant at branches/
plant at 60 DAT plant at
30 DAT 90 DAT
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
26.12 38.38 54.46 63.18 85.96 104.56 3.84 4.69 4.82 6.08 7.89 9.93
t-value 10.825 6.224 6.802 4.388 5.212 4.836
p-value 0.00041 0.00339 0.00244 0.01179 0 .00646 0.00842

The result was significant at p ≤ 0.05. Significant at 5% level of significance

however control (T1) recorded the lowest fruits per Similar findings were reported by Krishnamoorthy
plant (178.80) and average green chilli weight (7.84 and Noorjehan (2014) and Leela Rani et al (2015)
g Table 2). The increase in the number of fruits per in chilli.
plant in mulched plot was probably associated with
the conservation of moisture and improved micro Fruit weight and yield
climate both beneath and above the soil surface. The effect of plastic mulch on fruit weight per
The micro climate condition improved by the plant and yield per hectare was significant (Table 2).
mulches might have provided a suitable condition Mulching produced higher fruit yield per plant and
for producing higher number of leaves and fruit fruit yield per hectare over the control, indicating
bearing nodes in the plant compared to the control. that the mulch had positive effect in generating
increased fruit yield. Silver on black plastic mulch
This was due to higher availability of soil produced the highest dry chilli weight per plant
moisture, optimum NPK nutrients and uptake when (267.50 g) and dry chilli yield (53.50q/ha) however
nutrients supplied through fertigation with mulching control plot showed the lowest fruit yield both in
which helped in establishing the roots, initiating per plant (192.40 g) and (38.40 q/ha). Fruit yield
more fruiting points, their subsequent retention increased in mulched plot because of increased
and development in the plant leading to the higher number of fruit/plant and fruit weight which may
number of fruits per plant and other parameters as be attributed to the better utilization of inputs due to
compared to conventional fertilizer application. lowest weed competition and better soil moisture.
Table 2. Effect of plastic mulch on average yield and yield attributes of chilli.
Particular Green chilli Green chilli Green chilli Number of Dry chilli yield/ Dry chilli
fruit length fruit girth fruit weight fruits/plant plant (g) yield (q/ha)
(cm) (cm) (g)

T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
13.79 16.48 1.20 1.29 7.84 8.19 178.80 212.80 192.40 267.50 38.40 53.50
 t-value 4.674 8.581 5.490 16.791 18.011 17.042
p-value 0.00949 0.00101 0.00536 0.00007 0.00006 0.00007

The result was significant at p ≤ 0.05. Significant at 5% level of significance

107 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 105-108

 Tyagi and Kulmi
Table 3. Effect of plastic mulch on economics of chilli. (Av. data of 24r)
Particular Cost of cultivation Gross return Net return Benefit Cost:
(Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) ratio
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
136809 167544 307200 455400 170391 287856 2.25 2.71
 t-value 19.434 18.926 13.712 7.472
p-value 0.00004 0.00005 0.00016 0.00171

The result is significant at p ≤ 0.05. Significant at 5% level of significance

The results were in accordance with Narayan et al REFERENCES

(2017) who reported recorded highest number of Krishnamoorthy V and A K A Noorjehan (2014). Effect of
fruits with maximum fruit weight and total fruit Water Soluble and Conventional Fertilizers on Growth
and Yield of Chillies. J Krishi Vigyan 2(2) : 28-30.
yield in case of black plastic mulch (double coated)
in chilli.The maximum yield attributes viz., green Leela Rani, Ramachandra P B, Rao K A and Masthan S C
(2015). Evaluation of Integrated Nutrient Management
chilli length, 100 green chilli weight, number of Practices on Growth, yield and economics of green
fruits per plant and dry matter production were chilli cvPusaJwala (Capsicum annuum L.). Int J of Bio-
observed in black plastic mulch of 25 micron resource and Stress Management 6(1) : 076-080.
thickness and fertigation with 120% RDF have also Nagalakshmi S, Palanisamy D, Eswaran S and Sreenarayanan
been reported by Pandian et al (2017). V V (2002). Influence of plastic mulching on chilli yield
and economics. South Indian Hort 50: 262-265.
Economics Narayan S, Makhdoomi M I, Malik Ajaz Nabi Ambreen,
The economics of cultivation (Table 3) showed Hussain K and Khan F A (2017). Influence of Plastic
that among the treatments, application of 30 and organic mulching on productivity, growth and weed
micron silver on black plastic mulch (T2) resulted density in chilli (Capsicum annuumL.). J Pharmacognosy
in higher gross returns of Rs455400/ha ,net returns and Phytochem 6(6): 1733-1735.
Rs287856/ha and cost: benefit ratio (2.71) as Navaneetha Pandian V M, Selvamurugan and Muthuchamy
compared to without mulch (T1). Narayan et al I (2017). Drip fertigation and black plastic mulching for
improved productivity in Chilli. Int J Curr Microbiol App
(2017) reported the higher B:C ratio with double Sci 6 (11): 2732-2737.
coated black polythene mulch.
Prasad S M, M H D, Kumar B M, Chittapur M H Tatager
and R K Mesta (2009). Yield and quality of chilli (cv.
CONCLUSION Bydigidabbi) as influenced by primary andsecondary
It may be concluded that plastic mulches can nutrients.Karnataka. J AgriSci22 : 1090-1092.
boost productivity in Nimar plains conditions of Shinde U R, Firake N N, Dhotery R S and Banker M C
Madhya Pradesh. A favourable soil, water-plant (1999).Effect of micro-irrigation systems and mulches on
relation is created by placing mulch over the soil microclimate factors and development of crop coefficient
models for summer chilli.MaharastraAgrilUniv J 24: 72–
surface which improves microclimate surrounding
75.
the plant and soil. Silver on black plastic mulch
(30 micron) could enhance soil moisture retention Received on 20/10/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019
suppress weed growth and enhanced crop yield.
Therefore, mulching could be incorporated to
enhance yield in chilli.

108 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 105-108

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 109-112 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00077.1

Effects of Soil Application of Biochar on

Soil Health and Productivity of Rice-Wheat Cropping System in
Rohtas District of Bihar
Ram Pal
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rohtas, -802 212 (Bihar)

ABSTRACT
Due to migration of work force from agriculture it became inevitable to adopt farm mechanization to
ensure food supply to growing population. Mechanization leads to crop residue burning in open field
for rapid clearing of field and sowing of new crop. Crop residue burning in open field became one
of the most sever environmental and social problem form sustainable agriculture production and
human survival. Conversion of crop residue into biochar and its use in agriculture is a healthy option
for its mitigation. Present study was focused to assess the effect of biochar on sustainability of rice-
wheat productivity in Rohtas district of Bihar. The results showed that the no significant change was
observed in system productivity but soil health was improved significantly. Advancing in sowing
time of Rabi crops and reduced weed density ensures the better future of biochar use in agriculture.
Key Words: Biochar, bulk density, SOC, System productivity, infiltration rate.

INTRODUCTION for acid soil and for improving soil nutrient

Biochar is transformed biomass, through availability (Muhammad et al, 2018). This property
pyrolysis and carbonization, into carbon-rich also makes biochar an effective material for the
micro-porous materials which have a well- ameliorating saline soil (Saifullah et al, 2018).
developed porous structure and a high degree of The effects of biochar on crop yield depend
aromatization (Lehmann and Joseph, 2015). The largely on the amount of biochar applied and the
composition of biochar generally includes elements soil types. Biochar has a positive effect on crop
such as C, H, O, N, S, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, and Si; yield in general, and it is more effective when
of which C content is the highest (generally above applied to low to medium fertility or degraded soil
60%), followed by H and O (Yuan et al, 2011). The rather than to fertile or healthy soil (El-Naggar et
inherent structure and physicochemical properties al 2019). Lehmann et al (1999) applied biochar to
of biochar have a direct or indirect impact on the soil at a rate of 68 t/ ha and 135 t/ ha, and found
soil micro-ecological environment by affecting that the biomass of rice and cowpea increased by
soil bulk density, water content, porosity, cation 17 and 43 percent, respectively. Uzoma et al (2011)
exchange capacity and nutrient content (Chen et al, applied biochar at a rate of 15 t/ ha and 20 t/ ha to
2013). The abundant organic carbon and minerals the sandy soil where maize was grown and found
in biochar are also beneficial for increasing soil that the crop yield was increased by 150 and 98 per
organic carbon content and soil mineral content cent, respectively.
(Zwieten et al, 2010). Moreover, the high porosity
in biochar also improves soil water holding capacity The positive effect of biochar on crop biomass
significantly (Benjamin et al, 2019). Biochar’s and yield has been found to accumulate with
alkaline nature supports its use as a soil amendment time. Major et al (2010) conducted a multi-year
Corresponding Author’ Email: rampalag97@gmail.com

109 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 109-112

 Ram Pal
experiment in a maize–soybean rotation system,
and found that the maize yield was not increased in
the 1st year when biochar was applied at 20 t/ ha.
However, the yield was increased by 28, 30, and 140
per cent compared to the control in the following
3 yr, respectively. Field research conducted in the
Amazon River basin in Brazil also showed that an
11t/ha of biochar application increased the grain
yield of rice and sorghum together by 75 percent after
four growing seasons in 2 years (Steiner et al, 2007).
According to Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE, 2009), Govt. of India approximately
500 Mt of crop residues are generated every year.
The cereal crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets)
contribute 70 per cent (rice 34 and wheat 22 %) of
crop residues. The unutilized crop residues i.e., total
residues generated minus residues typically used for
various purposes are burnt on-farm. Kaur (2017)
assessed and reported the status and constraints crop
residue in Panjab. Similarly, rice produces about
20 percent husk during processing. Biochar has
become a focus of soil environmental research as a
result of its potential for increasing soil carbon sinks,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, remediating
Table1. Status of rice productivity and husk generation in Rohtas.
Year Area, (000,ha) Production,
(000t)
2011-12 170.2 736.30
2012-13 179.2 719.14
2013-14 197.15 776.2
2014-15 196.51 820.98
2015-16 196.66 759.63
*Considering paddy contains 20 per cent as husk ; Sources: Different volumes of Economic Survey of
Govt. of Bihar
contaminated soils and alleviating the pressure of
straw burning. If this residue(rice husk) is converted
into biochar by various available technologies it
may be useful for farmers and environment as well.
In present study, effect of different dose of biochar
application (produced by rice husk from a gasifire)
on productivity and sustainability of rice-wheat
cropping system was assessed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was undertaken in Rohtas
district of Bihar. Productivity of rice was 74.81
per cent more than the national average in year
2014-15( Economic Survey 2015-16 and State of
Indian Agriculture 2015-16). Rice milling is one
of the most common agro-industry of the district
and produces huge quantity of husk. The status of
rice and estimated husk production of Rohtas is
given in Table1. Most of the soil of the district is
old alluvium (43.9 % reddish and brown and 35.3
% is grey and brown) and rest is new alluvium.
About 86 per cent cultivable area is under canal
irrigation. Rice wheat is the major production
system. Average annual rainfall is 746.6 mm and
maximum and minimum temperature are 15 0C and
Productivity, kg/ha Estimated husk* (000 t)
4326 184.08
4013 179.79
3937 194.05
4178 205..25
3863 189.91

Table 2. Details of different treatments.

Treatment Description
T1 Farmers’ practice i.e. without adding biochar
T2 Adding biochar @2000 kg/ ha
T3 Adding biochar @ 3000kg/ha

110 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 109-112

 Effect of Soil Application of Biochar
460C, respectively(Anonymous, 2017). through straw reaper machine. Plot area was
Two rates of biochar, obtained from gasifire maintained 0.5 acre in all treatments.
installed at Khaira Bhuta village, were mixed in soil
with rotavator during the Kharif season just after RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the onset of monsoon. The treatment details is given Crop cut data were recorded from one square
in Table 2. meter quadrant at three different locations of all trails
for both Rabi and Kharif seasons. This Table shows
Physical (Bulk density and infiltration rate) and no significant change (at 1% level of significant) in
chemical ( soil organic carbon) properties of soil yield during the all three years. Reduction in year
were recorded before and after application of biochar 2015 was recorded due to very adverse climatic
by following the standard protocol. Production conditions ( heavy rainfall during flowering stage of
data were recorded from all farmers plots in both rice and very delayed sowing of wheat due to heavy
the seasons and converted to rice equivalent by moisture present in soil at the time of harvesting
multiplying wheat yield by a conversion factor of which hinders the operation of combine harvesters).
1.3 for analysis of system productivity. Statistical No significant change in productively might be
analysis of data was done on MS-Excel package because of very lower dose of biochar application
available in MS-office. Paddy variety MTU7029 as used by Steiner et al (2007) and Major et al (
and wheat variety HD 2967 were used for trails 2010). The present rate was decided on the basis of
following the good agricultural practices across the total output from the same area in a year.
plot. Conventional puddled transplanting of rice
and zero tillage sowing of wheat were followed in Soil properties of all plots were recorded before
all trails. Rice straw were burned in field just before and after the trails and presented in Table-4. Very
sowing of wheat and wheat straw was collected huge increment in soil organic carbon (SOC) was

Table 3. Performance of rice-wheat cropping system in different year (kg/ha)

Detail 2014 2015 2016
Kharif Rabi Rice Kharif Rabi Rice Kharif Rabi Rice
equivalent equivalent equivalent
T1 6502 3716 11332 6460 2771.57 10063 6912.71 3497 11459
T2 6533 3705 11349 6542 2789.43 10168 6952.43 3527 11538
T3 6539 3734 11393 6525 2879 10268 6988 3590 11655
SEM± 29.62 13.43 34.24 64.82 21.90 87.87 11.52 16.91 23.94
CD 64.54 29.27 74.60 141.23 47.72 191.44 25.10 36.83 52.16

Table 4. Properties of soil before and after the trial.

Detail SOC, percent Bulk density, gm/cc Infiltration rate, mm/hr
Before After Before After Before After
T1 0.46 0.46 1.54 1.53 49.29 47.43
T2 0.45 0.50* 1.52 1.51* 48.86 50.14
T3 0.45 0.51* 1.53 1.51* 48.29 50.71
SEM± 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 1.92 2.00
CD 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.05 4.19 4.37

111 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 109-112

 Ram Pal
recorded in both the treatments and higher in higher Chen W F, Zhang W M and Meng J (2013). Advances and
application rate. Presence of biochar might affects prospects in research of biochar utilization in agriculture.
Sci Agric Sin 46(16):3324–3333
the value of SOC. Similarly, significant decrease in
bulk density was recorded in both level of biochar Das, S K and Avasthe, R K (2018). Development of innovative
low cost biochar production technology. J Krishi Vigyan
application. Increase in infiltration rate was also 7(1) : 223-225
recoded but the difference was insignificant. Similar
El-Naggar, A, Sang, SL, Jorg, R, Muhammad F, Songe
results were also reported by Benjamin et al (2019) Hocheol, Ajit KS, Andrew RZ, Mahtab A, Sabry MS
and advocated by Das and Avasthe ( 2018). and Yong SO (2019). Biochar application to low fertility
It was found that there was no significant soils: a review of current status, and future prospects.
Geoderma 337:536–554
gain in system productivity, but improvements in
soil health were recoded. Das and Avasthe (2018) Lehmann J and Joseph S (2015). Biochar Environ Manag Sci
Technol Implement, 2nd edn. Routledge, London
also recommended the use of biochar as soil
amendment. Due to decrease in soil bulk density Lehmann J, Weigl D, Peter I, Droppelmann K, Gebauer G,
Goldbach H and Zech W (1999). Nutrient interactions of
and increase in infiltration rate sowing time of rabi alley-cropped Sorghum bicolor and Acacia saligna in a
2016 was advanced by more than 9 d as compared run off irrigation system in Northern Kenya. Plant Soil
to control condition( facilitated 7 d early harvesting 210:249–262
of rice and 2d advanced sowing). Weed density Major J, Rondon M, Molina D, Riha S J and Lehmann J
were also significantly decreased in year 2016 as (2010). Maize yield and nutrition during 4 years after
compared to control. No significant difference were biochar application to a Colombian savanna oxisol. Plant
observed between treatment T2 and T3. Soil 333:117–128
Muhammad S, Lukas VZ, Saqib B, Aneela Y, Avelino N,
Muhammad AC, Kashif AK, Umeed A, Muhammad SR,
CONCLUSION Mirza A M and Ronggui H (2018). A concise review
Biochar application in soil will not only change of biochar application to agricultural soils to improve
the soil health but also health of animal, air and soil conditions and fight pollution. J Environ Manag
water. Decrease in weed and bulk density; and 228:429–440
increase in infiltration rate is sign of sound soil Saifullah Saad D, Asif N, Zed R and Ravi N (2018). Biochar
health and symbol of sustainable productivity application for the remediation of salt-affected soils:
of system. To make it available, traceable, and challenges and opportunities. Sci Total Environ 625:320–
335
controllable a standard system for biochar research
protocol, biochar production technology and biochar Steiner C, Teixeira WG, Lehmann J, Nehls T, Macêdo JLV,
Blum WE H and Zech W (2007). Long term effects of
products needs to be established and a standardized manure, charcoal, and mineral: fertilization on crop
management system needs to be applied across production and fertility on a highly weathered central
the whole biochar industry chain. Therefore, for Amazonian upland soil. Plant Soil 291:275–290
future of human survival, sustainable and healthy Uzoma KC, Inoue M, Andry H, Fujimaki H, Zahoor A and
development of society, we should explore the future Nishihara E (2011). Effect of cow manure biochar on
of biochar generation and utilization in agriculture. maize productivity under sandy soil condition. Soil Use
Manag 27(2):205–212
REFERENCES Yuan JH, Xu R K and Zhang H (2011). The forms of alkalis
Kaur, A (2017). Crop Residue in Punjab Agriculture- Status in the biocharproduced from crop residues at different
and Constraints. J Krishi Vigyan, 5(2) : 22-26 temperature. BioresTechnol 102:3488–3497
Benjamin, M C F, Stefano M L M, Monica, G, Mark S and Zwieten LV, Kimber S, Morris S, Chan KY, Downie A, Rust J,
Johnson, SW (2019). Improving agricultural water use JosephS and Cowie A (2010). Effects of biochar from slow
efficiency with biochar—a synthesis of biochar effects on pyrolysis ofpapermill waste on agronomic performance
water storage and fluxes across scales. Sci Total Environ and soil fertility. Plant Soil 327(1/2):235–246
657:853–862 Received on 17/06/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019
112 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 109-112
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 113-116 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00079.5

Ergonomic Analysis of the Work Environment of

Weavers in Manipur
Kangjam Victoria Devi1 and Visalakshi Rajeswari2
Department of Resource Management, Faculty of Home Science,
Avinashilingam University, Coimbatore- 641 043 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Women constitute a significant proportion of the work force in diverse industrial activities and due to lack
of strict adherence to work environment standards and legislation are subjected to various work hazards.
The existing work practices, conditions of work and incompatible man-machine design exert varying
work stresses on the operator stated Singleton way back in 1966. Till now, this problem has never been
resolved. The study was conducted to analyse working environment of the handloom weavers in Manipur.
A total of 42 participants (14 from each weaving on the three different looms namely Loin loom, Throw
shuttle loom and Fly shuttle loom ) were selected from Imphal East and Imphal West districts of Manipur.
A checklist was used to evaluate the work environment. The analysis brought to light the elements of
vector found not satisfactory in the weaving sheds for the set four indices namely General Conditions
(GWC), Work Station (WD), Working Posture (WP) and Hand Tools (HT) and need attention for all types
of looms users, the plight of the loin loom users, further stands out attracting attention for necessary action.
Key Words: Ergonomics, Handloom, Weavers, Women, Work environment.

INTRODUCTION Bazar’ (Women’s market) has a population of more

The handloom industry is the largest unorganized than 2000 sales women selling their own products
sector among the textile industries and constitutes (http://www.e-pao.net and http://www.ashanet.
an integral part of the rural life of the country org). The existing work practices, conditions of
with great potential for the utilization of human work and incompatible man-machine design exert
resources to absorb considerable manpower and varying work stresses on the operator has never
solve the high rate of unemployment by providing been resolved. With this background kept in mind,
opportunities to utilize both urban and rural labour the present study was undertaken with the objective
resources. This most ancient cottage industry in to analyse working environment of the handloom
India’s decentralized sector, gains significance weavers in Manipur.
as a major representative of the country’s culture
and heritage and the fertile employment- provider MATERIALS AND METHODS
to over ten million people. Manipuri women’s role The study was conducted in Imphal East
and Imphal West districts of Manipur. Purposive
in the socio economic and cultural life of Manipur
sampling method was used for the study. A published
is significant. Manipuri women do not stay behind
Ergonomics checklist (Choobineh et al, 2004) was
the veil. They are active and they know the craft
administered on the 14 participants each using the
of spinning and weaving of fabric. They also are
experts in marketing of their products. three type of loom (Loin loom, Fly shuttle loom and
Manipur is the only state where women have Fly shuttle loom) to assess the working conditions
an exclusive market. The daily market of ‘Ima in weaving workshops as a first step in identifying

Corresponding Author’s E-mail:kangjam_devi@yahoo.com

113 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 113-116

 Devi and Rajeswari

GWC WD Score
GWC index = ------------ X 100 (%) WD index = ------------------ X 100 (%)
13 9

WP Score HT Score
WP index = ------------------ X 100 (%) HT index = ------------------ X 100 (%)
9 6
Total Score
Ergonomic index = ----------------- X 100 (%)
37
Box 1: Calculation of Scores for the Elements of Vector

major ergonomic problems and setting priorities Work Station (WD)

and corrective measures. The tool suggested for a Out of all the nine given statements, loin loom
carpet weaving population was slightly modified weavers felt dissatisfaction with seven pointers,
for this study. while the other two groups stated of six making the
Calculations were made on the basis of the WD index 22.22 for loin loom users and 33.33 for
suggestions put forth by Choobineh et al (2004) as the other two groups.
given in Box(1). Working Posture (WP)
A majority of 93, 50 and 94 per cent of Loin
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION loom, Throw shuttle loom and Fly shuttle weavers
Ergonomic Assessment of the Weaving Area had not undergone any eye tests. Hence, the factors
This aspect of the study elicited details on stated as unsatisfactory for working posture was
the elements of vector found unsatisfactory in either four or five out of nine by the samples, hence
the weaving area, on the basis of the checklist the Working posture index also was 44.44 or 55.55.
administered. The findings pointed to the following
details as presented in Table (1). Hand Tools (HT)
Throw shuttle and Fly shuttle loom weavers
The analysis brought to light the elements of could pinpoint only one factor as not satisfactory.
vector found unsatisfactory in the weaving sheds Contrarily for Loin loom weavers there were three
for the set four indices. Scores recorded for the factors mainly because of the unwieldy weight of
individual elements of vector for all the three looms the beater (2.00 kg) that they used for closing warp
was consolidated and were presented in Table.2 yarn while weaving and pinch grip they had to
General Working Conditions (GWC) apply on the spindle. Both the tools were not found
Three elements each for lighting and thermal to be satisfactory as their hand and figure positions
conditions were found not to be satisfactory in the (wrist too) had to be adjusted alternatively while
weaving areas by all the weavers. Evidently the weaving. Therefore, the HT index recorded by Loin
general working conditions index for all areas (for loom weavers was only 50.00 as against 83.33 for
all the three looms) was a uniform 53.8, which was the other two groups.
comparatively a better rating.

114 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 113-116

 Ergonomic Analysis of the Work Environment
Table 1. Elements of Vector in the Work Places found Inadequate.
Elements of Statement Percent Responding
Vector
Weaving Workshops
LL(Loin TSL(Throw FSL(Fly
loom) shuttle shuttle
loom) loom)
General Work- Light colours not used for ceilings 100 100 100
ing Conditions Operators eyes are not free from indirect glare 100 100 100
(GWC) Improper general contrast in the visual field 100 100 100
Lighting
Air temperature not suitable for the activity (21 100 100 100
– 250C) during peak winter and summer
Thermal condi-
tion Humidity not suitable (40 – 60%) during rainy 100 100 100
seasons
Air velocity not suitable 100 100 100
Workstation It is not a vertical loom 100 100 100
(WD) Space not free enough for legs under the loom 100 100 100
Weavers cannot adjust their workstation dimen- 100 100 100
sions to fit them
Adjusting mechanism not easy to handle 100 100 100
Weaving height not adjustable (so the weavers 100 - -
can’t adopt healthy postures)
Height of the chair not easily adjustable 100 100 100
Chair does not have a backrest 100 100 100
Working Pos- Upper arms mostly not in a convenient neutral 100 100 100
ture (WP) posture so there is shoulder flexion
Weavers not able to adopt several healthy pos- 100 100 100
tures while working
Task not performed with the trunk upright. The 100 100 100
neck is also slightly inclined forward (<200) at an
awkward angle
Weavers stretch during their breaks to reduce 100 100 100
the soreness and stiffness related to fixed, static
work postures
Weavers have not undergone eye examinations 93 50 94
Hand Tools Hand tools not comfortable and safe to use 100 - -
(HT) Sharp edges and pinch points are there in hand 100 100 100
tools
Weight of the weaving comb (beater/sword) not 100 - -
acceptable, comfortable to/for the weaver

115 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 113-116

 Devi and Rajeswari
Table 2. Scores for the Elements of Vector in Workplaces.
Sr. Weaving workshop Scores for the Individual Parameters (in %)
No. GWC WD WP HT
1. LL 53.8 22.22 44.44 to 55.55 50.00
2. TSL 53.8 33.33 44.44 to 55.55 83.33
3. FSL 53.8 33.33 44.44 to 55.55 83.33

Ergonomic Index corrective measures. To be more specific the index

The Ergonomic Index for the three weaving obtained for HT for loin loom was found to be lower
workshops, given as a cumulative score for 37 than the other two, warranting more investigation in-
points stated in the checklist was 43.24 or 45.94 for depth for incorporating corrective measures with hand
Loin loom and a uniform 51.35 or 54.0 for Throw tool used by loin loom weavers. This further buttressed
and Fly shuttle loom respectively. Though the the need for a focussed study of the loin loom. All the
ergonomic index computed for all the three types looms warrant attention focussing on priorities, with
of looms was unsatisfactory, the plight of the loin corrective measures to be implemented.
loom users, further stands out attracting attention
for immediate action. The scores thus obtained was CONCLUSION
categorized for the loom-wise ergonomic index as The type of health risks women faced is
given below (Table.3). associated with their specific working conditions.
Inference of the ergonomic status of the work Little research leads to a blinkered view of
place is based on the index of action categories women’s health problems at work – they are put
suggested as under: down to getting old or the menopause or hysteria.
Women’s problems are seen as unreal. So there
4 – Further investigation is needed. Corrective is little incentive to do research or to suggest any
measures are required soon; 3 – Further investigation prevention.
is needed. Corrective measures are required;
2 – Further investigation is needed. Corrective
REFERENCES
measures may be needed; 1 – Working conditions Singleton W T (1966). The Training of the Mechanists.
are acceptable. Ergonomics 2(1):148-152.
Action categories obtained for loin looms Choobineh A (2004). Development of an Ergonomic Carpet
based on ergonomic index emphasize the need for Weaving Workstation with Emphasis on Neutral Working
Posture based on Field of Survey and Laboratory
further investigation and requirement for corrective
Interventions (Ph.D Thesis) Tehran, Iran. Department of
measures. Throw and fly shuttle looms needed some Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran
corrective measures. It was evident therefore, most of University of Medical Sciences, www.ciop.p1/8667;
the conditions for all the three looms studied based http://www.e-pao.net
on indices, namely GWC, WD, WP and HT, require Received on 22/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

Table 3. Ergonomic Index Vs Three Types of Looms.

Sr.No. Loom used Index calculated ( %) Ergonomic Action
GWC WD WP HT index Categories
1. Loin loom 53.8 22.2 44.44 to 55.55 50 43.24 to 45.94 3
2. Throw shuttle loom 53.8 33.33 44.44 to 55.55 83.33 51.35 to 54.0 2
3. Fly shuttle loom 53.8 33.33 33.3 to 44.44 83.33 51.35 to 54.0 2

116 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 113-116

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 117-121 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00080.1

Evaluation of Agronomic Practices based on the Knowledge

Level of Small and Big Guava growers of Rajasthan State
S R Meena* and Y K Sharma**
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur (Rajasthan)

ABSTRACT
The present research work was carried out to assess the practices followed by guava growers of Sawai
Madhopur District of Rajasthan. For the study, a sample size of small (n=54) and big guava growers (n=66)
from six different villages were selected using simple random sampling technique. Assessment of knowledge
regarding different agronomic practices comprised of usage of improved varieties, vegetative propagation
method, planting practices, type of irrigation system used, usage of manure and fertilizers and plant protection
measures etc. was made. The knowledge gap was categorized into three different classes as highest, medium
and low based on mean percent score (MPS). The results showed that highest level of knowledge gap found
in case of vegetative propagation (41.75 %), irrigation system (35.83 %) and plant protection measures
(34.62 %). Further recorded that the medium level of knowledge gap in package of practices like improved
varieties (30.83 %), harvesting and marketing(30.65 %) and cultural practices (22.35 %) while lowest level
of knowledge gaps was found in practices like planting practices (4.05 %) and manure a fertilizers (13.02 %)
among the total majority of guava growers regarding improved guava cultivation practices. The results further
elucidated that there was a significant difference found between small and big guava growers with respect to
agronomic practice followed to improve guava production technology. Thus, it can be concluded that the big
guava growers had more knowledge about major practices of guava cultivation than small guava growers.
Key Words: Agronomic practices, Gap, Guava Growers, Knowledge.

INTRODUCTION Generally there is a technological gap between the

Guava Fruit is successfully grown all over India.
Major guava growing states are Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
Andra-Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam,
Punjab, Kerala, West Bengal, Orissa and Tripura.
Guava is the fifth most important sub tropical fruit
crop of India after mango, banana, citrus and apple.
Rajasthan State is considered to be the potential
area for fruits like mango, orange, lemon, guava,
kinnow, mosambi, banana, grapes, papaya, ber,
aonla, malta, phalsa, pomegranate, date-palm, etc.
The Bharatpur region has reputation of growing the
best quality of guava in the state. Bharatpur division
(Alwar, Dholphur, Bharatpur, Sawai-Madhopur and
Karauli) is well known for its area and production.
technology generated and its adoption. A number
of agencies like Department of Horticulture (Govt.
of Rajasthan), Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR, New
Delhi) and Regional Research Station are working
on fruits are located at Sawai Madhopur District.
Keeping this in mind, an effort was made to assess
the technological gap among the guava growers of
Sawai-Madhopur District of Rajasthan.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Locate of Study
The present study was conducted in purposively
selected Sawai-Madhopur district of Rajasthan. A
list of all the guava growing villages was prepared
in consultation with tehsil personnel’s and with the

Corresponding Author’s Email: abhishek.mermat@gmail.com

*P G Scholar, Department of Extension Education, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur (Rajasthan)
** College of Agriculture, Lalsot, district Dausa, Rajasthan.

117 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 117-121

 Meena and Sharma
help of Department of Horticulture. From the list, that the farmer’s knowledge of improved practices
six villages were selected on the basis of maximum of guava cultivation has a wide gap.
area under the guava cultivation and comprehensive The knowledge score obtained by the
list of all guava growers of the selected villages. respondents was divided into three categories. and
Selection of Sample size results showed that majority of guava growers
The numbers of guava growers were decided (61.6%) had medium level of knowledge regarding
for each village by proportionate sampling method. improved practices of guava cultivation. This
The farmers of each village were selected by simple was also observed that almost equal number of
random techniques. In this way a sample of fifty- respondents possessed low level of knowledge
four small and sixty six big guava growers were category (20%) and 18.3% were having high
selected. Thus, the total study sample consisted of level of knowledge of improved guava production
120 respondents from all the six selected villages of technology.
Sawai-Madhopur panchayat samiti. In case of small guava growers, 55.6 per cent
respondents possessed medium level of knowledge
Assessment of Parameters about improved practices of guava cultivation. This
Assessment of knowledge regarding different was followed by 44.4 per cent respondents who
agronomic practices comprised of usage of possessed low level of knowledge. It was interesting
improved varieties, vegetative propagation method, to note that none of the respondents in the sample
planting practices, type of irrigation system used, was reported with high level of knowledge about
usage of manure & fertilizers and plant protection improved guava cultivation practices. Among the
measures etc. The knowledge gap was categorized big guava growers, 66.7 per cent of respondents
into three different classes as highest, medium and had medium level of knowledge about improved
low based on mean percent score (MPS). practices of guava cultivation. This was interesting
to note that none of the respondents in the sample
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION was reported to be with low level of knowledge and
Distribution of respondents according to their only 33.33 per cent of the respondents had high level
level of knowledge of knowledge about improved practices of guava
The knowledge of respondents about improved cultivation. These findings were similar with the
practices of guava cultivation is presented in Table findings of Poonia (2002) who found that majority of
1. Respondents were divided into three knowledge respondents (65%) had medium level of knowledge
groups based on knowledge score obtained by them. of improved kinnow cultivation practices. However,
The data related to knowledge of two categories of respondents found in high and low knowledge
respondents (small and big guava growers) indicate category were 18.3 and 16.6 per cent, respectively.

Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to their level of knowledge about improved guava
cultivation practices.
Sr. No. Knowledge Level Small guava growers Big guava growers Total
(n = 54) (n =66) (n = 120)
1. Low (< 59) 24 (44.4) - 24 (20)
2. Medium 30 (55.6) 44 (66.7) 74 (61.7)
(59 to 70)
3. High (>70) - 22 (33.3) 22 (18.3)

118 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 117-121

 Evaluation of Agronomic Practices
Knowledge level and knowledge gaps among
the small and big guava growers
It was evident that that the level of knowledge
about improved guava cultivation practices needs
to be introduced to the small and big guava
growers. The data (Table 2) showed that the overall
level of knowledge with 73.36 MPS were found
among the total majority of guava growers with
regard to improved guava cultivation practices.
The highest level of knowledge in package of
practices likes planting practices (95.95 MPS),
manure and fertilizers (86.98 MPS) ware ranked
first and second. Further reported that the medium
level of knowledge followed towards cultural
practices (77.65 MPS) followed by harvesting and
marketing (69.35 MPS), improved varieties (69.17
MPS) and plant protection measures (65.37 MPS)
were ranked third, fourth, fifth and sixth in ranks
order. Further, recorded that the lowest level of
knowledge in package of practices like irrigation
system (64.17 MPS) and vegetative propagation
(58.25 MPS) were ranked Seven and Eight in ranks
order among the total majority of guava growers
regarding improved guava cultivation practices.
The overall level of knowledge gaps (26.64 %)
were found among the total majority of guava
growers with regard to improved guava cultivation
practices. Further reported that the highest level
of knowledge gaps found in case of vegetative
propagation (41.75 %), irrigation system (35.83 %)
and plant protection measures (34.62 %). Further
recorded that the medium level of knowledge gaps
in package of practices likes “Improved varieties”
(30.83 %), harvesting and marketing (30.65 %)
and cultural practices (22.35 %). Further observed
that the lowest level of knowledge gaps in package
of practices like planting practices (4.05 %) and
Manure and fertilizers (13.02 %) among the total
majority of guava growers regarding improved
guava cultivation practices in the study area.
The data (Table 2) further revealed that the
overall level of knowledge with 67.28 MPS were
found among the small guava growers with regard
to improved guava cultivation practices. The
highest level of knowledge in package of practices
like planting practices with 91.53 MPS; and manure
& fertilizers with 81.02 MPS ware ranked first and
second in ranking orders. Further observed that
the medium level of knowledge followed towards

Table 2. Knowledge level and knowledge gaps among small and big guava growers regarding
improved guava cultivation practices
Sr. No Practice Small guava Big guava Total
growers growers guava growers
(n = 54) (n =66) (n = 120)
MPS MPS MPS
1. Improved varieties 53.24 82.20 69.17
2. Vegetative Propagation 54.63 61.21 58.25
3. Planting practices 91.53 99.57 95.95
4. Irrigation system 63.27 64.90 64.17
5. Manure and fertilizers 81.02 91.86 86.98
6. Cultural practices 73.42 81.10 77.65
7. Plant protection measures 60.65 69.24 65.375
8. Harvesting and marketing 60.45 76.62 69.35
Over all 67.28 78.34 73.36
MPS= Mean per cent score

119 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 117-121

 Meena and Sharma
cultural practices with 73.42 MPS, irrigation
system with 63.27 MPS, plant protection measures
with 60.65 MPS and harvesting & marketing with
60.45 MPS were ranked third, fourth, fifth and
sixth in ranks order. The data further indicated
that big guava growers had less knowledge gap
(especially in planting practices very less and in
manure of fertilizers just half) as compared to small
guava growers. It may be due to large size of land
holding, more cosmopolite orientation and high
socio-economic status of big growers than small
growers. The overall knowledge gaps (26.64%)
among the guava growers indicate that they have
less knowledge of improved guava cultivation
practices. There was a higher knowledge gap
was found in case of vegetative propagation
among the guava growers may be due to lack of
knowledge about reliable sources of plant material
and unavailability of reliable plant propagation
material. High knowledge gap was reported in case
of irrigation system and plant protection measures
among the guava growers may be due to lack of
skill in using modern irrigation system and high
mortality of plants in the field during initial years.
Thus, the guava growers were not aware with
innovative vegetative propagation techniques and
irrigation systems. These findings were similar in
line with the findings of Reddy and Ratnakar (1993)
who reported that most of the orchard keepers were
having less knowledge regarding improved mango
production technology. Another study also reported
that found that there was significant difference
in knowledge among marginal, small and big
categories of farmers (Sharma S, 1991 and Poonia,
2002 ).
Significance of difference between small and big
guava growers
The difference of knowledge was analyzed with
the help of ‘Z’ test. The obtained results have been
presented in table 3.
The data presented in table 3 showed that there
existed a significant difference in knowledge of
small and big guava growers with respect to major
improved practices of guava cultivation except
irrigation system. A non significant difference in
the knowledge of small and big guava growers
with respect to only one major practice of guava
cultivation was observed i.e., irrigation system. The
calculated ‘Z’ values were found to be significant
for seven individual practices and non significant
for one individual practices.

Table 3. Significance of difference between small and big guava growers with respect to practice wise
knowledge about improved guava cultivation practices.
Sr. Practice Max. Mean obtained score Mean dif- ‘Z’
No. obtainable Small Big grow- ference value
score growers ers (n=66)
(n=54)
1. Improved varieties 8 4.26 6.58 2.32 14.09*
2. Vegetative propagation 10 5.46 6.12 0.66 5.79*
3. Planting practices 7 6.41 6.97 0.56 7.56*
4. Irrigation system 6 3.80 3.89 0.10 1.51NS
5. Manure and fertilizers 8 6.48 7.35 0.87 6.11*
6. Cultural practices 17 12.48 13.79 1.31 7.37*
7. Plant protection measures 20 12.13 13.85 1.72 8.80*
8. Harvesting and marketing 14 8.46 10.73 2.27 19.40*
* Significant at 5% level

120 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 117-121

 Evaluation of Agronomic Practices
CONCLUSION REFERENCES
It can be concluded that the big guava growers Poonia A (2002). Technological gap among the kinnow (Citrus
had more knowledge about major practices of guava deliciosa) orchard owners in Sriganganagr district of
Rajasthan.”M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis. M.P.U.A.T., Udaipur,
cultivation than small guava growers. It may be campus: RCA, Udaipur.
due to the fact that the big guava growers are more
Sharma S (1991). Knowledge and adoption of improved
innovative in their outlook; as they are more change cultivation of rose by the farmers of Pushkar valley in
prone and seek latest information from as they have Ajmer district (Rajasthan.). M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis Rajasthan
cosmopolite orientation. They have contacts with Agril. Univ. Bikaner, campus: Udaipur.
experts working at research stations. All this might Reddy V and Ratnakar R (1993). Adoption of mango
have resulted in higher knowledge about improved technology. Maha J Ext Edu XI:309.
guava cultivation practices. Received on 08/09/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

121 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 117-121

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00082.5

Extent of Diversification and Constraints in Adoption of Different

Farming Systems in Chamba District of Himachal Pradesh
Divya Sharma and Virender Kumar
Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension Education and Rural Sociology
College of Agriculture, CSKHPKV, Palampur ( Himachal Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The existing farming systems have been studied for their profitability and extent of diversification in
Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. The study is based on the primary data collected from 160 farmers.
The diversification index was computed to capture the extent of diversification in the district. The
lowest value of diversification index implied that extent of diversification was highest and vice versa.
In cereals based farming system (FS-I), lowest diversification was observed with a value of 0.77. The
higher diversification was noted in livestock based (FS-III) and fruits based (FS-IV) farming systems
having values 0.55 and 0.58, respectively. The fragmentation of land holdings, lack of cold storage
facilities, monkeys, stray animals and wild animals menace were found as major problems in the study
area and the scope for agro-processing unit, diversification towards cash crops, developing commercial
livestock unit, herbal, aromatic and medicinal plants were major opportunities reported in the study area.
Key Words: Constraints, Diversification, Farming systems, Opportunities.

INTRODUCTION beset with the disadvantage of small holdings. In

Growing rural population and constrained
employment opportunities in the non-farm sector
have caused sub-division of land holdings in India
to the extent that these cannot provide an adequate
livelihood to a majority of farm households. To
have sustainable livelihood security and improve
the standard of living, the farm families need to
generate additional income in a sustainable manner
from the available farm resources. A shift is needed
from the prevalent cereals-based farming system
to a diversified commercialized farming system
(Kumar et al, 2006; Priyadarshini et al, 2018).
Agriculture continues to be the main livelihood
option of rural households in Himachal Pradesh.
The net sown area in the state is about 550 thousand
hectares (Anonymous, 2018a). About 69 per cent of
the main workers are engaged in agricultural pursuits
but, the contribution of agriculture and allied sector
is only 9.7 per cent in GSDP during 2017-18
(Anonymous, 2018b). The agriculture in the state is
the hilly regions, the area under plough is always
a cause of serious concern and it is impossible to
bring more area under cultivation due to colossal
costs involved (Kumar, 2011). The farming system
approach seems to be profitable by reducing
the input cost and probable solution to meet the
increased demand for food stability (Banerjee and
Barat, 2013). The present study was carried out to
explore farming system diversification in Chamba
district of HP and identify problems in undertaking
this system approach in the study area. The study
also emphasized the opportunities available to the
households under different farming systems.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Chamba district
of Himachal Pradesh. Stratified two stage random
sampling technique was employed for selecting the
sample households. A total sample of 160 farmers
was drawn from the selected villages through

Corresponding Author’s Email: divyasharma331@rediffmail.com

122 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127

 Sharma and Kumar
proportional allocation technique. Income approach RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
was used for the identification of farming systems. In the farming system approach different
The farmers who derived more than 50 per cent enterprises can be undertaken meaningfully and
income from cereals were categorized under FS-I based on the available resources, location specific
(Cereals based FS), similarly, from vegetables systems can be developed which will result into
were put under FS-II (Vegetables based FS), from sustainable agricultural development. In view
livestock were grouped as FS-III (Livestock based of this, the paper has studied the diversification
FS) and from fruits were named as FS-IV (Fruits of existing farming systems. In case of cereals
based FS). By porting all the samples it was found based farming system (FS-I), per farm RFFR were
that in cereals based FS there were 46 famers, in observed to be Rs. 49,311/-. In this farming system
case of vegetables based FS there were 40 farmers, (FS-I), the maximum returns were from cereals
in livestock based FS total farmers were 18 and in (28.07%) followed by livestock (26.23%) and
case of fruits based FS, 56 farmers were identified. vegetables (26.26%). Further, in case of vegetables
The study was based on primary data. The average based farming system (FS-II), per farm RFFR were
Returns to Fixed Farm Resources (RFFR) from Rs. 82,040/- and vegetables accounted maximum
different farm enterprises across different farming (59.84%), followed by livestock (16.13%) and fruits
systems have been worked out by using the formula: (9.42%). In livestock based farming system (FS-
Returns to Fixed Farm Resources (RFFR) = III), per farm RFFR were Rs. 80,432/-. Livestock
Value of main product - total cash variable expenses. contributed maximum (63.34%) in this farming
system (FS-III) followed by vegetables (14.76%)
The cash variable expenses included the value and fruits (10.63%). In fruits based farming system
of seeds, fertilisers, hired labour, value of pesticides (FS-IV), per farm RFFR were Rs. 1,23,290/-. In this
and chemicals, etc. For dairying, sheep/goat and farming system maximum income was observed
poultry activity, RFFR were calculated by deducting from fruits (58.31%) followed by livestock
cash variable expenses such as of concentrate, (27.12%). Millets also showed their contribution
minerals, feed, medicines, hired labour from gross by providing 0.45 per cent returns in fruits based
income of dairy, sheep/goat and poultry activity. In farming system. Pulses contributed maximum
order to generate RFFR values for mushroom, cash (8.76%) in fruits based farming system. In FS-II,
variable expenses were deducted from gross value the RFFR from mushrooms were found about 0.40
of the products for a particular unit size of these per cent. The share of poultry in FS-I was 2.04 per
enterprises. cent average RFFR. The enterprise with the lowest
Diversification index was computed to know the value of diversification index implied that extent
extent of diversification among different farming of diversification was highest. In FS-I, lowest
systems: diversification extent was found with value 0.77.
Di= The higher diversification was found in livestock
(FS-III) and fruits based (FS-IV) farming system
Di = Diversification index
0.55 and 0.58, respectively (Table 1).
Si = Share of net income of the ith crop enterprise in
A number of factors were found to influence
per farm net income
the returns from farming systems in the study
S = Per farm net income of a farming system area. These included infrastructural, financial,
To meet the objective of analysis of problems production, marketing and miscellaneous factors.
and opportunities in different farming systems On the basis of opinion survey, various problems
Garrett’s ranking technique was employed. faced by the farmers in different farming systems

123 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127

 Extent of Diversification and Constraints
Table 1. Extent of diversification and per farm contribution of different farm enterprises in total
Returns to Fixed Farm Resources. (Per cent)
Sr. No. Particular FS-I FS-II FS-III FS-IV
1 Cereals 28.07 8.17 6.54 1.15
2 Millets and pseudo cereals - 0.45
3 Oilseeds 4.80 0.91 0.35 0.05
4 Pulses 9.48 4.15 4.11 8.76
5 Vegetables 26.26 59.84 14.76 3.84
6 Livestock 26.23 16.13 63.34 27.12
7 Fruits 3.12 9.42 10.63 58.31
8 Poultry 2.04 0.98 0.27 0.32
9 Mushroom - 0.40 - -
Total (Rs) 49311 82040 80432 123290
Farming system diversification index 0.77 0.60 0.55 0.58
were identified. The survey was analyzed by using based farming system and in vegetables based
Garrett’s ranking technique to identify the problems farming system higher wage rate of labour was the
faced by the farmers under different farming main problem. Further in case of marketing, lack
systems. The constraints encountered by the of regulated market problem ranked at first position
respondents were categorized into five categories in cereals based farming system and in vegetables
namely, infrastructural, financial, production, based farming system, higher marketing cost was
marketing and miscellaneous (Table 2). In case of main problem with Garrett score 64.13. In livestock
problems related to the infrastructure and extension and fruits based farming system, exploitation by
constraints, fragmentation of land-holdings was commission agents was the major problem having
the most severe problem in cereals based farming the Garrett score 59.28 and 64.13, respectively.
system and lack of cold storage facility was most As far as miscellaneous constraints were
prominent problem in vegetables based farming concerned, monkeys/ wild animals and stay animals
system with an average Garrett score 71.31 and menace ranked at first position in cereals based
58.10, respectively. In livestock based farming farming system. In vegetables and fruits based
system, lack of suitable cattle shed and veterinary farming system higher insect pest and diseases
facilities was most severe problem having a Garrett attack was the main problem with Garrett score
scores 68.38 whereas, in fruits based farming system 57.20 and 68.50, respectively. In case of livestock
lack of cold storage was more severe problem with based farming system lower risk-taking capacity
Garrett score 80.25. In case of financial problems, was the major problem followed by lack of know-
formalities in getting bank credit was more severe how problem.
problem in cereals, livestock and fruits based
farming system having the Garrett scores 58.80, Further, the opportunities available to the
57.28 and 57.80, respectively. While, in vegetables households under different farming systems were
based farming system (FS-II), non-availability of analysed (Table 3). In cereals based farming system
credit in time was major problem. Further, in case (FS-I) the scope for agro-processing unit ranked
of production problems, lack of irrigation facilities first with average Garrett score 79.51. In vegetables
was major problem of cereals, livestock and fruits based farming system (FS-II) the area was suitable

124 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127

 Sharma and Kumar
Table 2 Constraints in adoption of farming systems in Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh.
Sr. Particular Cereals based Vegetables Livestock Fruits based
No. Score farming based farming based farming farming system
systems system system
Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
1 Infrastructure/ Extension
i) Package of practices not available 47.70 7 62.58 3 60.08 3 53.30 5
ii) Fragmentation of land-holdings 71.31 1 40.28 7 50.21 7 58.45 3
iii) Lack of extension or training 58.28 5 57.78 5 57.78 5 53.03 6
iv) Lack of field demonstrations 61.68 3 61.90 4 62.10 2 64.00 2
v) Lack of suitable cattle shed and veterinary 57.75 6 40.83 6 68.38 1 57.40 4
facilities
vi) Lack of processing facilities 68.60 2 69.82 2 52.93 6 44.10 7
vii) Lack of cold storage facilities 60.60 4 75.60 1 58.10 4 80.25 1
2 Financial
i) Lack of credit to purchase improved 51.70 3 54.80 2 55.75 3 56.80 3
inputs
ii) Formalities in getting bank credit 58.80 1 53.75 3 57.28 1 57.80 1
iii) Non availability of credit in time 55.71 2 60.75 1 55.18 2 57.70 2
3 Production
i) Non-availability of good quality seeds 59.68 6 66.55 3 62.53 2 67.03 2
ii) Chemicals/pesticides/ fertilizers not 63.70 4 63.50 5 63.85 1 65.20 1
timely available
iii) High cost of chemicals and fertilizers 61.73 5 64.70 4 61.38 4 64.38 4
iv) Lack of irrigation/ shortage of irrigation 67.70 1 68.20 2 63.85 1 67.03 1
water
v) Improved breeds of livestock not 58.90 7 56.68 7 58.38 5 58.38 5
available
vi) Shortage of fodder 52.00 8 52.30 8 52.48 7 54.33 7
vii) High wages 66.40 2 68.23 1 62.25 3 65.88 3
viii) High cost of production 64.70 3 58.55 6 57.55 6 64.38 6
4 Marketing
i) Lack of regulated markets 61.40 1 61.00 3 51.93 5 60.10 5
ii) Non remunerative prices 58.13 4 57.95 5 52.58 3 60.75 3
iii) Exploitation by commission agents 59.83 2 61.43 2 59.28 1 64.13 1
iv) High marketing cost 58.58 3 64.13 1 53.83 2 59.63 2
v) Price fluctuations 55.95 5 58.75 4 51.95 4 58.88 4
5 Miscellaneous
i) Monkeys/wild animals/stray animals 62.38 1 52.85 2 55.75 4 52.13 4
menace
ii) Higher insect/pests /disease attack 59.23 2 57.20 1 58.50 3 68.50 1
iii) Lack of know-how 47.29 4 50.32 3 60.71 2 63.22 2
iv) Lower risk-taking capacity 56.78 3 47.60 4 62.00 1 58.37 3

125 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127

 Extent of Diversification and Constraints
Table 3. Opportunities for sample households.
Sr. Particular Cereals based Vegetables based Livestock based Fruits based
No. farming system Farming system farming system farming system
Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank
1 Climate suitability 65.49 3 57.83 2 53.20 6 55.20 4
for allied activities
(mushroom, poultry,
etc.)
2 Product famous 75.23 2 46.00 9 50.32 7 69.38 1
(basmati, kidney beans,
apple)
3 Organic farming 56.00 4 49.02 6 55.08 5 59.50 3
4 Practicing herbal, 55.75 6 52.10 4 59.65 4 67.19 2
aromatic and medicinal
cultivation
5 Scope of agro 79.51 1 54.13 3 40.45 9 42.55 8
processing unit
6 Potential of snow water 47.00 9 48.60 7 63.77 3 50.11 6
conservation on a
watershed management
basis to enhance the
cultivable area
7 Developing commercial 55.90 5 49.17 5 71.33 1 53.95 5
livestock unit
8 Trade with Jammu and 47.30 8 47.18 8 65.50 2 42.43 9
Kashmir
9 Growing high value 49.38 7 66.86 1 45.90 8 46.83 7
agricultural crops to
earn better income

for diversification towards cash crops through
the utilization of created irrigation potential in
vegetables. The climate conditions of the study area
were congenial for taking up of agriculture related
enterprises such as mushroom cultivation, which
is an ideal option specifically for those without
much land (Sharma, 2018) and also to supplement
the farm income. Also, there was a good scope for
backyard poultry which is a need to increase the
availability of protein food source in rural areas to
alleviate protein malnutrition (Kumari et al, 2018).
In livestock based farming system the opportunity
of developing commercial livestock unit ranked
first having Garrett score 71.33. In fruits based
farming system kidney beans and apple were of
great importance and there was full opportunity to
make these products more fetching. Also there was
good scope for developing herbal, aromatic and
medicinal plants in the study area. Huge demand of
milk, meat and egg was there in the local and distant
markets and the incentives were also available for
establishment of dairy, poultry and sheep & goat
units. There was plenty of scope for educating
the farmers on organic farming because fertilizer
consumption was very low especially in livestock
based and horticulture based farming system and it
required fewer efforts to adopt organic farming.

126 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127

 Sharma and Kumar
CONCLUSION
Agricultural diversification has emerged as an
important alternative to attain the output growth
and sustainability in the developing countries. With
farming system approach, diversification of farm by
adopting ancillary, horticulture and other high value
enterprises like mushroom, poultry etc. should be
promoted to increase farm income. Specific policy
intervention is needed to deal with significant
promotional and extension activities. Low level of
awareness was great hurdle in the dissemination of
technical know-how and application of improved
techniques in production process. Therefore,
there is a need to improve the awareness level of
farmers through extension personnel of different
departments related to agriculture and allied
activities. The problem of timely availability of
quality seed, fertilizers, pesticides and other inputs
held back the farmers for making agriculture a
profitable enterprise. For this government should
regulate the registered seed suppliers/ input dealers
and make them accountable for providing quality
seed and other inputs along with technical know-
how. There was lack of irrigation facilities in the
study area. Incentives should be given for the
management of irrigation schemes.
127 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 122-127
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2018a). Statistical Year Book of Himachal
Pradesh 2016-17, Department of Economics & Statistics
Himachal Pradesh, Shimla.
Anonymous (2018b). Economic Survey of Himachal Pradesh,
2017-18, Economics and Statistics Department. pp 3-4.
Banerjee S and Barat S (2013). Economics of different
livestock-carp integrated farming systems over traditional
non-integrated farming system in terai region of West
Bengal. J Krishi Vigyan 1 (2): 20-24.
Kumar V (2011). Agriculture in Himachal Pradesh: Issues for
the twelfth five year plan. Indian J Agril Econ 66 (3):
279-288.
Kumar S, Jain DK, and Singh R (2006). Increasing income
and employment through sustainable farming systems in
water scarce region of Uttar Pradesh. Agril Econ Res Rev
9: 145-157.
Kumari Phool Somvanshi SPS, Kumar A and Singh BK
(2018). Livelihood security of poor families through
poultry backyard rearing system in Auraiya district of
Uttar Pradesh. J Krishi Vigyan 7 (special issue): 94-96.
Priyadarshini A, Sharma D, Kumar V and Chauhan SK.
(2018). Comparative economics of different farming
systems in Himachal Pradesh. J Krishi Vigyan 7 (1): 44-
47.
Sharma A (2018). Market linked technology of mushroom
production for subsidiary income and nutritional security
of farm families of Uttar Dinajpur district of West Bengal.
J Krishi Vigyan 7 (special issue): 97-100.
Received on 20/09/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 128-132 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00083.7

Factors Responsible for Contributing Anxiety among the

Working Women in Punjab
Shikha Bathla* and Shabnam Sharma**
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, SBS Nagar-144516
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
Assessment of factors responsible for contributing anxiety among the working class women is paramount to
prevent health issues. The present pilot study was carried out to estimate the relationship between lifestyle
associated factors among adult working women of Punjab. The study was carried out from April, 2019
to July, 2019 and included 130 participants randomly selected from two different districts of Punjab state
(Ludhiana and SBS Nagar). Anxiety associated life style factors of working women having the age between
21-55 yr were analyzed by self report and incorporated percentage of body mass index, daily exercise, food
habits, sleeping habits, and metabolic disorders etc. Correlation between different anxiety causing variables
were also calculated. The results showed that only 29 per cent of working women were indulged in daily
exercise, eating meals (74.80%), taking regular sleep of 6-8hr (87.78%), drinking water at regular interval
(76.33%), feel free in discussing with family members (53.43%), with both relatives and friends (50.38%),
colleagues (13.74%) and rest 5.34 per cent with relatives etc. Only 23.66 per cent women had normal BMI
and 41.22 per cent were pre-obese due to sedentary life style. There was positive co-relation between age
with exercise, sleep with exercise, diet with sleep and satisfaction of life with sleep. The study concluded
that healthy diet with regular exercise and taking sound sleep of 6-8 hr reduces the incidence of anxiety.
Key Words: Anxiety, Diet, Life style, Sleep, Women.

INTRODUCTION increased susceptibility to disease, impaired physical

Health is defined as a state of complete physical, and mental development, and reduced productivity.
mental and social well-being and not merely the A healthy diet consumed throughout the life-course
absence of disease or infirmity. Lifestyle factors like helps in preventing malnutrition in all its forms as
age, food habits, level of exercise, positive thinking well as wide range of non-communicable diseases
etc. contribute significantly to the health status (NCDs) and conditions. But rapid urbanization/
of an individual (Farhud, 2017). The adequacy in globalization, increased consumption of processed
appropriate quantity and quality food consumption foods and changing lifestyles has led to a shift in
improves the well being of an individual that leads dietary patterns (Rev, 2018).
to improved work capacity and emotional stability Lifestyle is also defined as the uniqueness
as well. Humans need a wide range of nutrients to of an individual pertaining to day to day activity
lead a healthy and active life. For providing these comprised of diet, food habits, exercise, hours of
nutrients, good nutrition or proper intake of food sleep, type of work and profession etc. According
in relation to the body’s dietary needs is required. to World Health Organization, 60 per cent of related
An adequate, well balanced diet combined with factors to individual health and quality of life are
regular physical activity is a cornerstone of good correlated to lifestyle, as millions of people follow
health. Poor nutrition can lead to reduced immunity,
Corresponding Author’s Email:shikha_bathla@yahoo.com
* Assistant Professor, Home Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya, SBS Nagar.
** Principal, Disciplined Disciple International Senior secondary School, Amritsar, Punjab.

128 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 128-132

 Bathla and Sharma
an unhealthy lifestyle (Ziglio et al, 2004). Ahuja
and Sharma (2014) in a study conducted in district
Kapurthala of Punjab reported that only 4.0 per cent
farm women were graduate and only 5.8 per cent
were in the government or private sector service.
Remaining about 94.6 per cent of farm women
were engaged themselves in agricultural operations
in order to earn the livelihood for the family.
Further, it was also found that about 50 per cent
farm women were suffering from lower backache
which is another undesired feature because all the
family welfare is totally dependent on a lady in an
Indian home. Per head availability of milk was very
good in case of families who kept dairy animals but
not in the case that didn’t have dairy animals. Due
to high cost of milk these days they couldn’t afford
to buy large quantities of milk. The calcium intake
from dairy products was also found to be low which
increase the risk of hypertension and coronary heart
disease.
Thus, the relationship of lifestyle and health is
highly important and interested by researchers. So
assessment of these factors responsible for healthy
life among the working class women is paramount
to prevent health issues. Keeping all the paramount
points in mind, the present work was undertaken
to estimate the relationship between lifestyle
associated factors among adult working women of
Punjab.
selected randomly on non-sample subjects. Based
on the response received during pre-testing certain
necessary changes were incorporated in the
schedule. Hence, the pre-tested and restructured
schedules were used to the data.
Collection of data
The data pertaining to general profile of the
subjects, anthropometric parameters, food habits,
lifestyle factors, habit of exercise and stress related
information were collected from the subjects
through personal interview technique during March
to July, 2019.
Anthropometric Measurements
The height was measured with the help of
anthropometric rod to the nearest 0.5 cm. The
subjects were asked to stand erect against the rod
without shoes with feet parallel and heels together,
back of the head touching the measuring rod. The
head was held comfortably erect. The arms were
hanging at the sides. The body weight was taken
to the nearest 0.5 kg on a portable weight machine.
The subjects were asked to remove shoes before
weighing and to stand in the centre of the platform
with minimum of clothing (Jelliffe, 1966). Body
mass index were calculated by using the standard
method and classified on the basis of WHO (2004)
classification.
Table 1. Classification of Body Mass Index.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Classification Principle Cut-off points for

BMI(kg/m2)
Selection of subjects Underweight < 18.5
The present study was aimed to investigate the Severe thinness < 16
daily lifestyle habits of service class adult females.
Moderate thinness 16 – 16.99
A random sampling was adopted to select the
Mild thinness 17 – 18.49
subjects. One hundred and thirty adults in the age
group of 21-55yr were selected from Ludhiana and Normal range 18.5 – 24.99
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district of Punjab. Overweight ≥ 25.0
Pre-obese 25.00 - 29.99
Development of interview schedule Obese ≥30.00
An interview schedule was developed to Obese class I 30.00 - 34.99
obtain the desired information on various aspects
Obese class II 35.00 - 39.99
of data collection. The reliability of the schedule
Obese class III ≥40.00
was worked out by pre testing on 10 respondents

129 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 128-132

 Factors Responsible for Contributing Anxiety
Statistical Analysis The data presented in Table 3 showed that selected
Computation of some descriptive statistical subjects were having mean BMI in the range of
measures such as percentage distribution, mean and 27.51±0.44(kg/m2). The data further showed that
standard deviation for variables. The correlation only 27.51 per cent of the subjects were having
coefficients were calculated to find out the relationship normal BMI while 54 per cent were found to be
between age, BMI, exercise, anxiety and diet. pre-obese.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Food Habits

The data (Table 4) showed the food habits
Anthropometric profile practices by selected subjects as 74.80 per cent had
The results revealed that the mean height of habit of eating meals regularly. Out of which 25.19
subjects was 160.44±0.66 cm and further elucidated per cent had habits of skipping breakfast, lunch
that In contrast to present study, Sudhera and Sidhu (11.45%) and dinner (6.10%). The data presented
(2012) reported that mean height of Punjabi subjects in Figure 1 Showed that 83.20 per cent of working
was observed 158.36 ±5.86cm and weight as 53.56 women had the habit of taking mid morning meals,
±9.07kg (Table 2). while 22.90 per cent take early morning tea with
Table 2. Anthropometric profile of selected biscuits and 45.03 per cent take evening tea with
Respondent. (n=131). snacks.
Parameters Suggested Value Table 4. Food habits of the selected subjects
values (n=131).
Age (yr) ---- 29.54±0.65 (21-55)
Sr. No Interviewed Questions % Response
Height (cm)  ---- 160.44±0.66 (142.2-193.0)
01 Do you take three meals at 74.80
Weight (kg) 55 Kg 58.51±1.07 (40-102) regular intervals?
02 Do you skip any meals daily?  
BMI(kg/m2) 18.5-24.99 27.51±0.44 (15.2-38.8)
  Breakfast 25.19
• Values are presented in Mean±SD   Lunch 11.45
• Figure in the Parenthesis represents the range   Dinner 6.10
Table 3. Body Mass Index profile of selected 03 Do you take in between  
Respondent   meals?
Classification BMI (kg/m ) 2
Percentage Early morning 22.90
 
Underweight < 18.5 --  Mid morning 83.20
 
Severe thinness < 16 03 Evening time 45.03
Moderate thinness 16 – 16.99 01 04 Do you take lemon water 22.90
Mild thinness 17 – 18.49 04 daily?
Normal range 18.5 – 24.99 31 05 Do you drink tea/coffee 83.20
  daily?
Overweight ≥ 25.0  
With Sugar 58.77
Pre-obese 25.00 - 29.99 54  
Without Sugar 24.43
Obese ≥30.00  
06 Do you drink minimum 6-8 76.33
Obese class I 30.00 - 34.99 26
glasses of water daily?
Obese class II 35.00 - 39.99 12
Obese class III ≥40.00 0

130 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 128-132

 Bathla and Sharma

07 Are you suffering from any   Table 5. Information on lifestyle factors from
following diseases? selected Respondent
 
Diabetes 0 Sr. Interview Questions %
 
Blood pressure 6.87 No Response
 
Heart problems 1.52 1. Do you have regular sleep (6-8 hr)? 87.78
 
Cancer 0 2. Do you do any exercise daily? 29.00
  Frequent fever 3.05
3. Do you feel stress, tension or 69.46
 
Urinary tract infections 5.34 anxiety?
 
Its related to family 44.27
 
The results further revealed that 22.90 per cent
  Its related to office 33.58
women had habit of taking regular lemon water, tea
(83.20%) and add sugar in tea (58.77%). Only 76.33   Its related to friends 50.38
had habit of drinking water at regular interval. None   Its related to relatives 3.05
of the working women were suffering from diabetes Any other 6.87
whereas, 6.87 per cent were suffering from blood 4. Do you feel more comfortable while 89.31
pressures problem, 3.05 per cent from frequent discussing your problems?
fever and 5.34 per cent were from UTI. Family 53.43
Friends 50.38
Relatives 5.34
Colleagues 13.74
5. Are you satisfied with your life? 88.54
Table 6. Correlation Coefficient between different
variables (n=131)
Sr. No. Variable R Value
1 Age and BMI -0.43***
2 Age and height 0.06 (NS)
Fig 1. Habit of taking in between meals
3 Age and weight 0.43***
4 Age and exercise 0.085**
5 Anxiety and water 0.137***
6 Anxiety and tea 0.145***
7 Anxiety and diet 0.073**
8 Anxiety and sleep -0.09**
9 Anxiety and satisfaction -0.039 (NS)
10 BMI and exercise -0.06 (NS)
11 Exercise and sleep 0.135***
12 Diet and sleep 0.138***
Fig 2. Habit of taking beverages. 13 Satisfaction and sleep -0.206***
The results (Table 5) further showed that only ** Significant at 5% level (0.07); *** Significant at
29 % of working women were indulged in daily 1% level (0.103)
exercise, Only 87.78% women had habits of taking NS- Non-significant

131 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 128-132

 Factors Responsible for Contributing Anxiety
regular sleep of 6-8 hours. The data further showed REFERENCES
that 53.43 % feel free in discussing with family Ahuja A K and Sharma M (2014). Milk consumption pattern
members, 50.38 % with both relatives and friends, among rural farm women of district Kapurthala. J Krishi
Vigyan 3(1) : 48-53
13.74% with colleagues and rest 5.34% with
relatives, etc. Farhud D D (2017). Lifestyle and sustainable development.
Iran J Public Health 46(1):1-3.
The correlation analysis (Table 6) showed that Jellife D B (1966) The assessment of nutritional status of
there was a significant (P≤0.01) positive correlation community. World Health Organization Monograph
among the diet, sleep and weight. The results further Series No.53, Geneva, p.50-84
showed that daily habit of exercise improves the Rev S P (2018) Are there any differences in the quality
life span significantly (P≤0.05) . of the diet of working and stay at-home women. 52:
47.doi: 10.11606/S1518-8787.2018052000104.
CONCLUSION WHO Expert Consultant (2004). Appropriate body mass index
The study concludes that only 87.78 per cent for Asian populations and its implications for policy and
intervention strategies. The Lancet. 3:157-63.
women had habits of taking regular sleep of 6-8hr,
53.43 per cent feel free in discussing with family Ziglio E, Currie C and Rasmussen V B (2004). The WHO
cross-national study of health behavior in school aged
members, 50.38 per cent with both relatives and
children from 35 countries: findings from 2001–2002. J
friends, 13.74 per cent with colleagues and rest 5.34 School Health 74 (6): 204– 206.
per cent with relatives, etc. There was a positive Are there differences in the quality of the diet of working and
correlation found between sleep with exercise, stay-at-home women?
diet with sleep and satisfaction of life with sleep.
Received on 04/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
The study suggested that healthy diet with regular
exercise and having sound sleep of 6-8hr reduced
the incidence of anxiety.

132 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 128-132

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 133-136 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00084.9

Feeding of Concentrate and Green Fodder at an Early Age and

its Effects on Growth Rate in Goat Kids
Tejbeer Singh and Manoj Sharma
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Langroya, SBS Nagar 144 516 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
A study was conducted on nine beetle goat kids, randomly divided into three groups of three in each group on
the basis of same age and weight to evaluate the effect of feeding concentrate feed along with green fodder
at different stages of age on the growth rate. Maize was used as green fodder and commercially available
readymade feed as a concentrate feed for feeding of beetle goat kids. Three treatments viz.,T1(concentrate
feed+ dam milk + maize green fodder after 60d), T2(concentrate feed +dam milk + maize green fodder after
30d and T3(concentrate feed + dam milk + maize green fodder after 15d) of age were evaluated. Feeding was
started at 4th day of age in all the experimental groups. During entire period of experiment, measured quantity
of feed was provided to each animal every morning and the left over was weighted in next morning to assess
daily feed consumption. The body weights were measured individually at the beginning and at fortnightly
intervals during the experimental period. The overall body weight changes and average daily body weight
gain in goat kids were higher in group T1 followed by group T2 and groupT3. It was concluded that feeding
of green fodder after weaning at 60d of age improved body weights and meat value for commercial purpose.
Key Words: Beetle,Body weight gain, Concentrate, Goat kid, Green fodder, feed Intake.

 INTRODUCTION 2011). The effects of breed, age, sex, and nutritional

India’s economy is predominantly based factors on growth, carcass, and meat quality have
on agriculture and success cannot be thought been reviewed (Casey and Webb, 2010). The
about without livestock in India. About 20.5 animal of even outstanding genotype cannot show
million people depend upon livestock for their its potentials unless it is properly fed (Gowane et
livelihood. Livestock provides livelihood to about al, 2011). The major feed resources available for
67 per cent of rural population. Livestock sector livestock feeding are green, dry roughages and
contributes 4.11 per cent GDP and 25.6 per cent agro industrial by products. Poor quality feeds
of total Agriculture GDP.India is second in the due to deficiency of different nutrients cannot
population of goats with 148.88 million goats. meet the requirements of the animals and are often
(Anonymous, 2019).Goat is most hardy and very supplemented with protein and energy to increase
adaptable versatile animalcan thrive on diverse the productivity of animals. Oil cake and cereals
types of grasses and tree leaves. It is well known bran are the conventional concentrates commonly
that goat is superior to other ruminants in efficiency used. However, these supplements are expensive and
of nutrient utilization. cannot be offered by the farmers to their livestock at
The performance of farm animals mainly required levels. The farmers are unable to provide
depends upon its genetic makeup and the feed, proper feed according to the nutritional requirement
which they consume (Zhange et al, 2008). The of goats especially growing goat kids.
quantity and quality of goat meat are affected by Beetalis an important breed in North India. In
genetic and environmental factors (Goetsch et al, kandi area of Punjab farmers keep their small animals

Corresponding Author’s Email:drtejbeersingh@pau.edu

133 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 133-136

 Singh and Sharma
solely on grazing without giving any supplements as
a result of which daily nutrient requirement of goats
do not meet. Consequently, a longer period is required
for attainingmaturity (Webb, 2014).  Hence, in order
to get faster growth rate especially during the pre
weaning period, feeding of concentrates seems to be
of utmost importance (Rashidi et al, 2011). Due to
poor financial condition of farmers as well as lack
of technical knowledge, concentrate feeding is not
practiced in goats. Therefore, an attempt has been
made to assess the growth rate of beetle goat kids
by starting feeding of concentrate feed along with
green fodder at different stages of age on the growth
rate.
Body weight gain, FCR and feed cost: 
Kids were fed their dam’s milk in the morning
and evening up to 60d of age and then weaned.
The animals were kept indoors at night. The data
comprised of birth weight and fortnightly weights
of female kids from birth to 4m of age. Sex of
kid (female) and type of birth (single) were also
recorded. The body weights were measured using
electronic weighing balance. Feed conversion ratio
(FCR) was calculated as the quantity of feed (DM)
consumed per unit of body weight gain for each
experimental unit. The cost of three experimental
diets was determined according to the prevailing
rates in the local market.

MATERIALS AND METHODS  Statistical analysis

A growth trial on goat kids was conducted at The Standard error (SE at 5% level) and least
the KrishiVigyan Kendra, Langroya of district significance difference (LSD at 5% level) were
ShaheedBhagat Singh Nagar (Punjab).Nine newly calculated for replicate data by Statistical Package
born goat kids were selected and divided into for Social Sciences (SPSS, 1999).
three groups based on age and body weight. Three
treatments viz.,T1(concentrate feed+ dam milk RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
+ maize green fodder after 60d), T2(concentrate The dry matter, crude protein, ether extract,
feed +dam milk + maize green fodder after 30d crude fibre, nitrogen free extract and total ash in the
and T3(concentrate feed+ dam milk + maize green concentrate feed were 89, 20, 4, 13, 57.5 and 5.5.per
fodder after 15d of age) were evaluated. Feeding cent whereas in green maize fodder were 18.6, 8.5,
was started at 4th day of age in all the experimental 0.9, 33.20, 42.4 and 15.0 percent, respectively
groups. (Table1).

The experiment was conducted for 120d in Feed consumption

completely randomized design. All the animals It was observed that animals in group T3 didn’t
were weighed at the start of the experiment and consume concentrate feed till 30d of age whereas in
offered all diet components adlib for all three group T2, animals consumed 30-50g/day whereas
groups. Weighing was done at fortnightly intervals in group T1, feed consumption was about 100 g/
and complete record of concentrate feed consumed day. This was mainly due to the fact that the
by individual animal in each group was maintained animals in group T2 and T3 were not accustomed to
from fourth day of age. A measured quantity of concentrate feeding due to small size and low body
feed was provided to each animal every morning weight. However, at the age of 60d, the body weight
and the left over was weighted in next morning to was highest than other two groups and therefore
assess daily feed consumption.All the samples were to meet the energy and protein requirement, feed
analyzed for dry matter, ash, crude protein (CP) consumption in T1 was found to be highest. The
crude fiber (CF) and ether extract according to the other reason for less consumption of concentrate in
standard procedure of (AOAC 1990) at the animal T2 and T3 group of animals wasthat animals became
nutrition laboratory, Guru AngadDev Veterinary and well versed with the green fodder consumption and
Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana . did not like to consume concentrate feed.

134 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 133-136

 Feeding of Concentrate and Green Fodder
Table 1.Chemical composition of concentrate and maize fodder.
Sr. No. Nutrient Concentrate feed (%) Maize Fodder (%)
1. Dry matter 89 18.6
2 Crude protein 20 8.5
.3 Ether extract 4 0.9
.4. Crude fiber 13 33.2
5. Total ash 5.5 15.0
6. Nitrogen free extract 57.5 42.4

Body weight changes
The results (Table 2) showed that the average
fortnightly body weight in T1, T2 and T3 group
of animals at 0 day was as 2.7±0.61, 2.8±0.43 and
2.8±0.39, respectively.
The average weaning weight at 60d of age of
selected goat kids was 9.8±0.65, 9.2±0.63 and
8.4±0.66kg under treatment groups T1, T2and T3,
respectively which was statistically significant
(p<0.05). The average final (120d) body weight
of selected goat kids was16.3±0.78, 15.6±0.62 and
14±0.73 kg under treatment groups T1, T2 and T3,
respectively. The data further elucidated that after
fourth month (120th d), there was a significant mean
difference (p≤0.05) observed in the weights of T1
group due to the start of feeding green fodder after
60th dof age in the diet of selected goat kids. The
results further showed that green fodder should not
be given to the goat kids at an early stage as it hinder
the growth spurt of ruminant probably due to the
fact that animals become accustomed to the green
fodder and did not like to consume concentrate
feed rich in protein and energy, both required for a
faster growth rate. Average body weight gain was
influenced by diets and found 113.3, 106.6 and 93.3
g/d on diet T1, T2 and T3, respectively.  
Assessment of growth trial with goat kids was
conducted for a period of 120d to evaluate the
introduction of green fodder in their diets to observed
maximum meat mass. The present investigation
concludes thatintroduction of green fodder should
not be given to the goat kids at an early stage as
it hinder the growth spurt of ruminant. The study
further interpret that feed formulation with a

Table 2.Average fortnightly body weight (kg) of experimental goat kids.

Fortnight Treatment group Significance
T1 T2 T3
0 2.7±0.61 2.8±0.43 2.8±0.39 NS
First 4.8±0.45 4.5±0.34 4.0±0.47 0.5
Second 7.0±0.76 6.2±0.54 5.8±0.60 0.4
Third 8.5±0.56 8.1±0.58 7.5±0.73 0.3
Fourth 9.8±0.65 9.2±0.63 8.4±0.66 0.5
Fifth 11.5±0.77 10.8±0.73 9.8±0.71 0.8
Sixth 12.6±0.64 12.3±0.83 11.3±0.64 0.3
Seventh 14.9±0.71 14.2±0.59 13.0±0.55 0.6
Eighth 16.3±0.78 15.6±0.62 14.0±0.73 0.8
Overall mean ±SE 9.79±0.34a 9.3±0.24b 8.51±0.34c 0.5
Significance difference (p≤0.05); NS: Non significant; SE: Standard error

135 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 133-136

 Singh and Sharma
Table 3.Cost of feeding in growing goat kids.
Parameter Treatment group
T1 T2 T3
Total feed consumed (kg) 14.0 12.0 9.0
Total weight gain ( kg) 13.6 12.8 11.2
Total feed cost (Rs) 336 288 216
Feed conversion ratio 1.02 0.93 0.80
Value of increased meat (Rs) 2720 2560 2240
combination of milk + green fodder + concentrate REFERENCES
started at the age of 60 d performed best with good Anonymous (2019).Livestock census.Department of Animal
value of increased meat. The data also suggested Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture
and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, www.dahd.
that feed enriched with nutrients given to the nic.in .
experimental goat kids for a period of four months
AOAC(1990). Official Method of Analysis. (5th Ed) Association
increased their body weight from 2.7±0.61 to of Official Analytical Chemists. Washington, DC, USA.
16.3±0.78 Kg in contrast to the group where feed
Casey N H and Webb E C (2010). Managing goat production
formulation with green fodder was introduced for meat quality. Small Rumin Res 89: 218–244
at an early stage (30d and 15d). The cost benefit
Goetsch A L, Merkel R C and Gipson T A ( 2011). Factors
ratio for producing good quality meat mass was affecting goat meat production and quality. Small Rumin
observed as Rs.336/- in T1 while for T2 and T3, Res 101:173–181.
the cost was Rs. 288/- and 216/-, respectively. The Gowane G R., Chopra A ,  Prakash V and  Arora A L (2011),
effective meat value was observed highest in T1 (Rs Estimates of (co)variance components and genetic
2720/-) as compared to T2 (Rs 2560/-) and T3 (Rs parameters for growth traits in Sirohi goat. Trop Anim
2240/-). Results of the experiment showed that after Health Prod 43 (1): 189-198.
spending Rs. 120/- extra in T1 as compared to T3 a Rashidi A, Bishop S C and MatikaO (2011). Genetic parameter
profit of Rs. 480/- was attained. estimates for pre-weaning performance and reproduction
traits in Markhoz goats. Small Rumin Res  100 :100-
106.
CONCLUSION
SPSS (1999). Statistical Package for Social Sciences, SPSS
The overall results demonstrated higher body for Windows Release 10.0. SPSS Inc. Chicago, USA.
weight gain in goat kids by using concentrate feed. It
Webb E C (2014). Goat meat production, composition and
is, therefore, recommended that concentrate feeding quality. Anim Front 4 (4): 433-437.
at early stage and offer green fodder after weaning
Zhang C, Yang L and Shen Z (2008). Variance components
to ensure efficient utilization of this valuable feed and genetic parameters for weight and size birth in the
for increasing milk and meat production. Moreover, Boer goat. Livest Sci 11 ( 5): 73-79.
the effect of this feeding practice has to be evaluated Received on 13/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
further with respect to improved feeding, breeding
and productivity potential of goats in adult stages.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors put on record the help rendered by
Dr Gurinder Singh in maintaining experimental
animals and data recording during the study period
at the Krishi Vigyan Kendra demonstration unit.

136 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 133-136

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 137-141 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00085.0

Foliar Fertilization for Enhancing Yield and Fruit Quality of

Apple under Rain-Fed Conditions of Mid-Himalayas
Sanjeev K Banyal and Ajay K Banyal
Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chamba 176310 (Himachal Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
A participatory experiment was conducted to assess the effect of foliar application of urea and Agromin
on apple. Agromin is a commercial formulation of micronutrients containing mineral elements comprising
of optimum proportion of zinc, copper, manganese, boron, molybdenum and magnesium. The experiment
was conducted at three different sites at altitudes between 1800 to 2200 m above mean sea level.
Thirteen to fifteen years old, uniform trees of cultivar Royal Delicious were applied with treatments
viz. Urea @ 0.5% (T1), Agromin @ 0.25% (T2), Urea @ 0.5% + Agromin @ 0.25% (T3), Urea @ 1.0%
(T4) and Urea @ 1.0% + Agromin @ 0.25% (T5). Urea and Agromin sprays were done between tight
to pink cluster stage of growth. These treatments were compared to control plants which were applied
the recommended doses of Nitrogen. Results showed that vegetative growth was significantly influenced
by the application of urea and agromin. Application of Urea @1.0% + Agromin 0.5% (T5) resulted in
highest plant height (29.17 cm), girth (1.10mm), shoot extension growth (45.25cm) and tree spread (14.23
cm) which was at par with treatment T4. Maximum fruit length (6.71cm), diameter (5.57cm), fruit weight
(88.41g) and total yield per plant were recorded in the treatment T5 (Urea @1.0% + Agromin 0.5%)
followed by the treatments T3(Urea @0.5% + Agromin @ 0.25%) and T1 (Urea 0.5 %). The highest
benefit: cost ratio (2.80) was obtained in the treatment T5 (Urea 1.0 % + Agromin 0.25 %). The lowest
B:C ratio (2.45) was observed in Control due to the lowest number of large and medium grade fruits.
Key Words: Apple, Fertilizer, Foliar, Fruit quality, Mid-Himalayas, Rain-Fed, Yield.

INTRODUCTION higher yields from relatively young plants and

Apple (Malus domestica) belonging to family
Rosaceae is the leading temperate fruit crop of
North-Western Himalayan states of India. In
Himachal Pradesh, apple was grown on an area of
1.11 Lac haand producing 7.77 Lac MTcrop during
the year 2015-16 (Anonymous, 2017). The average
productivity (7.02 MT/ha) is much lower than the
potential yield of the crop due to several reasons.
One of the major constraints is that most of the apple
plantations are grown over hilly slopes subjected to
huge loss of productive soil due to soil erosion. This
reduces the soil fertility and subsequently the crop
productivity. In addition, modern fruit cultivation
practices like high density plantation, obtaining
obtaining high quality fruits requires more attention
to plant nutrition (Bright, 2005).
Nitrogen is a major element, required by all
plants. Adequate nitrogen is essential for tree
growth, leaf cover, blossom formation, fruit set and
fruit size, all of which combine to determine crop
yield (Bright, 2005). Many workers have shown
that fertilization of fruit trees with nitrogen fertilizer
has increased fruit set, vegetative growth and
yield (Klein et al, 2006). Although, micronutrient
elements are needed in relatively very small
quantities for adequate plant growth and production,
their deficiency may cause great disturbance in the
physiological and metabolic processes involved in

Corresponding Author’s Email:skbanyal@gmail.com

137 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 137-141

 Banyal and Banyal
the plant (Babaeian et al, 2011).Nitrogen and boron
in addition to soil application appears to have a
great effect on growth, yield and quality of fruits.
The application of micronutrient fertilizer in the
cultivation zone may not meet the crop requirement
for root growth and nutrient use.
Foliar fertilization is a common practice to
supply crops with mineral nutrients, especially
under conditions of limited soil nutrient availability
or in the case of acute deficiency. Calcium and
N are the most important and commonly used
elements applied through foliar applications in tree
fruit, including apple (Fallahi and Eichert, 2013).
Foliar fertilization has advantage of low application
rates, uniform distribution of fertilizer materials,
easiest method of application and quick responses
to applied nutrients (Khayyatet al, 2007). Many
investigations studied the effect of spraying macro
and micronutrients on growth, yield and fruit
quality such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
and magnesium (Gobara, 1998). However, boron
(Hanson, 1991); manganese (El-Shazly, 1999) were
highly effective in improving, nutritional status
yield and quality of different pear and apple trees.
The present experiment was therefore conducted to
study the effect of N and micronutrient sprays on
growth, yield and fruit quality of apple.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at three different
sites at altitudes between 1800 to 2200 m above
mean sea level. Thirteen to fifteen years old, uniform
trees of cultivar Royal Delicious were applied with
treatments viz.Urea @ 0.5% (T1), Agromin @
0.25% (T2), Urea @ 0.5% + Agromin @ 0.25% (T3),
Urea @ 1.0% (T4) and Urea @ 1.0% + Agromin @
0.25% (T5). Urea and Agromin sprays were done
between tight to pink cluster stage of growth. These
treatments were compared to control plants which
were applied the recommended doses of Nitrogen.
All the plants under treatments were also applied
with the recommended dose of Nitrogen as soil
application. Each treatment was replicated four
times as per randomized block design.
138 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 137-141
Observations were recorded on fruit length,
diameter and weight on the farmers fields by
randomly selecting ten fruits from each plant.
Ten shoots were randomly selected around the
periphery of the tree and their extension growth
was measured before pruning and the results were
expressed as cm shoot extension growth. Fruit set
was recorded three weeks after petal fall and per
cent fruit set was calculated by following formula
given by Westwood (1993).
Fruit set (%) = Number of fruit set/ Number of
flowers cluster × 100.
The yield of fruits in kg/tree under different
treatments was determined on the basis of total
weight of fruits harvested from the tree under each
treatment.
Fruit yield was recorded by removal of crop
load during harvesting season as kg/tree based on
20 kg standard apple box and later converted in to
q/ha. The weight of fruit was taken with the help of
a top pan balance. The unit sample consisted of ten
fruits and the results were expressed as weight in
grams per fruit.
Fruit diameter was recorded with the help of
vernier caliper.
The fruit firmness was measured with the help
of pressure tester and expressed as kg/cm2.
Total soluble solids were determined using
a hand refractometer, percentage of titratable
acidity in fruit juice was determined according to
AOAC (1995), and total sugar in the fruit pulp was
determined by phenol sulphuric method according
to (Dubois et al, 1956). Data of both the years were
pooled and average mean is given in the Tables.
Grade wise average selling price was used to
calculate gross income and B:C ratio.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results obtained from the experiment showed
that vegetative growth was significantly influenced
by the application of Urea and Agromin. Application
of Urea @1.0% + Agromin 0.5% (T5) resulted in
 Foliar Fertilization for Enhancing Yield and Fruit Quality
Table 1. Effect of foliar nutrition on vegetative growth of apple.
Treatment Increase in Plant Increase in Plant Extension growth Tree Spread
height (cm) Girth (mm) (cm)
T1 24.92 0.94 46.54 28.63
T2 23.08 0.99 45.87 26.92
T3 26.08 0.90 41.40 30.21
T4 29.17 1.10 45.25 32.18
T5 28.58 0.98 49.03 31.60
T6 21.25 0.81 38.20 32.88
CD (P≤ 0.05) 1.07 0.08 8.27 6.97

Table 2. Effect of foliar fertilization on fruit size and yield of apple.

Treatment Flowering intensity Fruit set (%) Fruit Fruit Fruit Total
(flower clusters/m length diameter weight (g) yield (q/
shoot) (cm) (cm) ha)
T1 25.07 31.74(34.29) 6.45 5.45 79.36 80.25
T2 23.72 31.42(34.09) 6.40 5.43 77.58 78.64
T3 26.41 37.87(37.98) 6.51 5.42 83.11 82.33
T4 24.92 39.25(38.79) 6.58 5.50 84.96 84.25
T5 27.67 40.96(39.79) 6.71 5.57 88.41 87.15
T6 (Control) 21.56 29.58(30.22) 6.20 5.14 73.50 71.1
CD (P≤ 0.05) 2.08 3.15 0.17 0.11 6.23 5.45

highest plant height (29.17 cm), girth (1.10mm), those containing B and Zn have been elucidated by
shoot extension growth (45.25cm) and tree spread number of workers (Sharma, 2016 andKumar et
(14.23 cm) which was at par with treatment T4. al,2003). Kumar et al,(2003) reported highest fruit
Dong et al (2005) reported positive relationship set and yield in Starking Delicious apple with foliar
between spring growth and Nitrogen content (Table application of Urea @ 0.05% + Boric acid @ 0.1%.
I). Roy et al(2006), reported the role of boron in pollen
The highest (27.67 flower clusters/m shoot) germination and elongation of pollen tube growth
flowering intensity and fruit set (39.79 (flower which resulted in increased fruit set and yield in
clusters/m shoot)) in apple plants were obtained in deciduous fruits.
the combination of Urea @1.0% + Agromin 0.5% Fruit quality
(T5) whereas the lowest (21.56 and 30.72 (flower Fruit quality parameters were also affected
clusters/m shoot), respectively) values for these significantly by various treatments (Table 3).
traits were obtained in control. Maximum fruit
length (6.71cm), diameter (5.57cm), fruit weight Highest TSS (13.26oB) was observed in the
(88.41g) and total yield per plant were recorded in treatment T1 and its lowest value (12.10oB) in the
the treatment T5 which was closely followed by the treatment T1. Maximum titratable acidity (0.3%)
treatments T3and T1. was observed in treatment T4and lowest (0.19%)
in control. The application of urea was found
The beneficial effects of micronutrient sprays in to reduce TSS of the fruits. Highest total sugar
apple on enhancing fruit set and yield especially
139 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 137-141
 Banyal and Banyal
Table 3. Effect of foliar nutrition on fruit quality in apple.
Treatment TSS Titratable acidity Total sugars
T1 16.13 0.32 7.27
T2 16.94 0.36 7.29
T3 17.22 0.36 7.42
T4 17.85 0.39 7.86
T5 18.16 0.43 7.89
T6 (Control) 16.33 0.44 7.51
CD0.05 0.78 0.06 0.22

content (7.86%) was also recorded in plants which
received application of Agromin @ 0.25% (T2).
Foliar fertilization with urea was found to reduce
fruit quality of apple and decrease TSS content in
a study conducted by Amiriet al, (2008). Similar
observation was also recorded by Nava et al(2008)
who reported negative impact of nitrogenous
fertilizers application on fruit color, firmness and
TSS content of apple fruits.
CONCLUSION
The fruits of each treatment were graded into
four grades viz. large, medium, small and others to
find out the cost benefit ratio of each treatment. The
grade wise average market price of fruits was used
to obtain net returns and profit. It was observed
that treatment combinations having Agromin
increased the proportion of large and medium sized
fruits thereby increasing the net returns over Urea
application alone and Control. The highest benefit:
cost ratio (2.80) was obtained in the treatment
T5(Urea 1.0 % +Agromin 0.25 %). The lowest B:C
ratio (2.45) was observed in Control due to the
lowest number of large and medium grade fruits.
REFERENCES
Amiri M E, Fallahi E and Golchin A (2008). Influence of
foliar and ground fertilization on yield, fruit quality, and

Table 4. Grade-wise fruit yield, income and B:C ration of apple as

Treatment Yield proportion by grade (kg/100 Kg offruit) Net returns B:C ratio
Large Medium Small Others (Rs)
T1 12 26 34 28 2,60,000 1:2.48

T2 15 25 31 29 2,70,000 1:2.57

T3 22 29 25 24 2,94,000 1:2.67

T4 20 30 33 17 2,84,000 1:2.58

T5 30 25 32 13 3,09,450 1:2.80

T6 10 24 33 33 2,45,000 1:2.45
Soil application

140 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 137-141

 Foliar Fertilization for Enhancing Yield and Fruit Quality
soil, leaf, and fruit mineral nutrients in apple. J Plant Nut
31(3): 515-525.
Bright J (2005). Apple and Pear nutrition. NSW Depart- ment
of Primary Industries. Primefact 85. pp. 1-12.
Dong S, Cheng L, Seagel CF and Fuchigami L H (2005).
Timing of urea application affects leaf and root N uptake
in young Fuji/M9 apple trees. J Hort Sci and Biotech 80:
116-120.
Dubois M, Gilles K A, Homilton J K, Roers P A and Smith F
(1956). Colorimetric methods for determination of sugar
and related substances. Annal Chem28 (3): 350-458.
Hanson E J (1991). Sour Cherry Trees Respond to Foliar
Boron Applications. Hort Sci 26: 1142–1145.
Fallahi Esmaeil and Eichert Thomas (2013). Principles
and Practices of Foliar Nutrients with an Emphasis on
Nitrogen and Calcium Sprays in Apple. Hortechnology.
October 23(5)
Gobara A A (1998). Response of Le conte pear trees to foliar
application of some nutrients. Egypt J Hort 25:55-70.
Hansen P(1980). Yield components and fruit development in
Golden Delicious apple as affected by timings of nitrogen
supply. Scientia Hortic12: 243-257.
Khayyat M, Tafazoli E, Eshghi S and Rajaee S (2007). Effect
of nitrogen, boron, potassium and zinc sprays on yield
and fruit quality of date palm. Am-Euras J Agric and
Environ Sci2 (3): 289 - 296.
Klein I, Levin I, Bar-Yosef B, Assaf R and Berkovitz A
(2006). Drip nitrogen fertigation of Starking Deli- cious
apple trees. Plant and Soil 119(2): 305- 314.
Kumar J, Rehalia A S, Rana S S and Chandel J S (2003).
Effect of pre and post bloom sprays of urea and boric acid
on growth, fruit set, yield and fruit quality of apple cv.
Starking Delicious. Progressive Hort 35(1): 14-19.
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Babaeian M, Piri I, Tavassoli A, Esmaeilian Y, Gholami H
(2011). Effects of foliar micronutrient application on
osmotic adjustments, grain yield and yield components
in sunflower (Alstar cultivar) under water stress at three
stages. African J Agri 6 (5): 1204-1208.
Nava G, Dechen A R and Nachtiga G R (2008). Nitrogen
and potassium fertilization affect apple fruit quality in
Southern Brazil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 39(1-2):
96-107.
Roy R, Finck N A, Blair G J and Tandon H L S (2006). Plant
nutrition for food security. A guide for integrated nutrient
management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome
El-Shazly S M (2010). Influence of Foliar Application of
some Nutrient (FertifolMisr) and Gibberellic Acid on
Fruit Set, Yield, Fruit Quality and Leaf Composition of
“Anna” Apple Trees Grown in Sandy Soil. J Agric Sci
Mansour Univ 24(12): 7595-7591
Sharma L K (2016). Effect of nutrients sprays on growth, yield
and fruit quality of apple under cold desert condition of
Himachal Pradesh. J Appl and Natural Sci 8 (1): 297 -
300
http://www.hpagrisnet.gov.in/hpagris/Horticulture/Default.
aspx?SiteID=5&PageID=1219
Wojcik P and Wojcik M(2003). Effect of boron fertiliza-tion
on Conference pear tree vigor, nutrition and fruit yield
and storability. Plant and Soil 256 : 413
Received on 27/07/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00086.2

GIS and Remote sensing Approach in Identifying Ground Water

Recharge Zones of Cheriyal Watershed
B Meghana, Ch Rakesh, P karthik, D Girish, Ch Radha Srivalli
College of Agricultural Engineering, Sangareddy- 502285
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University (Telangana)

ABSTRACT
India has been bestowed with substantial water resources. Ground water, which is the source of more than
85 percent of rural domestic water requirements of the country, is depleting fast in many areas due to its
large-scale withdrawal. Present study was conducted in a watershed to identify the ground water recharge
zones and suitable structures using Remote Sensing coupled with Geographical Information System and
Analytical Hierarchy Process. The parameters such as Geology, Geomorphology, Soil type, Land use,
Lineament, Elevation, Slope and Ground water table depth were selected that are closely linked to surface
and ground water availability. A base map of watershed was prepared by digitizing the boundary in bhuvan.
The satellite images DEM 30 m, LISSIII 25 m and field inputs were used to derive different thematic
maps. Multi criteria decision making was applied to all the parameters in thematic maps by assigning ranks
from 1 to 5 scale and reclassified depending on its influence on the storage and movement of groundwater.
The pair wise comparison for 6 layers were given based on the comparison between the layers and their
relative importance towards groundwater prospects and a 6×6 matrix was formed. Based on the comparison
matrix the reclassified maps were multiplied with normalized weights and added up in raster calculator to
get the final suitability map. From the analysis it was found that 5.70 Percent area is highly suitable for
recharge and 60.58 Percent of area was moderately suitable and 33.71 Percent was less suitable for recharge.
Key Words: AHP, GIS, Remote sensing, Recharge zones.

INTRODUCTION Kumar et al (2011) used the remote sensing and GIS

Water is a precious and valuable resource for techniques for generation of ground water recharge
the whole world. Over the years the unscientific use zones map for the improvement and development
of water has led to a situation of uncertainty and of ground water for the region.
stress for water resources. This alarming situation Integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS
calls for a cost and time effective techniques for can provide the appropriate platform for convergent
evaluation of surface and ground water resources analysis of divergent datasets for decision making
and management planning. Water being by far in not only mapping and planning of groundwater
the biggest and most vulnerable of all, then the resources but also management of groundwater
consequences is far reaching and devastating. In resources for its efficient and cost effective use for
recent times, many researchers such as Mishra a region or state. This study was aimed to develop
et al (2010) and Jyoti Sarup et al (2011) have and apply integrated method for combining the
used the approach of remote sensing and GIS for information obtained by analyzing multi-source
identification of ground water potential zones remotely sensed data in a GIS environment for
and exploration of ground water with locating the better understanding the groundwater resources in
artificial recharge sites. Balchandar et al (2010) and Cheriyal watershed.

Corresponding Author’s Email: srivallicheraku@gmail.com

142 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148

 Meghna et al
Study Area
Cheriyal village is located in Telangana state
of India with an area of 11.29 km2. It is located
between 78°9’36’’ and 78°7’48’’E longitude and
17°31’48’’ and 17°34’48’’N latitude. The main river
is Manjeera. Rainfall occurs from July to September
under the influence of south-west monsoon, with an
average annual precipitation of 930 mm.
Fig.1 Location of the watershed
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data Collection
A basic Preliminary survey was conducted in
watershed to gain basic understanding on status
of ground water. The survey involved in meeting
the villagers and collecting basic information on
land use, source of water for irrigation, no. of bore
wells and cropping pattern to explore the prospects
of ground water development. Selection of proper
sites for ground water recharge needs information
on land use/land cover, soil type, geomorphology,
drainage density and other related parameters.
Fig.2 Methodology Flowchart
143 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148
Preparation of Thematic Maps
Base map
Base map provides background details necessary
to orient the location on the map. Base map was
prepared from polygonal digitizing of Cheriyal
watershed boundary in bhuvan and exported to Arc
GIS 10.3.
Elevation map
Elevation map of the study area derived from
Cartosat DEM after clipping with boundary. The
highest elevation in the watershed is at South side
i.e., about 503 m and reduced towards north.
Slope
The slope of an area is important parameter that
defines recharge capability. The slope of the area is
more at central part of study site due to mining or
some excavation. The derived map was classified
into gentle (0-5%), moderate (5-10%) and strong
(>10%) slope as shown in Fig.4. The steep slope
area is considered as poor in terms of recharge and
given less importance because of higher runoff
potentiality in that area given in Table 1.
Fig.3 Elevation map
 GIS and Remote Sensing Approach
Table 1. Ranking and calculated normalized weights for different parameters.
S r Parameter Class Recharge Rank Normalized weight
No. prospect
1 Geomorphology Water bodies Very good 5 0.500
Anthropogenic good 4 0.400
Denduational Very poor 1 0.100
2 Land use land cover Agricultural land Very good 5 0.333
Water bodies good 4 0.266
Fallow land moderate 3 0.200
Scrub land poor 2 0.133
Settlings Very poor 1 0.066
3 Slope (%) Gentle (0-5) Very Good 5 0.555
Moderate (5-10) Moderate 3 0.333
Strong (>10) Very poor 1 0.111
4 300-400 Very Good 4 0.444
Elevation (m) 400-500 Moderate 3 0.333
500-600 Poor 2 0.222
5 Drainage density 0-1.2 Very good 5 0.333
(Dd) 1.2-2.4 Good 4 0.266
2.4-3.6 Moderate 3 0.200
3.6-4.8 Poor 2 0.133
4.8-6 Very poor 1 0.066
6 Geology Banded granite moderate 3 1.00
7 Soil texture Sandy loam Good 4 0.444
Sandy clay loam Moderate 3 0.333
Sandy clay Poor 2 0.222
Clay loam Poor 2 0.222
Clay Very poor 1 0.111
Drainage density
Drainage density is an expression that provides
a quantitative measure of length of stream with a
square grid of the area in terms of km/km2. Areas
having high density are not suitable for groundwater
development because of the greater surface runoff.
Drainage map was generated from Cartosat DEM
(30 m) using the raster calculator tool, which was
then converted to vector and further the drainage
density (km/km2) map was prepared with ‘line
density’ analysis tool. Study area was found to have
5th order of drainage and drainage densities was
Fig.4 Slope map found between 0-6 km/km2.

144 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148

 Meghna et al
Table 2. Pair-wise comparison matrix.
GM SLP DD LULC SOIL ELEV Normalized Weight
GM 1 2 2 4 3 7 0.3753
SLP 1/2 1 2 3 3 1 0.2053
DD 1/2 1/2 1 3 5 1/6 0.1316
LULC 1/4 1/3 1/3 1 2 9 0.1268
SOIL 1/3 1/3 1/5 1/2 1 4 0.0847
ELEV 1/7 1 6 1/9 1/4 1 0.0763
Land use and land cover map
Land use and land cover map (LULC) features
control the occurrence of groundwater and also
causes for infiltration for recharge, with variety of
classes among itself. It was prepared from Resource
sat LISS III satellite image using unsupervised
classification in ERDAS Imagine 2015. Study area
is comprised of water bodies, settlings, scrub land,
fallow land and agriculture land.

Fig.5 Drainage map

Fig.7 Geomorphology Map

Fig.6 Drainage Density map

Geomorphology map
Geomorphology map was obtained from Bhuvan
ISRO’s portal and imported in QGIS. Then map is
exported and clipped to study area and digitized in
Arc GIS 10.3.Denduational pediment complex was
predominant in this area .Anthropogenic type was
found in some places. Fig.8 LULC Map

145 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148

 GIS and Remote Sensing Approach
Geology map Multi criteria decision making (AHP)
Geological set-up of an area plays a vital role Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) analyzer
in the distribution and occurrence of groundwater. is online tool that facilitates the group decision
Geology map obtained from GW department was making by pair wise comparison based on expert
geo-referenced and clipped to study area in. It has judgment values. The basic of AHP was developed
only banded gneiss granite type of rock structure by Dr. T.L. Saaty and other professors .It can be
all-over the area. used for Project Prioritization, Priority Setting,
Research Project Monitoring and Evaluation (PME)
Soil texture map and also for Technology Valuation and Technology
As type of soil texture varies, the groundwater Management.
recharge capability varies. Soil samples were
collected from study area and hydrometer analysis All the thematic maps were reclassified and
is done to know the soil texture. Using IDW tool assigned ranks on the scale 1 to 5 to each sub
in Arc GIS, soil texture map was prepared. Sandy class depending on its influence on the storage
loam. Sandy clay loam, sandy clay, clay loam and and movement of groundwater. In this ranking 1
clay soils are present in Cheriyal. Sandy clay and given for very poor and 5 scale is for very good
clay loam are predominant about 787.6513 ha and in terms of groundwater Recharge. The Normalized
clay occupies about 258.2704 ha. weights were assigned to various thematic layers
using Analytic Hierarchy Process which include
geomorphology, land use/land cover, soil, drainage
density; slope, elevation provides certain clue
for the occurrence of groundwater. Based on the
comparison matrix the reclassified maps were
multiplied with normalized weights and added up
in raster calculator to get the final suitability map.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the study it was found that the slope of
Cheriyal watershed ranging between 0 to 19%.
The majority of the study area i.e., about 1118.779
Fig.9 Geology Map ha is under low degree of slope (0-5%), this plain
to gentle slope area characterized by very good
category for groundwater recharge due to nearly flat
terrain, and slow surface runoff allowing more time
for rain water to percolate. The area with a steep
slope is considered as poor groundwater recharge
areas due to higher slope, higher runoff, and low
infiltration.
The various land use classes in the area are
agriculture, settlings, scrub, fallow and water bodies.
Fallow land comprises about 60.70% (685.3ha),
settlings 19.48% (220ha), agricultural land 11.86%
Fig.10 Soil Texture Map (133.9ha), scrub land 5.81% (65.6ha) and water
bodies 2.13% (24.1ha). The Geomorphology

146 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148

 Meghna et al
of the area comprises of anthropogenic origin,
denduational pediment complex and water bodies.
Denduational pediment complex has no property to
store water. It comprises about 1064 ha (94.24%),
anthropogenic origin about 33ha (2.92%) and water
bodies which are good at ground water recharge
comprises of 32 ha (2.83%) of total area. The
drainage density map reveals a density value varying
from 0 to 6 km/km2. Low drainage density in the
study area indicates less runoff and subsequently
more chances for ground water recharge.
Fig.11 Ground Water Recharge Potential Map
From the analysis it was found that 5.70 per
cent of area (64.248 ha) is suitable for recharge and
60.58 per cent of area (682.856ha) is moderately
suitable and 33.71 per cent (379.94 ha) is less
suitable for recharge.
The main suggested recommendations and
location of different structures is shown in Fig.12.
Boulder bund
These bunds are low cost small bunds across 1st
to 3rd lower order streams. They may be made of
dry stone masonry or boulders or even brushwood.
Check dams
Check dams are engineered structures
constructed across higher order (>3rd order) streams
having minimum average area of 25 ha. These
structures are constructed for checking the stream
runoff during monsoon and for storage of rain water
.Although these structures are constructed for the
purpose of storage of water these may also help
147 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148
recharge of ground water reservoir located in the
near vicinity.
Recharge pit
Recharge pits are made either by constructing an
embankment across a water course or by excavating
a pit or the combination of both. These structures
are recommended in single crop areas for providing
irrigation to limited area during critical period.
Injection wells
As the study area has no lineaments, recharge
can be also done by injection wells. Injection wells
are structures similar to a tube well but with the
purpose of augmenting the groundwater storage of
a confined aquifer by pumping in treated surface
water under pressure.
Fig.12 Map showing proposed recharge structures
CONCLUSION
An integrated GIS technique for Ground water
modeling is proved as efficient over manual methods
in control of time and labor. Different thematic
layers Elevation, Soil, Slope, Land use, Geology
and Geomorphology maps were prepared using
Arc GIS, Erdas and QGIS software. Weight factor
was assigned for every thematic layer and their
individual factor classes based on their significance
in ground water recharging. The reclassified
maps were overlaid for adding up of the cells and
derived suitability map for Cheriyal watershed. The
final delineated map integrated with stream order
and slope map and 12 recharge structures were
suggested at appropriate locations.
 GIS and Remote Sensing Approach
REFERENCES Rajendra P.Sishodiaa, Shuklaa Sanjay, Wendy D,
Balachandar D, Alaguraja P, Sundaraj P, Rutharvelmurthy K GrahabSuhas, P.Wanic and Kaushal K.Garg (2016). Bi-
and Kumaraswamy K (2010). Application of Remote decadal groundwater level trends in a semi-arid south
Sensing and GIS for Artificial Recharge Zone in Indian region: Declines, causes and management. Hydro
Sivaganga District, Tamilnadu, India. Geomatics and Regional Studies 8: 43-58.
Geosciences 1(1): 84-97. Partha C R, Swetha rani V J, Dipa Malik, Prashanth V, Mallika
Binay Kumar and Uday Kumar, 2011, Groundwater recharge P (2018). Identification of Groundwater Potential Zone
zonation mapping and modelling using Geomatics in Southern Part of Bangalore East Taluk using Remote
techniques. Environ Sci 1(7): 1670-1681. Sensing and GIS. Int J Res and Innovation in Appl Sci
3(1): 19-25.
Biswas Arkoprovo, Jana Adarsa and Sharma Shashi Prakash
(2012). Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones using Raviraj A, Nimmi Kuruppath and Balaji
Satellite Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Kannan (2017). Identification of Potential
System Techniques: A Case study from Ganjam district, Groundwater Recharge Zones Using Remote Sensing and
Orissa, India. Res Sci 1(9): 59-66. Geographical Information System in Amaravathy Basin.
J Remote Sensing & GIS 6(4): 1-10.
Vidhya Lakshmi and Reddy Y K (2018). Identification of
groundwater potential zones using GIS and remote Received on 9/7/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019
sensing. Pure and Appl Math (17): 3195-3210.

148 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 142-148

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 149-153 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00089.8

Influence of Different Planting Methods and Mulching on Growth

and Yield of Spring Maize (Zea mays L)
Amandeep Kaur and Gurbax Singh Chhina
P G Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar 143002 (Punjab)

ABSTRACT
The field experiment was conducted to study the effect of different planting methods and mulching on the
growth and yield of spring maize (Zea mays L)on sandy loam soil, low in organic carbon and available N
and high in available P and K. The experiment was carried out in split plot design with twelve treatment
combinations having three planting methods viz., single row on bed (SR), double row on bed (DR) and
paired row on bed (PR) in main plots and four live mulch treatments in sub plots including control, moong,
mash and cowpea replicated four times. The results indicated that different planting methods and mulching
had a significant effect on the growth and yield components of spring maize. The planting of maize with
double row on bed gave significantly higher plant height, periodic leaf area index, dry matter accumulation,
number of cobs per plant, number of grains per cob, straw yield and harvest index. Test weight was not
influenced significantly. Grain yield (kg/ha) were also significantly more in double row on bed over paired
row on bed but single row on bed was at par with it .Among the mulch plots mulching with cowpea recorded
the highest growth and yield components. Test weight was not influenced significantly. Grain yield (kg/ha)
was recorded maximum in cowpea mulch plots followed by moong, mash and least was in control plot.
Keywords: Legume, mulch, Planting methods, Spring maize, Yield components.

INDRODUCTION water conservation due to reduction in evaporation

Maize (Zea mays L.) is third leading cereal
crop of the world after wheat and rice on basis of
both area and production. In Punjab, maize was
cultivated over an area of 114 thousand hectare
with production of 423 thousand tonne yielding an
average of 37.08q/ha during 2017-18 (Anonymous,
2019). Generally maize can be sown in two seasons
i.e., kharif and spring, the spring maize is planted in
first week of February requires frequent irrigations
during its active growth phase in the months of April
and May. In April and May evaporation demands
of environment increases which enhances the
water demand of crop. To overcome this increased
evaporation demand, to increase the water use
efficiency and to suppress the weed population
agronomic practices like mulching, bed planting
and sowing pattern may be helpful.
For successful establishment of the spring The experiment was conducted during spring
maize, mulching has beneficial effects such as season. The average annual precipitation of
Corresponding Author’s Email: paramjeetkaurdhm58@gmail.com
loss of soil water (Teame et al, 2017; Kumar and
Lal, 2012). Other reason for mulching use includes
soil temperature modification (Kumar et al, 2014),
increasing the soil organic carbon (Bajoriene et al,
2013; Kumar et al, 2014), nutrient addition (Patil
et al, 2016) and improvement of soil properties
(Kumar, 2014). Thus, it facilitates more retention
of soil moisture and helps in control of temperature
fluctuations, improve physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil, as it adds nutrients to
the soil and ultimately enhances the growth and
yield of crops. Thus present study was, therefore,
planned to determine the influence of different
planting methods and mulching on growth and
yield components of spring maize.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

149 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 149-153

 Kaur and Chhina
experimental site is about 75 cm, the major part
of which is received during the months of July to
September with a few showers of cyclonic rains
during winter months. The soil was sandy loam in
texture (69.8, 15.4, 14.8% sand, silt and clay at 15-
30 cm depth respectively) with normal pH (7.9). The
experiment was conducted with split plot design
comprised of three planting methods viz; single row
on bed (SR), double row on bed (DR) and paired
row on bed (PR) in main plots and four live mulch
treatments in sub plots including control, moong,
mash and cowpea, replicated four times with a gross
plot size of 5.4m x 5.4m. Field was ploughed twice
with a tractor drawn disc harrow and twice with a
cultivator followed by planking, when it comes to
optimum moisture conditions. The pre treated seeds
of variety PMH 8 were sown by kera method. On
the same day mulch crops such as cowpea, moong
and mash with 12.5 kg/ha seed were also sown in
between the rows of spring maize as per treatment.
The plant height of five randomly selected plants
from each plot was measured from soil surface to the
base of the top most leaf. Plant height was measured
at 30d interval. Similarly, leaf area of five randomly
selected plants was recorded manually from each
plot at 90d after sowing. Leaf area index was
calculated by dividing leaf area with ground area
of plant. For dry matter accumulation, two plants
were periodically cut from soil surface from each
plot and sun dried, and then, kept in oven at 650C up
to a constant weight. After drying in the oven, dry
weight of plants was recorded and converted into q/
ha. Data on different growth and yield components
(number of cobs per plant, number of grains per
cob, test weight, grain yield, straw yield and harvest
index) were recorded at the time of harvesting.
The grain and straw yield from each net plot (4.05
× 4.05) was recorded at the time of harvesting
and converted to q/ha basis. Measurement from
each plot was averaged before statistical analysis.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out
on the data to determine the influence of different
planting methods and mulching through agronomic
manipulations for various measurements using
150 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 149-153
CPCS-1 software developed by the Department
of Mathematics and Statistics PAU, Ludhiana and
adapted by Cheema and Singh (1991). LSD test at
5% probability was used to compare the difference
among treatments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Plant height
The data showed that plant height was
significantly affected by planting methods (Table1).
Maize planted at DR produced taller plants (183.9
cm) which was at par with SR (180.4 cm). The
lowest plant height was recorded for PR (170.8 cm).
Higher plant height associated with spring maize
grown at double row on bed was probably due to
uniform distribution of plants and decreased inter
plant competition. These results were in line with
Hassan et al (2013). Similarly cowpea mulching in
maize produced significantly tallest plants (188.0
cm) which was at par with moong and significantly
higher than mash mulching (181.9 cm and 176.2 cm).
The lowest plant height was recorded for control
plots (166.5 cm). The probable reason may be that
cowpea mulch has more biomass which suppressed
the weed and reduced weed growth. Therefore, the
competition for light, water and nutrient was less in
cowpea mulching which helped in promoting the
plant height. Similar results were also reported by
Reddy et al (2009) who found higher plant height
of baby corn with intercropping of legumes. This
might be due to symbiotic relationship between
crops resulting in better plant growth.
Leaf area index (LAI)
The LAI was higher (3.32) in double row on
bed, but it was closely followed by single row on
bed (3.15). However, the lowest values for LAI
were recorded in paired row on bed (2.68). The
higher leaf area index in double row on bed was
probably due to better interception of light by the
crop. These results were supported by the findings
of Hassan et al (2013) and Ahmed et al (2010).
The treatment having cowpea mulching produced
higher LAI (3.40) over other treatments. The
 Influence of Different Planting Methods and Mulching
Table 1. Effect of different planting methods and mulching on growth and yield components of
spring maize (Zea mays L.) at harvest stage.
Treatment Plant Leaf Dry matter Number Number Test Grain Straw Harvest
height Area accumulation of cobs of grains / Weight Yield Yield Index
(cm) Index (q/ha) per plant cob (g) (q/ha) (q/ha) (%)
(90 DAS)
Planting methods
SR 180.4 3.15 124.5 1.39 356.1 256.2 37.3 89.7 29.3
DR 183.9 3.32 127.5 1.42 366.0 258.4 38.4 90.2 29.8
PR 170.8 2.68 119.2 1.28 323.9 249.1 33.5 85.7 28.1
CD (p=0.05) 8.3 0.41 4.9 0.07 28.3 NS 3.55 3.60 1.0
Mulching
Control 166.5 2.50 117.2 1.23 320.3 245.6 32.7 84.5 27.9
Mash 176.2 3.05 122.5 1.34 343.4 254.9 36.5 88.6 29.1
Moong 181.9 3.25 125.7 1.40 360.7 257.7 37.4 89.8 29.4
Cowpea 188.0 3.40 130.0 1.47 370.1 259.9 38.9 91.1 29.9
CD (p=0.05) 9.1 0.30 5.0 0.09 20.4 NS 2.37 2.2 0.6
Interaction NS

lowest LAI was obtained with control plots (2.50). weed growth, and led checking evaporation losses
Enormous increase in LAI under live mulching was (Narain and Singh, 1997) resulted in better growth
due to increase in rate of cell division and cell size attributing characters and ultimately maximum dry
enlargement under high availability of soil water matter yield obtained under live mulching.
(Xieet al, 2006; Kumar and Lal, 2012) to crop and
better soil health condition due to legume mulching Number of cobs per plant
(Sharma et al, 2010). The maize crop planted at double row on bed
produced (1.42 ) cobs per plant, which were 10.9
Dry matter accumulation per cent more than paired row on bed (1.28) but
Maize grown at double row on bed exhibited statistically at par with single row on bed (1.39).
higher DMA (127.5 q/ha) at harvest, which was at Similarly, maximum number of cobs per plant
par with single row on bed (124.5 q/ha) planting (1.47) was recorded in cowpea mulching plots,
method but significantly higher than the paired row while minimum cobs per plant (1.23) were noted
on bed (119.2 q/ha), planting method. Higher dry in control plots. This might be due to the faster
matter accumulation in double row on bed than growth of vegetable cowpea which smoother weed
paired row might be due to more solar radiation growth during initial stages and have symbiotic
interception by crop plants and efficient utilization relationship. These results corroborate with the
of available resources which led to better crop findings of Reddy et al (2009).
growth. Similar results were also concluded by
Hassan et al (2013). Similarly, minimum (117.2 q/ Number of grains per cob
ha) DMA was obtained in control plots. The cowpea The higher number of grains per cob (366.0)
mulching gave maximum (130.0 q/ha) DMA when was recorded in maize planted at double row on
compared with other treatments. This might be due bed followed by single row on bed planting method
to nodulation under live mulch improve soil nutrient (356.1) and minimum number of grains per cob
status (Sharma et al, 2010), helped in suppressing (323.9) was observed in paired row on bed. Cowpea

151 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 149-153

 Kaur and Chhina
mulching in maize performed better and produced Similarly, cowpea mulching recorded highest
more number of grains per cob(370.1) which were grain yield of spring maize (38.9 q/ha) which was
statistically at par with moong and mash mulching significantly higher than the mash mulching (36.5
but significantly higher than control (no mulch). q/ha) and control plot (32.7 q/ha) however it was
Therefore, the treatments having no mulch were at par with moong mulching (37.4 q/ha). Further,
inferior and produced lowest number of grains per maize yield in moong and mash mulching were at
cob. This might be due to the more weed growth in par with each other but these both produced higher
control plots. yield than the control plots (no mulch). This may
be due to enriching the soil with organic matter
Test Weight and nitrogen through Rhizobium symbiosis. Similar
The perusal of the data revealed that test weight results were obtained by Caamal-Maldonado et al
was non-significantly affected by planting methods (2001).
and mulching. However numerically higher test
weight was observed in double row followed by Straw yield
single and paired row. Similarly, trend of test weight The Maize planted in double row on bed
was in favor of cowpea followed by moong, mash recorded highest straw yield 90q/ha which was
and control. numerically higher than single row on bed and
paired row on bed planting. Single row on bed and
Grain Yield double row on bed planting were statistically at
The perusal of the data revealed that different par with each other and both these methods were
planting methods had a significant influence on significantly better than paired row on bed planting.
the grain yield of spring maize. Higher grain yield Cowpea, moong and mash live mulching produced
of 38.4 q/ha was recorded in double row on bed significantly higher straw yield than the control
planting which was 2.94 percent higher than single (no mulch). Maximum straw yield (91.1q/ha) was
row on bed and 14.6 percent higher than paired recorded with cowpea mulching which was closely
row on bed planting(Table 1). Single row on bed followed by moong mulching but significantly
(SR) and double row on bed (DR) plantings were higher than mash mulching. The straw yield in
at par with each other in respect of grain yield and moong and mash mulched plots were statistically
both these methods were significantly better than at par with each other but superior over control
paired row on bed planting. Increased grain yield plot (no mulch). Straw yield was increased by 7.8,
in double row on bed planting was due to better 6.2 and 4.8 per cent in cowpea, moong and mash
growth parameters (plant height, leaf area index mulching respectively, over control plots. More
and dry matter accumulation) and yield attributes straw yield in cowpea mulching plots might be due
(number of cobs per plant, number of grains per to more vegetative growth of the cowpea plants as
cob).Similar results were also observed by Hassan compared to other mulching and control plots.
et al (2013) who reported that in double row on
bed planting method there was probably better Harvest index
light interception, more nutrients and moisture Maximum harvest index (29.8%) was recorded
uptake which contributed more LAI, CGR and for maize in double row on bed planting as against
yield attributes and resulted into the higher grain the minimum (28.1%) in paired row on bed (Table
yield. Jaidka et al (2018) revealed a significant and 1). This might be due to in the double row planting
highly positive correlation of maize cob weight, method interplant competition was decreased.
cob weight, grain weight per cob and cob girth at Research conducted by Saberi et al (2014) showed
top with grain yield of maize hybrids. similar results. Similarly, more harvest index value

152 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 149-153

 Influence of Different Planting Methods and Mulching
(29.9%) were observed in cowpea mulching plots to Kumar V(2014). Effect of different organic mulching ma-
maize crop over control plots (27.9 %) respectively. terials on soil properties of na ‘7’ aonla (emblicaoffici-
nalisgaertn) under rainfed condition of shiwalik foot-hills
of Himalayas India. The Bioscan 9(1): 561-564.
CONCLUSION
Kumar R, Sood S, Sharma S, Kasana R C, Pathania V L,
From present study it can be concluded that Singh B and Singh R D (2014). Effect of plant spacing
planting methods and mulching had significant and organic mulch on growth, yield and quality of
effect on growth and yield components of spring natural sweetener plant stevia and soil fertility in western
maize. Double row on bed planting method and Himalayas. Int J Plant Prod 8(3): 311-333.
cowpea mulching should be used to get better Narain P and Singh R K 1997. Erosion control and productivity
growth and yield of spring maize. through sunnhemp mulching and green manuring. Annual
Report. Central Soil and water Con-servation Research
and Training Institute, Dehradun, pp 40–41
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Anonymous (2019).Package of practices for kharif Crops. Patil N N, Rao V K, Dimri DC and Sharma S K(2016).
Pp.23.Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Effect of mulching on soil properties, growth and yield
of strawberry cv. Chandler under mid hill conditions of
Ahmad M, Khaliq A, Ahmad R and Ranjha A M (2010). Uttarakhand. Prog Hort 48(1):42-47.
Allometery and productivity of autumn planted maize
hybrids under narrow row spacing. Int J Agric Biol ReddyVB, MadhaviGB, Reddy VC, Reddy KG and Reddy
12:661-667. CS(2009). Intercropping of baby corn (Zea mays L.) with
legumes and cover crops. Agric Sci Digest 29(4):260-263.
Bajoriene K, Jodaugiene D, Pupaliene R and Sink-eviciene
A (2013). Effect of organic mulches on the content of Saberi AR MokhtarpourH and Mosavat SA(2014). The
organic carbon in the soil. Estonian J of Eco 62(2): 100- possessions of plant density and planting arrangement on
106. dry yield and some agronomic characteristics of sweet
corn (Zea mays L), H.S.C. 403 cultivar. Int J Farming
Cheema HS and Singh B (1991).Software statistical package and Allied Sci 3(1): 95-98.
CPCS-1. Department of Statistics, Punjab Agriculture
University, Ludhiana, India. Sharma AR, Singh R, Dhyani SK and Dube RK (2010).
Moisture conservation and nitrogen recycling through
Caamal-Maldonado J A, Jimenez-Osornio J J, Torres- legume mulching in rainfed maize (Zea mays)-wheat
Barragan A and Anaya A L (2001). The use of allelopathic (Triticuma estivum) cropping system. Nut Cyclin
legume cover and mulch species for weed weed control in Agroecosystem 872: 187-197.
cropping systems. Agron J 93(1): 27-36
Teame G, Tsegay A and Abrha B (2017). Effect of or-ganic
Hassan UM, Ahmad R, Ullah E and Saqib M (2013). mulching on soil moisture, yield, and yield con-tributing
Response of maize to nitrogen application methods and components of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.).Int J Agron
row configuration. Sarhad JAgric 29(3): 339-349. 2017: 1-6.
Jaidka Manpreet, Brar N S and Sharma M (2018). Evaluation Xie Z, WangY, Jiang W and Wei X 2006. Evapora-tion and
of spring maize hybrids under irrigated conditions. Int J evapotranspiration in a watermelon field mulched with
Curr Microbiol App Sci 7 (8): 3212-3217. gravel of different sizes in northwest Chi-na. Agri Water
Kumar S D and Lal B R (2012). Effect of Mulching on Crop Manage 81: 173-84
Production under Rainfed Condition: A Review. Int J Res
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153 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 149-153

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00090.4

Information Seeking Behaviour of Opinion Leaders in Hill

Region of Uttarakhand
Neelam Basera, Neelam Bhardwaj and Arpit Huria
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar ( Uttarakhand)

ABSTRACT
The main objective of the investigation was to study the information seeking behaviourof opinion leaders
along with their socio-economic and personal characteristics identified among the farm women in hill
regions of Uttarakhand state. The study was carried out in two hill district, Bageshwar from Kumaon
division and Tehri Garhwal from Garhwal division. The investigation was confined to total 298 respondents,
177 farm women from village Badiyakot of Bageshwar district and 121 farm women from village Sabli
Talli of Tehri Garhwal district selected purposively. Data were collected through semi-structured interview
schedule. The findings revealed that majority of the opinion leaders belonged to middle age category,
married, educated up to primary school and belonged to upper caste. Agriculture was found to be the
primary occupation of all the opinion leaders. About more than half of the opinion leaders i.e., 54.17 per
cent were noted to be engaged in animal husbandry followed by 20.83 per cent engaged in poultry farming
as secondary occupation. Majority of the opinion leaders had medium years of farming experience. The
study alsorevealed that majority of the respondents had medium socio-economic status andinformation
seeking behavior. However,localite sources of information were more frequently utilized by opinion
leaders as compared to cosmopolite sources, mass media sources and extension education methods.
Key Words: Communication network, Farm women, Information seeking behaviour, Key communicators,
Opinion leaders.

INTRODUCTION effective in providing required backward-forward

In agriculture and related subjects farmers linkages. Moreover, it is difficult to channelize
rely much on their fellow farmers. They believe the information from one extension personnel to
that, fellow farmers are more capable to give 1500 farmers in a stipulated time; this shortage
suggestions based on their practical knowledge and of extension personnel could be filled by trained
experience (Jyothi and Kumar, 2013). So, whenever communicators. Hence, these key communicators
extension personnel are to disseminate information come in a way of disseminating the agricultural
to the farming community it is always beneficial to information in time to large number of farmers.
disseminate it through these few significant farmers. Their beliefs, values, experiences, opinions, self-
Agricultural extension work in the rural areas commitment etc. directly or indirectly affect the
is, greatly facilitated when extension functionaries decision-making behavior of others and thereby,
utilizes these fellow farmers or simply called as initiates change. These are the individuals who
opinion leaders in planning, implementation and play a significant role in initiating, directing and
evaluation of extension educational programmes. sustaining social change in rural development.
Extension programmes receives greater acceptance The diffusion of innovations through opinion
and participation of the people, when their leaders leaders facilitates the active participation of local
are involved in these programmes. These informal farmers and validates the innovation through
leaders besides addressing end to end issues are time. Apart from these, opinion leaders also play

Corresponding Author’s Email: neelambasera18@gmail.com

154 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161

 Basera et al
key roles, such as to evaluate innovations, keep Descriptive research design was used for
communication among the networks, facilitate the conducting the research study. Data were collected
opportunities for agricultural projects and training, through semi-structured interview schedule. SPSS
and create and maintain contacts with external programme has been used for data analysis and
organizations. Therefore, as recommended by drawing relevant conclusions. The information
Oleas et al (2010), the diffusion of information and seeking behaviour of the opinion leaders were
innovation through formal and non-formal leaders studied on four categories described below included
represents a promising strategy for any development in Bhairamkar (2009) scale used for present
programmes. Hence, the importance of utilizing investigation with slight modifications.A detailed
opinion leaders to support the development process discussion of the socio-economic and personal
of any programme is emphasized across many characteristics along with the information seeking
development scenarios (Oleas et al, 2010). In the behaviour of the identified opinion leaders has been
present study, total twenty four opinion leaders presented under the following section:
were identified from the two villagesbased on their
high in-degree centrality scores (total nominations) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
in the delineated communication networks of Socio-economic and personal characteristics of
farm women in the two village viz.,. village opinion leaders
Badiyakot and village Sabli Talli respectively.
However, understanding the socio-economic and Age
personalcharacteristics of opinion leaders is the first The findings regarding age composition of the
and foremost step towards the integration of opinion opinion leaders revealed that maximum percentage
leaders into the development process. Therefore, of the opinion leaders (58.33%) were in the middle
the socio-economic and personal characteristics age category (35.69 to 51.97) followed by 25 per
along with the information seeking behaviour of cent of opinion leaders who belonged to young age
opinion leaders identified among the farm women category (less than 35.69) respectively. Only 16.67
using network centrality has been studied as part of per cent of opinion leaders were in the older age
the research investigation. category (more than 51.97). This shows that opinion
leaders in the study area were generally those who
MATERIALS AND METHODS were on one hand experienced in farming and in
The present study was carried out in two the other hand were actively engaged in social
hill district of Uttarakhand state, Bageshwar activities. This may be due to the reason that this
from Kumaon division and Tehri Garhwalfrom age group of hill women participate actively in all
Garhwal division selected using simple random social and political activities as most of the male
sampling. The investigation was confined to total population migrated to other areas for employment.
298 respondents, 177 farm women from village
Badiyakot of Bageshwar district and 121 farm Education
women from village Sabli Talli of Tehri Garhwal Opinion leaders were found to be not highly
district selected purposively based on following educated in the sampled villages.Most (41.67%)
criteria for selection: of the opinion leaders were educated up to primary
level followed by nearly one third (33.33%) of
1. Farm women who were extensively involved in opinion leaders who can only read and write.
agriculture and allied activities Further, about 20.83 per cent of opinion leaders
2. Farm women who were over the age of eighteen were educated up to middle school and very few
years and above among them (4.17%) had high school as educational

155 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161

 Information Seeking Behaviour of Opinion Leaders
Table 1. Distribution of opinion leaders on the basis of their socio-economic and personal
characteristics (n=24)
Sr.No. Characteristic Percentage (%) Mean Standard deviation
a Age
Young (Less than 35.69 yr) 25.00
Middle (35.69 to51.97 yr) 58.33 43.83 8.138
Old (More than 51.97 yr) 16.67
b Marital Status
Unmarried 16.67 NA NA
Married 83.33
Divorce 0.00
Widow 0.00
c Education
Illiterate 0.00
Can read only 0.00
Can read and write 33.33
Primary 41.67
NA NA
Middle 20.83
High school 4.17
Graduate 0.00
Post graduate 0.00
d Occupation
None 12.50
Wage earner/Labour 0.00
Animal husbandry 54.17 NA NA
Poultry farming 20.83
Service 4.17
Business 8.33
e Farming experience
Low (Less than 23.37) 16.67
Medium (23.37 to38.70) 66.66 31.04 7.664
High (More than 38.70) 16.67
f Socio-economic status
Low (Less than 92.37) 8.33
Medium (92.37 to121.71) 70.84 107.04 14.669
High (More than 121.71) 20.83
*NA: Not Applicable **Total Number of Opinion Leaders: 24

status respectively. None of them were illiterate or Marital status

had higher educational qualification as graduate or The composition of opinion leaders based on
post graduate. their marital status showed that majority of the

156 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161

 Basera et al
opinion leaders (83.33%) were married followed by
the remaining 16.67 per cent of opinion leaders who
were unmarried. None among them were divorced
or widow. Married farm women were assumed to
be more respectable than unmarried or divorce or
widow in the sampled villages.
Occupation of opinion leaders
Occupation is an important determinant of
the lifestyle and the class status of an individual.
Agriculture was the primary occupation of all the
opinion leaders. The data showed that maximum
percentage of opinion leaders (54.17%) were into
animal husbandry followed by 20.83 per cent of
the opinion leaders who were engaged in poultry
farming. About 12.50 per cent of the opinion leaders
were involve in none as secondary occupation.
Further, 8.33 per cent of opinion leaders were
engaged in business in the respective village.
Farming experience
The composition of opinion leaders based on
their farming experience cleared out that majority
(66.66%) of opinion leaders had medium farming
experience i.e. between 23.37 to 38.70. While equal
percentages of opinion leaders i.e. 16.67 per cent
had low (less than 23.37%) and high (more than
38.70%) farming experience respectively.
Socio-economic status
The socio-economic status of women is a
critical factor which determines her social influence
and importance. The distribution of opinion leaders
according to their socio-economic status pointed
out that majority of opinion leaders (70.84%)
belonged to medium socio-economic status
followed by 20.83 per cent who belonged to high
socio-economic status respectively. Only 8.33 per
cent of the opinion leaders were from low socio-
economic status.
Information seeking behaviour from personal
localite sources
Data (Table 20 represented the distribution of cosmopolite sources
opinion leaders according to their frequency of
157 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161
seeking information from personal localite sources.
The data inferred that majority of the opinion leaders
(58.33%) sought information from fellow opinion
leaders or other local leaders on regular basis.
One-fourth (25%) of the opinion leaders sought
information from neighbours and progressive farm
women of the villages. It was found that exactly
fifty per cent (50%) of the opinion leaders sought
information from friends followed by neighbours
(41.67%) on occasional basis. It was suggested that
for seeking agricultural information fellow local
leaders, neighbours and friends were perceived as
the most frequently sought personal localite sources
in the area under study. Thus, local leaders were the
most preferred sources of information followed
by neighbours, friends, progressive farmers and
relatives for the opinion leaders.
The data (Table 3) showed that more than
fifty per cent of the opinion leaders (54.17%) had
medium level of information seeking behaviour
from personal localite sources followed by 25 per
cent of the opinion leaders who had low level of
information seeking behaviour from personal
localite sources. Around 20.83 per cent of opinion
leaders had high level of information seeking
behaviour from personal localite sources. It was
concluded that most of the opinion leaders had
medium level of information seeking behaviour
and used localite sources like local leaders, friends,
progressive farmers and relatives as sources of
information. The reason behind this degree of
dependency for information might be explained
by the fact that local leaders were more exposed
to the sources of agricultural information from
outside sources as compared to rest of the personal
localite sources. The opinion leaders played the role
of reservoirs of knowledge for the rest of the farm
women but their own sources of information were
not confined to the boundaries of the villages as was
the case of the rest of the respondents.
Information seeking behaviour from personal
The data in Table 2represented the distribution
 Information Seeking Behaviour of Opinion Leaders
of opinion leaders according to their frequency of
seeking information from personal cosmopolite
sources. It indicated that among personal
cosmopolite sources, NGOs personnel were most
frequently sought by the opinion leaders (100%).
KVK-SMS were the second most frequently sought
information sources (95.83%) followed by Gram
Sewak, Block Development Officer, Agricultural
Officer and Agricultural Officer (Bank) occupying
corresponding 3rd, 4th, 5thand 6thranks respectively.
It suggests that for seeking agricultural information,
NGO personnel and KVK-SMS were perceived as
the most frequently sought personal cosmopolite
sources by the opinion leaders in the study area. It
can be clearly noted that the opinion leaders were far
more dependent on the NGOs and KVK-SMS for
the perusal of information related to agriculture as
compared to personal localite sources. This finding
revealed that unlike other farm women who were
dependent more on localite sources, the opinion
leaders happened to be relying more on personal
cosmopolite sources.
Data regarding information seeking behaviour
from personal cosmopolite sources is presented in
Table 3. It is evident that majority of the opinion
leaders (75%) had high level of information seeking
behaviour from personal cosmopolite sources
followed by 16.67 per cent of opinion leaders
who had medium level of information seeking
behaviour from personal cosmopolite sources. Only
8.33 per cent of opinion leaders showed low level
of information seeking behaviour from personal
cosmopolite sources. From informal discussions,
it was found that, although extension personnel or
experts conducted occasional field visits in villages
due to lack of transportation facilities and field
staff, they had informally appointed these opinion
leaders as their contact persons for exchange of
information related to agriculture. Also, at times, the
opinion leaders approached these experts/ extension
personnel with the help of the male members of
the village and helped to create an information
flow between village and extension agencies, i.e.
conveying problems to the experts and bringing
158 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161
solutions to the villages. Thus, opinion leaders
acted as a link between the village community and
outer extension agencies, such as NGO, KVK etc.
Information seeking behaviour from mass
media sources
Data in Table 2representedthat television
and radio were sought on regular basis by most
of the opinion leaders i.e. 50 and 41.67 per cent
respectively followed by 25 per cent of opinion
leaders who used to seek information from mobile
phones regularly. It was also revealed that on an
occasional basis, 33.33 per cent and 25 per cent
of opinion leaders seek information from radio
and television respectively. While on occasional
basis, mobile phones and newspaper were sought
for information by 20.83 per cent and 12.50 per
cent of opinion leaders. Thus, television and
radio were most frequently sought for agricultural
information followed by mobile phones, newspaper
and magazines respectively.The above findings
showed a distinguishing picture from that of the
case of total respondents, where mobile phones
were among the most frequently used mass media
source for agricultural information. This change in
findings may be explained by the fact that more of
the opinion leaders belonged to old-aged category
and thus, they found it less convenient to use mobile
phones and thus, were stuck to radio for accessing
agricultural information.
The data in Table 3 indicated that more than fifty
per cent (54.17%) of the opinion leaders belonged
to medium category followed by about 29.16
per cent of opinion leaders who belonged to low
category of information seeking behaviour from
mass media sources. Only 16.67 per cent of opinion
leaders belonged to high category of information
seeking behaviour from mass media sources. It can
be concluded that people in rural areas were using
mass media sources to a less extent with television,
radio and mobile phones as the commonly used
mass media. In spite of the fact that in hill regions,
interpersonal channels of communication are more
readily available and utilized as information sources
 Basera et al
Table 2. Distribution of opinion leaders according to their frequency of seeking Information.
(n=24)
Weighted
Regular Occasionally Never mean score Rank
Sr.No Information Source (WMS)
% No.
a. Personal localite sources
1 Local leaders 58.33 25.00 16.67 2.41 I
2 Neighbours 25.00 41.67 33.33 1.91 II
3 Friends 16.67 50.00 33.33 1.83 III
4 Progressive farmers 25.00 16.67 58.33 1.67 IV
5 Relatives 8.33 16.67 75.00 1.33 V
b. Personal cosmopolite sources
1 Personnel of NGO 100 00 00 3.00 I
2 KVK-Subject Matter 95.83 4.17 00 2.95 II
Specialists (SMS)
3 Gram Sewak 62.50 37.50 00 2.62 III
4 Block Dev. Officer (BDO) 00 20.83 79.17 1.20 IV
5 Agriculture Officer(AO) 00 16.67 83.33 1.17 V
6 Agriculture Officer (Bank) 00 12.50 87.50 1.12 VI
c. Mass media sources
1 Television 50.00 25.00 25.00 2.25 I
2 Radio 41.67 33.33 25.00 2.16 II
3 Mobile phones 25.00 20.83 54.17 1.70 III
4 Newspaper 8.33 12.50 79.17 1.29 IV
5 Farm magazine 0.00 8.33 91.67 1.08 V
d. Extension education methods
1 Training programmes 100.00 0.00 0.00 3.00 I
2 Field trial 95.83 4.17 0.00 2.95 II
3 Demonstration 91.67 8.33 0.00 2.91 III
4 Meetings 87.50 12.50 0.00 2.87 IV
5 Kisan mela 83.33 16.67 0.00 2.83 V

*Multiple responses were allowed

as compared to mass media sources; mass media Information seeking behaviour from
sources were perceived as useful by a significant extension education methods
number of opinion leaders in the study area. From the data (Table2), it can be inferred that

159 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161

 Information Seeking Behaviour of Opinion Leaders
opinion leaders in the study area most frequently Overall information seeking behaviour from
sought information during training programmes various sources
(100%) followed by field trials (95.83%), Data regarding overall information seeking
demonstration (91.67%), meetings (87.50%) and behaviour of the opinion leaders is presented in the
kisan mela (83.33%). The data in Table 3 showed Table 4. The data exhibits that maximum percentage
that majority i.e. 66.67 per cent of opinion leaders of the opinion leaders (58.33%) had medium level
belonged to high category followed by about 20.83 of information seeking behavior followed by equal
per cent of opinion leaders who belonged to medium proportion of opinion leaders who had high and low
category of seeking agricultural information through (20.83%) levels of information seeking behavior
extension education methods. Only 12.50 per cent behaviour.
of opinion leaders were found to be in low category From the findings it was observed that most
of information seeking behaviour from extension of the opinion leaders sought information about
methods. This indicated that majority of the opinion
farming from personal cosmopolite sources such
leaders have high dependence on extension methods
as personnel from NGOs and KVKs active in the
for seeking information. This might be due to the
study area. Local leaders, among personal localite
reason that opinion leaders, being the connecting
sources were considered a trustworthy source of
links between the village and extension agenciesinformation for a major proportion of opinion
actively participated in extension activities carried
leaders. The results show a clear picture that the
out by the extension agencies. opinion leaders acted as a bridge between the
Table 3. Distribution of opinion leaders on the village and extension agencies. From informal
basis of their information seeking behaviour discussions, it was also revealed that opinion
from various sources. (n=24) leaders with the help of male members created a
flow of information exchange between villagers and
Sr. No. Source of Information Percentage
Seeking the extension agencies. The findings also revealed
Personal localite
that opinion leaders actively participated in the
a.
training programmes, demonstrations, field trials
1. Low (Less than 6) 25.00 meetings and other extension activities and helped
2. Medium (In between 6 to 9) 54.17 disseminate the obtained information and leanings
3. High (More than 9) 20.83 to the fellow farm women.
b. Personal cosmopolite Interestingly, there also existed a fair difference
1. Low (Less than 3) 8.33 in the findings related to overall respondents
2. Medium (In between 3 to 9) 16.67 and opinion leaders in particular, in context of
3. High (More than 9) 75.00 information seeking behavior. The difference laid
in choice of information sources, the media and
c. Mass media
extension methods used for obtaining agriculture-
1. Low (Less than 3) 29.16 related information. The overall exploration
2. Medium (In between 3 to 8) 54.17 indicated that the agriculture-related information
3. High (More than 8) 16.67 was first obtained by opinion leaders predominately
d. Extension education methods through personal cosmopolite sources and mass
media sources. Thereafter, it was transmitted to the
1. Low (Less than 3) 12.50
rest of farm women for whom these opinion leaders
2. Medium (In between 4 to 9) 20.83
acted as personal localite sources of obtaining
3. High (More than 9) 66.67 agriculture-related information. In the same manner,

160 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161

 Basera et al
Table 4. Distribution of opinion leaders on the basis of their overall information seeking behaviour
from various sources. (n=24)
Overall Information seeking behavior
Sr.No. Category Frequency Percentage
1 Low (Less than 10) 5 20.83
2 Medium (In between 10 to 26) 14 58.34
3 High (More than 26) 5 20.83

the problems of farm women related to agriculture
were communicated to extension agencies through
opinion leaders. Thus, they act as a connecting link
between the two sides. Based on the above analysis
of the information seeking behavior and informally-
existing pattern of information flow might be
utilized to form a sound communication strategy by
utilizing all the available resources.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that majority (62.40%) of
opinion leaders belonged to middle age category
i.e. to the age group of 36 to 52, were married
(83.33%), educated up to primary school (41.67%),
belonged to upper caste (79.16%) and had joint
family (79.17%) with 66.66 per cent of opinion
leaders having medium family size (7 to 10
members) respectively. Agriculture was found to be
the primary occupation of all the opinion leaders
(100%). About more than half of the opinion leaders
i.e. 54.17 per cent performed animal husbandry
followed by 20.83 per cent who were engaged in
poultry farming as secondary occupation. Majority
of the opinion leaders (66.66%) had medium
years of farming experience i.e. between 23 to 39.
Further, it was also observed that majority of the
respondents (70.84%, 70.84%) had medium socio-
economic status and information seeking behavior.
It was realized that opinion leaders utilized localite
source of information more frequently as compared
to cosmopolite sources, mass media sources and
extension education methods.
It is important to note that the present study was
conducted in the isolated and remote villages of hill
district of Uttarakhand state which is particularly
unparalleled in terms of geo-topographical and
cultural dimensions. As a consequence, this
uniqueness in the situational factors might have
influenced the differences in the findings. This calls
for future researchers to study this phenomenon
with more intensity and depth in order to throw
more light on the related aspects. The present
investigation has its primary focus on opinion
leaders, and somehow has ignored the non-opinion
leaders. Therefore, future studies which includes
non- opinion leaders as well as made significant
differences in characteristics of opinion leaders and
non-opinion leaders need to be studied exhaustively
for a more comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon under study.
REFERENCES
Bhairamkar M S (2009). Impact of Microfinance through
Self Help Group in Konan region of Maharastra.
Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis,Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konan
Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli.
Jyothi V and Kumar M S (2013). Socio-metric Study for
Dissemination of Agricultural Information. Indian Res J
Ext Edu 13 (1):136-138.
Oleas C, Dooley KE, Shinn GC and Guisti C (2010). A
Study of the Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations in
Chimaltenango, Guatemala. Jf Int Agril and Ext Edu
17(2):33-45.
Received on 20/06/2019 Accepted on 22/09/2019

161 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 154-161

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 162-165 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00087.4

Impact of Trainings and Demonstrations on Promotion of

Mushroom Cultivation
A Rajkala, S Shobana, M Ashok Kumar and G Alagukannan
ICAR Krishi Vigyan Kendra (CREED), Ariyalur – 612 902 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Mushroom cultivation can directly improve livelihoods through economic, nutritional and medicinal
contributions. A complete list of 200 respondents was randomly selected who have undergone capacity
building programmes through training and demonstration on mushroom production technologies at
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ariyalur district from 2014-15 to 2018-19. The study has been contemplated
and carried out with an aim to ascertain the impact of capacity building programmes on knowledge
level before and after conduct of trainings, adoption level during different years and constraints being
faced by the mushroom growers. The highest change in perception level of 77.85 and 76.2 per cent
was observed in respect of technologies related to nutritive and medicinal value of mushroom and
harvesting and storage of mushroom respectively. There was the study increase in adoption of mushroom
cultivation practice from 2014-15 to 2017-18 and the average adoption was 36.91 percent. Among the
constraints faced by the mushroom growers, lack of finance and credit support ranks first (89.0 %) and
it was followed by non availability of spawn in time (80.0 %). Appropriate actions to overcome these
constraints to bring mushroom as an income generating and self employment ventures are suggested.
Key Words: Adoption, Constraints, Knowledge, Mushroom, Suggestions.

INTRODUCTION benefits (Oyetayo et al, 2009).These metabolites

Mushrooms are macro fungi with characteristic
epigeous or hypogeous fruiting bodies. It has been
significant in human history as food, medicine and
in folk. It is mainly consumed for their texture
and flavor. Recently it has been used for drug
development. Several higher Basidiomycetes
mushrooms are known to have a number of bio-
active components which may have positive
effects on human health; include hepatoprotective
activity (Afroza et al, 2010). Mushroom is considered
to be a nutritious food, rich in protein, low in fat
and carbohydrates. However, mushroom growing
can help in a long way in the efficient utilization
of agricultural and industrial waste. It can also play
a significant role to alleviate poverty and generate
employment opportunity for educated unemployed
youth (Rachna et al, 2013 and Kaur, 2016).Apart
from their nutritional potentials, mushrooms are also
sources of bioactive substances that possess health
Corresponding Author’s Email: creedkvk@gmail.com
have been used as antimicrobials with fewer side
effects and are a prolific resource for drugs because
of their antitumor, antibacterial, antifungal and
hypercholesterolemia activities (Khatun, 2012).
Mushroom cultivation can help reduce vulnerability
to poverty and strengthens livelihoods through the
generation of a fast yielding and nutritious source
of food and a reliable source of income (Sharma,
2018). Mushroom cultivation will improve the
socio-economic condition of farmers, families and
solve employment problems of both literate and
illiterate of rural areas and semi-urban, especially
women.
Mushroom cultivation activities can play an
important role in supporting the local economy by
contributing to subsistence food security. Oyster as
well as milky mushroom offers good potential for its
cultivation in Ariyalur district. By considering the
importance of mushroom, Krishi Vigyan Kendra has

162 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 162-165

 Rajkala et al
conducted different types of training programmes
like one day training (9 Nos.), vocational training
of week long (5 Nos.) and 200 hours long duration
training (2 Nos). Totally 324 farmers, farm women
and youth participants were trained from 2014-15
to 2018-19. The trained people after getting proper
know how and skill started its production. Apart
from the trained trainees, 74 of other farmers and
farm women started its cultivation by seeing their
neighbour and fellow farmers from nearby villages.
Keeping in view the increasing demand of
mushroom due to globalization and opening of the
economy, the present study was undertaken with the
specific objective to assess the impact of training
and demonstrations on mushroom cultivation in
promotion of its cultivation as self-employment
venture.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A complete list of 200 respondents was randomly
prepared who have undergone trainings and
demonstrations on mushroom production technique
from 2014- 15 to 2018-19. A questionnaire was
framed covering background information and
all aspects of mushroom cultivation. In order to
assess the knowledge gained by the trainees and
effectiveness of training, a pre-test before training
and post evaluation after training was conducted
to know the level of knowledge of participants
about species of edible mushrooms, pest and
disease infestation in mushrooms as well as their
storage process and value addition. To test the
knowledge of trainees, a set of 15 questions related
to spawn production, types of mushroom and
inputs for mushroom production, bed preparation,
shed construction, temperature and humidity
maintenance, harvest, preservation, nutritive value,
value added products, marketing and storage methods
were prepared and the suggestions from the trainees
were also recorded for further improvement in the
next training programme. Change in perception
level was calculated from the difference of scores
obtained in pre and post knowledge test of the
163 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 162-165
trainees. The data were tabulated and statistically
analyzed using frequency, percentages and ranking.
After training –
Before training
Change of Knowledge =
Total respondents
X 100
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Training courses aim at enhancing adoption
and diffusion of innovations. Some of the outcomes
envisaged for any training programme were gain
in knowledge, gain in skill acquired and ultimately
in more adoption and integration among farming
community. An important indicator of the impact
of training programme is the extent to which they
have adopted the package of practices of mushroom
cultivation technology. Mushroom production has
become one of few enterprises which rural women
of the district has adopted in big way at household
level and as commercial enterprise as a source of
income generation after the proper acquisition of
technology.
Change in perception level of respondents
Change in perception level of respondents
before and after training is shown in Table
1. They develop a favourable attitude towards
mushroom production after trainings. In pretest
before training, the knowledge of respondents about
mushroom spawn production was zero and 3.0 per
cent regarding methods of compost making to 28.0
per cent in case of awareness of loans, schemes and
subsides provided by public or private institutions
for establishment of mushroom production unit.
Post training score of various practices ranged from
52.0 per cent in case of mushroom spawn production
to 100 per cent in case of profitability in mushroom
cultivation. It was thus noticed that pre-training
knowledge score was not much satisfactory for all
the aspects of mushroom production. However,
the knowledge score gained by respondents after
training was more satisfactory in all aspects. The
reason behind the satisfactory change in perception
level might be due to well educational background,
 Impact of Trainings and Demonstrations
Table 1. Change in perception level of respondents for mushroom production. (n=200)
Post-test Change in
Pre-test Knowledge
Sr.No. Particular Knowledge after perception level
before training (%)
training (%) (%)
1 Knowledge of Species of Mushroom 11.5 87.25 75.75
and Identification of edible mushroom
2 Nutritive and medicinal value of 4.3 82.15 77.85
mushroom
3 Materials and Techniques used for 12.0 85.20 73.20
different types of mushroom production
4 Methods of compost making 3.0 67.5 64.5
5 Pest and disease infestation in 8.0 78.12 70.12
mushroom
6 Profitability in mushroom cultivation 25.5 100.0 74.5
7 Harvesting and storage process 10.80 87.0 76.2
8 Mushroom spawn production 0 52.0 52.0
9 Value added products of mushroom 10.40 84.0 73.60
10 Awareness of loans, schemes and 28.0 91.00 63.00
subsides provided by public or private
institutions for establishment of
mushroom production unit

keen interest of participants and effective teaching are essential to make them adopt the technologies.
methods followed by the KVK experts while
training programmes. Constraints in mushroom production
technology as perceived by the mushroom
Level of adoption growers
Out of 324 farmers and farm women, only 114 The data (Table 3) enumerate the constraints
farmers adopted mushroom cultivation (Table 2) as being faced by the mushroom growers. Among the
an enterprise. nine major constraints expressed by the respondents
The average rate of adoption from the year of lack of finance and credit support stands first as
2014-15 to 2018-19 was 36.91per cent. The highest 89.0 per cent of the respondents expressed this
rate of adoption was noticed in the year of 2017- constraints. It was followed by non availability of
18 (52.50%), where as the lowest rate of adoption quality spawn (80%) in time and non availability
was noticed in the year of 2018-19 (29.03%) (Table of raw materials (73%). The adverse climatic
2). It could be observed that the adoption level is conditions like high temperature during summer
increasing year by year for the four continuous years month hamper mushroom cultivation (69%).
from 2014-15 to 2017-18. The continuous follow Only 24 per cent of the respondents expressed the
up mentoring and facilitation support rendered by lack of mentoring and hand holding support from
KVK resulted in high level of adoption. The low suitable organizations like KVK, Department
adoption of mushroom production in the year of of Horticulture, Research Institutes, etc., as the
2018-19 might be due to less follow up of trainees constraint in sustainable mushroom cultivation.
by KVK and handholding support. From the study it These constraints need to become an income
could be seen that continuous follow up of trainees generating venture to the rural poor.

164 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 162-165

 Rajkala et al
Table 2. Impact of training programme of Mushroom cultivation farming in terms of adoption.
Number of Number of Number of participants Percent
Year
training participants became mushroom cultivators adoption
2014-15 1 26 8 30.76
2015-16 3 61 21 34.42
2016-17 4 73 28 38.00
2017-18 3 40 21 52.50
2018-19 5 124 36 29.03

Table 3. Ranking of Constraints in Mushroom production as perceived by mushroom growers.

Sr. No. Constraint Number Percent Overall rank

1 Lack of finance 178 89.0 I

2 Non availability of spawn in time 160 80.0 II
3 Non availability of raw materials 146 73.0 III
4 Lack of govt. subsidy 110 55.0 VI
5 Inadequate technical knowledge 113 56.5 V
6 Adverse Effect of climate conditions on storage 138 69.0 IV
7 Lack of marketing facility 92 46.0 VII
8 Lack of transportation facilities 85 43.0 VIII
9 Lack of mentoring and hand holding support 48 24.0 IX

CONCLUSION Kaur K (2016). Impact of Training course on knowledge gain

The perception and adoption levels of the
respondents about mushroom and its production
after the training have changed. The reason behind
the satisfactory change in perception level is due
to well educational background, keen interest of
participants and methods followed for technology
transfer to the trainees. Easy and timely availability
of spawn material in their vicinity, facilitating credit
facilities and marketing avenues are the core areas
to be taken care of to bring mushroom cultivation
as an enterprise particularly to the rural youth.
Formation of mushroom grower groups at Block
level and federating at district level will pave the
way for overcoming most of the constraints being
faced by the farmers.
REFERENCES
Afroza K S, Jahan N and Sultana N (2010). Study on the
Hepatoprotective effect of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus
florida) against Paracetamol induced liver damage in
Wistar Albino Rats. J Bangladesh Soc Physiol 5(2): 46-
52.
of mushroom trainees. J Krishi Vigyan 4 (2): 54-57
Oyetayo V O, Dong C H and Yao J (2009). Antioxidant
and antimicrobial properties of aqueous extract from
Dictyophora indusiata.The Open Mycology Journal 3:
20-26
Rachna, Goel R and Sodhi G P S (2013). Evaluation of
vocational training programmes organized on mushroom
farming by Krishi Vigyan Kendra Patiala. J Krishi Vigyan
2(1): 26-29
Khatun Selima, Islam Aminul, Cakilcioglu Ugur and
Chatterjee Narayan C (2012). Mushroom as a potential
source of nutraceuticals. Am J Exper Agri 2(1): 47-73.
Sharma Anjali (2018). Market linked technology of mushroom
production for subsidiary income and nutritional security
of farm families of Uttar Dinajpur District of West
Bengal. J Krishi Vigyan 7 (Special Issue): 97-100
Received on Accepted on

165 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 162-165

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 166-169 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00088.6

Incidence of Repeat Breeding in Cattle at Organized Dairy Farms

Dinesh Mahto and Shobha Rani
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gandhar (BAU, Sabour) Jehanabad 804 432(Bihar).

ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out at organized dairy farms at Jehanabad. A total of 144 cows were
selected. The general and breeding history of animals, presented for gynecological checkup were
recorded with respect to age of animal, number of calving, day past from last calving, nature of estrus
cycle, number of insemination done without conception were noted. Animals observed to be in estrus
for the first or second time were considered as normal or fresh animal. For third time or more after
insemination were taken as repeat breeding animals. The highest incidence of repeat breeding (23.52%)
was recorded during the month of February and the lowest (11.90%) during the month of June. The
highest incidence of repeat breeding was observed during monsoon (23.80%) and lowest during summer
(13.63%) season .The overall incidence of repeat breeding out of total number of 483 cases examined
was 16.82 percent. The highest incidence of (42.85%) was observed in heifers which calved first time.
Key words: Cattle, Incidence, Infertility, Repeat breeding, Season.

INTRODUCTION month wise, season wise, parity wise and breed

The success of dairy economics lies in ensuring
proper and optimal reproductive rhythm of each
individual female in the herd within the normal
physiological limits. Any deviation in breeding
rhythm results in progressive economic losses due
to widening of calving interval as well as lactation
during life time. Infertile cattle mean a loss in
milk production whereas fewer calves reduce the
efficacy of selection in dairy herd improvement.
Sub fertile and repeat breeding conditions are most
vexing problems in dairy cattle and account for
huge economic loss to the farmer. A wide variety
of micro flora infect female genital tract and
play a significant role in repeat breeding animal,
by causing inflammation of endometrium. In
addition metabolites of bacteria and inflammatory
exudates pH after of uterine and vaginal fluid
resulting in failures of conception due to death of
spermatozoa or fertilized ovum Raghavan et al
(1971). The incidence of repeat breeding is variable
under different management conditions. It varies
wise. Periparturient disease has been reported to
influence the occurrence of repeat breeding in
dairy cattle. These factors however have been
reported separately and it is very difficult to assess
their relative contribution to this problems. This
study was designed to find out the incidence and
magnitude of repeat breeding syndrome (RBS) in
cross breed cows at organized dairy farmers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted on the animals
of organized dairy farms at Jehanabad. The general
and breeding history of animals, presented for
gynecological checkup were recorded with respect
to age of animal, number of calving, day past
from last calving , nature of estrus cycle, number
of insemination done without conception were
noted. Animals observed to be in estrus for the first
or second time were considered as normal or fresh
animal. For third time or more after insemination
were taken as repeat breeding animals.

Corresponding Author’s Email: drdineshgy@gmail.com

166 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 166-169

 Mahto and Rani
Table 1: Month wise incidence of repeat breeding in cross breed cattle.
Month Total no. of estrous No. Repeat Over all Incidence
animal breeding animals(%) (%)
January 20 3(15.00)
February 37 8(23.52)
March 27 5(18.52)
April 35 6(17.14)
May 44 8(15.18)
June 42 5(11:90)
July 49 10(20:40)
August 73 6(13.96) 16.82%
September 45 8(17.77%)
October 39 6(15.35%)
November 40 6(15.35%)
December 32 5(15.62%)
Total 483 76

Gynecological check up of animals or cervical mucus with flakes of pus were excluded
The hind quarters and external genitalia of from present study. The consistency of cervical
the animals were properly washed and cleaned mucus was classified as thin and thick Sukhdeo and
with 1:1000 potassium permanganate solution Ray (1971). This cervical mucus flowed easily on a
and subjected for through gynecological check up. glass slide kept inclined at 45 degree angle where as
At first the condition and external genitalia were thick cervical mucus remained sticky on glass slide
examined and the internal genitalia organs were when kept in inclined and 45 degree angle.
palpated for rectum and findings were recorded.
Statistical Analysis
Selection of animals Statistical analyses of the data were done
After gynecological check up those animals by methods describes by Snedecor and Cochran
were selected which fell under true repeat breeding (1968).
category i.e., animal which have regular estrus cycle
and estrus period and no palpable abnormalities RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
could be recorded but failed to conceive following The month wise, season wise and parity wise
there or more artificial insemination with good incidence of repeat breeding were calculated. Month
quality semen of know fertile bull. Finally on the wise incidence of repeat breeding animals has been
basis of breeding history and gynecological check presented table1. The highest incidence (23.52%)
up 144 cows selected from organized dairy farms was recorded dairy the month of February and the
at Jehanabad. lowest (11.90%), during month of June. The overall
incidence of repeat breeder out of the total number
Examination of physical characteristics of of 450 animals examined was 16.82%. During the
cervical mucus: study, 76 cases of repeat breeding were identified
The color and consistency of cervical mucus month wise (Table 2). The highest incidence of
was noted after visual examination. The animals repeat breeding has been observed during the
harboring turbid, translucent, opaque cervical mucus

167 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 166-169

 Incidence of Repeat Breeding in Cattle
monsoon season (23.80%) followed by winter It was evident from table 4 that sequence of
(14.86%) and summer season (13.63%) (Table3). calving influenced repeat breeding first calves
Figures in Parentheses are percent incidence of showed maximum incidence (42.85%) and fourth
repeat breeding. calvers the lowest (18.33%). Test of proportion
showed that there was non significant difference
Table 2: Month wise distribution of repeat- between heifer and first calves, heifer and second
breeding in cross breed cattle. calvers, first calvers and second calvers, heifer and
Month No. of repeat- Distribution (%) third calves, first calvers and third calvers, second
breeding cases calves and third calvers or heifer and fourth calvers.
Significant values (P< 0.05) were obtained between
January 3 3.97
second calvers and fourth calvers third calvers
February 8 10.52
and fourth calvers significant value (P<0.01) were
March 5 6.59
obtained between first calvers and fourth calvers
April 6 7.59 (Table 4).
May 8 10.52
June 5 6.57 Occurrence of repeat breeding
July 10 13.15 The animals (144) were analyzed for the
August 6 7.83
incidence of repeat breeding. Out of which 76
animals were recorded as repeat breeder. The highest
September 8 10.52
incidence (23.2%) of repeat breeding noted during
October 6 7.59
the month of February and the lowest (11.90%)
November 6 7.59 during the month of June. the overall incidence of
December 5 6.57 repeat breeder was 16.52%. the present observation
Total 96 100.00 as in close agreement with the reports of Dhabale et
Table 3: Season wise incidence of repeat breeding in cross breed cattle.
Seasons Total No. of estrus No. of repeat Incidence (%) Calculated chi-
animal breeding cases square at 3 d.f.
Winter (Nov to.feb) 148 22 14.86
Summer (Mar to June) 176 24 13.63 5.672**
Monsoon (July to Oct) 126 30 23.80
**P<0.01.
Table 4: Parity-wise incidence of repeat breeding in cross bred cattle.
Calving No or Repeat %of Proportion test
sequence breeder cases incidence
1st calving 2st calving 3st calving 4st calving
Heifer 20(65) 30.76 1.4531 NS 0.9210 NS 0.8060 NS 1.6072NS
1st calving 30(70) 42.85 0.5195 NS 0.682 NS 2.9988**
2st calving 25(65) 38.46 0.1123 NS 2.484**
3st calving 24(64) 37.56 2.396*
4st calving 11(60) 18.33
*: P<0.05, **: P<0.01, NS: Non significant.

168 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 166-169

 Mahto and Rani
al (1996), who also recorded the incidence of repeat
breeding varying from 15.79 o 18.01per cent.
However, the present observation differed from
the finding of Gustasoon and Emanuclson (2002),
who reported comparatively lower incidence of
repeat breeding (3.00 to 12.30%). Kumar and
Punniamurthy (2003) and Selvaraj et al (2003),
reported comparatively higher incidence (20.64
to 73.7%) under this condition . This variation
in results might be due to differences in breeds,
agro climatic condition, parity nutritional and
management conditions.
CONCLUSINON
Repeat breeding conditions are most vexing
problems in dairy cattle and account for huge
economic loss to the farmer. A wide variety of
Snedecor G W and Cochran W G (1968). Statistical method,
micro flora infect female genital tract and play a
significant role in repeat breeding animal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge support and co-operation
by Programme Coordinators of the Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Jehanabad during survey and sampling is
duly acknowledged.
169 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 166-169
REFERENCES
Dhabale R B (1996). Microbial, hormonal and biochemical
studies in repeat breeder bovine with special reference
to therapeutic measure. M.V.Sc. Thesis, Deemed
University , IVRI ., Izatnagar U.P.
Gustafsson G and Emonuclson U (2002). Characterization
of the repeat breeding Syndrome in Swedish dairy cattle.
Acta Vet Scand 43 : 115-125.
Raghavan R , Nilakantan P R and Uppal P K (1971). Studies
on the bacteriology of the bovine genital tract. Indian Vet
J 48 : 779-783.
Sathesh Kumar and Punnia Murthy N (2003). Incidence of
infertility problem in heifers in Thanjavur District.
Indian Vet J 80: 581-582.
Selvaraj P , Kumar H and Bihst G S (2003) . Incidence
and causes of repeat breeding in crossbred dairy cows –
A Retrospective study . Indian J Anim Reprod 24:
138-141.
6th edition (Ind.) Oxford and IBH publishing Co. 66 New
Delhi, India
Sukhdeo and Roy D J (1971). Investigation on repeat breeding
cows and buffaloes-studies on physical properties of
cervical mucus. Indian Vet J 48:479-484.
Received on 19/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 170-173 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00091.6

Integrated Management of Nematode Disease Complex in

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberose L)
K Kavitha and K Thirukumaran
ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thirupathisaram-629 901, District Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
The present study on management practices for control of nematode disease complex was conducted
by ICAR- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thirupathisaram in Kharif season during 2018-19 at 10 farmers
fields in Thovalai block of Kanyakumari district on an area of 4 ha comprising 0.4ha each. Integrated
management practices were bulb treatment @ 20 g/kg of bulb each with Paecilomyces lilacinus +
Trichoderma viride + Pseudomonas fluorescens , followed by soil application with P lilacinus + T
viride + P fluorescens @ 5 kg/ha enriched with FYM (1t) on 30th day after planting followed by foliar
application of P lilacinus + T viride + P fluorescens at 30 d intervals @ 5g/ l on 60, 90 and 120th day
after planting was demonstrated in farmers field for the management of nematode disease complex. The
results revealed 55.8 percent reduction in root knot nematode incidence and 75 per cent reduction in
wilt incidence in tuberose in demo fields compared to farmers practice. 20.97 per cent increase in the
yield was recorded in demonstration plots and the quality of flowers was better in demonstration plots.
Key Words: Front line demonstration, Tuberose, Root knot nematode, Fungal wilt.

INTRODUCTION of Trichoderma had a positive impact on growth

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberose L.) is a perennial
bulbous flower crop cultivated for its fragrant
flowers used in cosmetic industries and for garlands
and bouquets. It is an important flower crop of
Kanyakumari district grown in an area of 75ha and
single type is cultivated for loose flower production
especially for garlands making. Vegetative
propagation of bulbs paves way for the entry of
many pathogens. Among them, plant parasitic
nematodes and wilt inducing fungus (Fusarium sp.)
contribute for the drastic reduction in the plant yield.
Infestation of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne
incognita) was reported to be wide spread in almost
all the tuberose growing regions of South India
(Rao et al, 2001) and known to cause about 10 per
cent reduction in the flower yield. Presence of root
knot nematode accelerates the wilt development
which results in the reduced growth and yield of
the crop. Maximum yield reduction was observed
when both the nematode and fungal pathogens were
present. Naznin et al (2015) reported that usage under rainfed farming situations during Kharif
and yield of tuberose and increased the uptake
and translocation of less-available minerals. The
effect of Trichoderma spp. on growth of tuberose
and its ability to control stem rot disease caused
by Rhizoctonia solani was investigated earlier by
Mazhabi (2010). High cost of chemicals involved
for the management of disease complex provided
with their ill effects on the environment made an
urge to search for the alternative and reliable eco
friendly management strategy for the management
of fungal nematode disease complex to make
the crop remunerative. Application of bioagents
paves a potential candidate for the management
of nematodes and fungus infesting various crops.
Present study was conducted to demonstrate the
effect of integrated management practices for control
of nematode disease complex under field condition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Front line demonstrations were conducted

Corresponding Author’s Email: kavithagobi@gmail.com

170 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 170-173

 Kavitha and Thirukumaran
season of 2018-19 in two different villages namely; Flower yield data were collected from farmers
Shenbagaramanpudur and Madhavalayam of practice and demonstration plots. The gross
Thovalai block of Kanyakumari district. The area returns, cost of cultivation, net returns and benefit
under each demonstration was 0.4 ha. The soil was cost ratio (B:C ratio) were calculated by using
sandy loam in texture with moderate water holding prevailing prices of inputs and outputs and finally
capacity. The soil test analysis of the demonstration the extension gap, technology gap and technology
fields showed the fertility status as low in organic index were worked out. To estimate the technology
carbon (0.11-0.50%) and available nitrogen (123- gap, extension gap and technology index, following
192 kg/ha), low to medium in available phosphorus formulae given by Samui et al (2000) was used.
(7.0-14.0 kg/ha) and available potassium (67-231 Technology gap = Potential yield (q/ha) -
kg/ha) and soil pH was slightly acidic to neutral in Demonstration yield (q/ha)
reaction (5.5-7.5).
Extension gap = Demonstration yield (q/ha)
Before conducting the front line demonstrations, -farmer’s practice yield (q/ha).
trainings were imparted to the beneficiaries for
(Potential yield-
applying integrated crop management practices
Demonstration yield)
in tuberose. The ICM practices (T1) viz., basal Technology Index = × 100
application of farm yard manure and phosphorus, Potential yield

bulb treatment with Paecilomyces lilacinus +
Trichoderma viride + Pseudomonas fluorescens RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
@ 20 g/kg of bulb, application of recommended
Disease Incidence
dose of fertilizers@ 200:200:200 NPK kg/ ha,
The results revealed that demonstration plots
application of neem cake 250 kg/ha, soil application
recorded gall index of 1.5 and 4 per cent wilt
P lilacinus + T viride + P fluorescens @ 5 kg/ha
incidence whereas farmers practice recorded
enriched with FYM (1t) on 30th day after planting
gall index of 3.4 and 16 per cent wilt incidence
followed by foliar application of P lilacinus +
T viride + P fluorescens each @ 5g/ lit on 60, 90 respectively which were 55.88 per cent less for
and 120th day after planting was demonstrated in gall index and 75 per cent low for wilt incidence
over farmers practice (Table 1). Meena et al (2015)
addition to all improved ICM practices. The farmers
reported that increased Fusarium wilt incidence
practice (T2) involves indiscriminate application of
could be due to the presence of root knot nematodes
fertilizers and usage of fungicides and non adoption
in Gerbera. Similarly, application of B subtilis and
on the usage of bioagents.
P fluorescens at monthly interval showed maximum
The observations on percent wilt incidence and efficacy against the management of nematode –
nematode gall index were recorded. Gall index was fungus disease complex in tuberose Meena et al
assessed by counting the number of galls per root (2016). The effect of bioagents on the reduction
system and rating was given based on their numbers of severity of nematode disease complex has been
The number of galls/root system was assessed and documented earlier by El-Shennawy et al (2012) in
assigned a severity scale from 0 to 5 (0=no galls, potato and Rao et al (2014) in tuberose.
1=1‒2, 2=3‒10, 3=11‒30, 4=31‒100, 5=>100 galls
per root system) (Taylor and Sasser, 1978). Flower Yield
The productivity of tuberose ranged from 185.6
Wilt incidence was assessed by the formula:
to 205.5q/ha with mean yield of 190.65 q/ha under
Number of infected plants x 100 demonstration practice on farmers field as against a
Total number of plants yield ranged from 145.6 to 160.5 q/ha with a mean of

171 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 170-173

 Integrated Management of Nematode Disease Complex
Table 1. Comparison of nematode disease complex and economics in Tuberose.
Sr. No. Parameter T1 T2 Percent reduction /
increase
1 Root Knot Nematode Gall Index 1.5 3.4 55.88
2 Wilt incidence (%) 4 16 75.00
3 Flower yield (q /ha) 190.65 150.66 20.97
4 Gross cost (Rs./ha) 401050 348380 13.13
5 Gross income(Rs./ha) 857925 602640 29.75
6 Net income(Rs./ha) 456875 254260 44.34
7 BCR 2.14 1.73

Table 2. Technology gap, extension gap and technology Index of Tuberose.

Sr. No. Particular Yield (q/ha) Potential Technology Extension Technology
yield (q/ha) gap (q/ha) gap(q/ha) Index (%)
1 T1 190.65 200.0 9.35 39.99 4.68
2 T2 150.66 200.0

150.66 q/ha recorded under farmers practice (Table
1). In comparison to farmers practice 20.97 per cent
increase in yield was observed under demonstration
practice. The higher yield under demonstration
practices was due to the application of integrated
management practices. Presence of both nematode
and fungus caused greater reduction in growth of the
plants which as reported by Shokoohi et al (2004) in
different melon varieties. Naznin et al (2015) found
that use of Trichoderma had a positive impact on
growth and yield of tuberose. Likewise Mazhabi
et al (2011) investigated the effect of Trichoderma
spp. on growth of tuberose and its ability to control
stem rot disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani.
The inputs and outputs prices of commodities
of demonstrations were taken for calculating cost
of cultivation, net returns and benefit cost ratio. The
cost of cultivation by applying improved practices
ranged between Rs. 3,85,000/- to 4,15,000/ha with
a mean value of Rs. 4,01,050/ha against farmers
practice where the variation in cost of production
was Rs. 3,35,000/- Rs. 3,55,000/ha, with a mean
of Rs. 3,48,380/ha. Cultivation of tuberose under
demonstration practices gave higher net return of
Rs. 4,56,875/ha compared to Rs. 2,54,260/ha under
farmers practice. The additional net income was
Rs. 2,02,615/ha over farmers practice. The average
benefit cost ratio of demonstration practices was
2.14, varying from 1.88 to 2.31 and that of farmers
practice was 1.73, varying from 1.59 to 2.14.
This may be due to higher yields obtained under
demonstration practices compared to farmers
practice.
The extension gap was 39.99 q/ha during the
period of study which emphasized the need to
educate the farmers through various means for the
adoption of improved agricultural production to
reverse the trend of wide extension gap (Table 2).
The technology gap in the demonstration yield over
potential yield were 9.35q/ha. The technological
gap may be attributed to the dissimilarity in the
soil fertility status. The latest technologies will
eventually lead the farmers to discontinue the
traditional technology and to adopt new technology.
The technology index was 4.68 percent which
showed the feasibility of the evolved technology at
the farmer’s field. Tiwari et al (2015) reported that
the lower the value of technology index, the more is
the feasibility of the technology.

172 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 170-173

 Kavitha and Thirukumaran
CONCLUSION Naznin A, Hossain M M, Ara K A, Hoque A, and Islam M
The results revealed that demonstration of (2015). Influence of Organic Amendments and Bio-
Control Agent on Yield and Quality of Tuberose. J Hort
integrated management practice would reduce the 2: 156-163.
nematode disease complex and increase the yield in
Rao M S, Parvatha Reddy P and Wallia R K. (2001).
tuberose. This FLD showcased a significant positive Biological contro1 of nematodes in horticultural crops.
result on increasing the productivity potential and National Nematology Congress - Centenary Celebrations,
profitability through the latest technology under real December 2001, New Delhi, India
farming situation. Undoubtedly, usage of Biogents Rao M S, Kusum Dwivedi, Manoj Kumar R, Chaya M K,
in crop cultivation enhanced the yield and flower Rathnamma K, Rajinikanth R, Grace GN, Priti K, Vidya
quality in tuberose. Shree N, Kamalnath M, Prabu P, Gopala Krishna C, Rini
P and Shivananda T N (2014). Evaluation of bioefficacy
of Bacillus subtilis (NBAIMCCB- 01211) against disease
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El-Shennawy MZ, Khalifa EZ, Ammar MM, Mousa EM oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum in okra. Pest Manag in Hort
and Hafez SL (2012). Biological control of the disease Ecosyst 20(2): 217-221.
complex on potato caused by root-knot nematode and
Fusarium wilt fungus. Nematol Medit 40: 169-172. Samui S K, Mitra, S, Roy D K, Mandal A K and Saha D (2000).
Evaluation of front line demonstration on groundnut. J
Mazhabi M (2010). Effect of Trichoderma harzianum Bi on Indian Soc Coastal Agric Res 18(2) : 180-183
vegetative and qualitative traits of some ornamental
plants. MS thesis. Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Shokoohi E, Kheiri A, Etebarian H R and Roosraei A (2004).
Mashhad, Iran, Pp: 99. Interactions between root knot nematode, Meloidogyne
javanica and Fusarium wilt disease, Fusarium oxysporum
Mazhabi M, Nemati H, Rouhani H, Tehranifar A and f. sp. melonis, in different varieties of melon. Commun
Moghadam E M (2011). The effect of Trichoderma on Agric Appl Biol Sci 69: 387–391
Polianthes qualitative and quantitative properties. J
Animal & Plant Sci 21: 617-621. Taylor A L and Sasser J N (1978). Biology, identification and
control of root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Cool
Meena S K, Ramyabharathi S A, and Raguchander T (2016). Pub. Dep. Plant Pathol., North Carolina State Univ., and
Biomanagement of nematode-fungus disease complex in U. S. Agency Int. Dev. Raleigh, N. C. p 111
Tuberose using plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. Int
J Sci and Nature 7 (3): 557-565 Tiwari B K, Tiwari K P, Sahare K V and Tripathi P N (2015).
Impact of front line demonstration of management
Meena S K, Ramyabharathi S A, Raguchander T and Jonathan practices on wheat under irrigated conditions. Plant
E I (2015). Meloidogyne incognita and Fusarium Archives 15 (2): 1079-1082
oxysporum interaction in Gerbera. African J Microbiol
Res 9(18): 1281-1285. Received on 03/09/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

173 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 170-173

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 174-177 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00092.8

Integrated Management of Panama Wilt Disease in Banana

Sudha A1, Kavitha P S2 and Sriram N3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sandhiyur, Salem 636 001 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Panama disease is caused by the soil borne hyphomycete, Fusarium oxysporum Schlect. The aim of the
study was to identify suitable management practices from the beginning stage of the crop. Fungicide
carbendazim was first treatment. Biocontrol agents were used as second treatment regularly at a monthly
interval. As per the observation, disease incidence was less in bioagents used plots (100sq.m) . It was
found that the disease incidence of 12.5 per cent and recorded yield by 42.75 t/ha with a net return of
Rs.4,05,000 and 19kg/bunch was recorded in fungicide treated plots. In Bioagents used as a integrated
approach disease incidence of 60.5 per cent and yield of 35.50 t/ha. and net return of Rs.2,99,500, 15 kg/
bunch. The conclusion was that, application of bioagents, integrated with cultural and mechanical practices
like cutting and burning of diseased leaf to avoid aerial spread, sucker treatment to avoid nematode
problem, selection of healthy suckers for planting will manage the disease and also less expensive.
Key Words: Banana, Biocontrol, Corm injection, Fusarium wilt, Fusarium oxysporum, Paecilomyces
lilacinus, Trichoderma viride.

INTRODUCTION hectare for plantation. About 70 per cent of India’s

Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum banana production of 29-30 Mt comes from five
is one of the most destructive diseases of banana states - Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
worldwide. The pathogen is soil-borne and remains Pradesh and Karnataka. In Salem district, banana is
viable up to 30 yr. Breeding banana for resistance cultivated in an area of nearly 2379 ha. Bananas are
against fusarium wilt is difficult because of the produced as a primary staple food crop among the
sterile and polyploid nature of the plant and the most important food cops in the world.  The Total
saprophytic and pathogenic habits of the pathogen. area under Banana is 1,13,681 ha in Tamil Nadu
Several disease managementstrategies such as with Production of 48,87,841 t with yield of 42,996 
crop rotation with rice, application of carbendazim kg/ha. The area under banana was declining due to
(0.2%) as soil drenching or injection of rhizomes biotic stress like wilt disease. Panama disease, also
with 2 per cent carbendazim (Thangavelu et al, known as Fusarium wilt of banana (Musa spp.), is
2001), have limited success and the application of one of the most notorious of all plant diseases.
synthetic fungicides result in undesirable effects
on the environment. A complementary approach Fusarium wilt symptoms and damages
for managing fusarium wilt is biological control Fusarium wilt or Panama disease of banana
produces two types of external symptoms: “yellow
and the search for antagonistic microorganisms has
leaf syndrome” and “green leaf syndrome” (Stover,
allowed for several antagonistic fungi and bacteria
with high activity to be identified. 1962; Pérez-Vicente, 2004). Yellow leaf syndrome:
this is the most conspicuous and classic symptom of
Tamil Nadu has occupied an area of 1.3 lakh Fusarium wilt on banana. It is characterized by the
sq.km with an overall area of around 63 lakh yellowing border on older leaves that can at times

Corresponding Author’s Email: sudhaa1981@gmail.com

1
Millet Breeding station, TNAU, Coimbatoor. 2Tapioca and Castor Research Station, Yethapur, Salem.
3
Krishi Vigyan Kndra, Salem, Tamil Nadu.

174 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 174-177

 Sudha et al
be confused with potassium deficiency, especially
in drought and cold environment. The yellowing
of the leaves progresses from older to younger
leaves. The leaves collapse gradually, bending at
the petiole, commonly close to the midrib and hang
down, forming a “skirt” of death leaves around
the pseudostem (Fig.1). Green leaf syndrome: In
contrast to the yellow leaf syndrome, the leaves of
affected plants in some cultivars eventually remain
predominantly green until the petioles bend and
collapse. In general, younger leaves are the last to
show symptoms, frequently remaining unusually
erect, giving a bristle-like appearance. Growth does
not stop in an infected plant and emerging leaves
are of pale colour. The lamina of the emerging leaf
can be markedly reduced, shrivelled and distorted.
The pseudostem eventually splits longitudinally at
the plant base. There is no evidence of symptoms
in the fruits. A susceptible banana plant infected
with Fusarium wilt will rarely recover. While it
can occur, the growth is poor and the mother plant
produces many infected suckers before it dies.
Internal symptoms are characterized by vascular
discoloration: this begins with a yellowing of the
root and rhizome vascular tissue, which progresses
to develop continuous yellow, red or 8 brownish
strands in the pseudostem (Fig.2). In susceptible
cultivars, reddish coloured vessels can also be
observed in petioles (Akila et al, 2011).
Fig 1. Symptom on the Fig 2. Disease affected
live plant pseudostem and sucker
175 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 174-177
The yield loss was up to 60 per cent in these
crops. Most of the farmers find difficult to
purchase the fungicides due to high cost. Hence
the effectiveness of different treatments along
Paecilomyces lilacinus and Trichoderma viride
NRCB-1 @ 10 g/pit along with 10 kg of farm yard
manure with chemical fungicides was shown to the
farmers through trainings and on farm trials.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Technology
The following technologies were intervened
through KVK with the farmers of kammalapatty
village.
• Rhizome treatment with bioagents and
chemicals to protect from nematode
• Soil application ofPaecilomyce slilacinus and
Trichoderma viride NRCB-1 1 @ 10 g/pit along
with FYM at the time of planting
• Application of biocontrol agents in soil,
drenching of bioagents to protect the rhizome
from wilt incidence
• Corm injection with 3ml of 2 per cent
carbendazim at 4th, and 6th month of planting
and application of carbofuran @ 40gm/corm
• Drip fertigation of liquid pseudomonas to
protect the rhizome from wilt
• Several intensive On and Off campus trainings
with method demonstrations on use of T. viride
and P.fluorescens were given through the KV K,
Sandhiyur, Salem
Treatments
TO1- Use of fungicides after the disease was
occurred (carbofuran (40g/pit), Copper oxy
chloride (0.25%))
TO2- Corm injection with 3 ml of 2% carbendazim
on 4th and 6th month after planting and application
of carbofuran @40 g/corm
TO3- Application of Paecilomyceslilacinus and
Trichoderma viride NRCB-1 @ 10 g/pit along with
 Integrated Management of Panama Wilt Disease
Table 1.Effect of bioagents and chemicals against Panama wilt of Banana under field condition.
Treatment % % % No. of Bunch Production Net BCR
disease disease disease leaves weight (t/ha) return
incidence incidence incidence affected (kg/pt (lakh)
3rd m 5th m 7th m
To1 11.5 14.7 21.5 3 15c 35.50c 1.98 2.98
(19.82) (22.54) (27.62)
To2 2.5 4.5 5.8 1 19a 52.75a 3.15 3.42
(9.10) (12.25) (13.94)
To3 5.5 8.5 11.8 2 17b 48.25b 3.05 3.35
(13.56) (16.95) (20.09)
Control 20.0 25.0 31.55 5 11.5d 32.5d 1.75 2.55
(26.57) (30.00) (34.17)
CD(0.05 %) 0.11 0.36 1.14
SEd 0.041 0.16 0.50
CV (%) 2.51 1.48 1.70

10 kg of FYM on planting time and 4th month after of FYM treated suckers (11.8%) whereas control
planting recorded 31.55 per cent wilt incidence.
An area of 0.4 ha was selected witha plot of Highest yield was recorded as 52.75 t/ha, and
size, 16 x 10m for each treatment. Four treatments, an average yield of 61 t/ha in precision farming
each replicated four timesin a randomized block technology practiced plots. Among the various
design were evaluated (Table 1). The highly fungicides, carbofuran treated corms and corm
susceptibleThe observations on wilt incidence injection with carbendazim treated plants resulted
wererecorded five, seven and nine months after in low disease incidence of 12.5 % and performed
planting. better in the field. Application of fertilizers, irrigation
methods, sucker treatment, weed management,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION harvesting and marketing is suggested as an
The results revealed that sucker treatment with effective strategy to get higher yield. Though it is a
Corm injection with carbendazim and application highly remunerative crop, they can adapt the corm
of carbofuran @40g/corm was equally effective injection with recommended dose of fungicide in
to sucker treatment with P. lilacinus and T. viride different stages in early period. Though fungicides
NRCB-1 @ 10 g/pit along with 10 kg of FYM can controlled the disease but it is not recommended
in reducing wilt incidence even from fifth month for long term process which is hazardous to soil
onwards. These two treatments were significantly health and expensive. The present study revealed
different from other treatments and were on par that P. lilacinus and T. viride were equally effective
with each other. At an early stage of planting, suckernot only in reducing the wilt incidence but also
treatment with carbendazim was equally effective significantly increasing the yield Raguchander
in reducing the disease incidence but not in later et al (1997).
stages. Least wilt incidence was noticed in the corm Eco friendly IPDM practices will be more
injected suckers (5.8 %) followed by P. lilacinus effective when it is being followed by the whole
and T. viride NRCB-1 @ 10 g/pit along with 10 kg community in a particular region than an individual

176 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 174-177

 Sudha et al
grower. The measurable results were increase REFERENCES
in yield level and income of the farmers, their Akila R, Rajendran L, Harish S, Saveeth K, Raguchander T,
knowledge and skill on using biocontrol agents had Samiyappan, R (2011).Combined application of botanical
formulations and biocontrol agents for the management
been improved as a result of KVK intervention. of  Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) causing
Since, pesticide usage is a major grudge to Fusarium wilt in banana. Biological Control 57(3) : 175-
agriculture operations, the ecofriendly management 183
technologies reduced pesticides usage resulting Pérez-Vicente L (2004). Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) of
in less disease incidence and enhanced yield and bananas: an updating review of the current knowledge
quality produces. on the disease and its causal agent. In. Memorias de XV
Reunion Internacional de ACORBAT (Oaxaca, MX). Pp:
Due to the impact of planting material on 1-14.
disease dissemination, use of healthy planting Raguchander T, Jayashree K and Samiyappan R (1997)
material is a key component of any management .Management of Fusarium wilt of banana using
system of Fusarium wilt of banana. Development antagonistic microorganisms J Biol Control 11: 101-105
of certified healthy planting material program that Stover R H (1962).Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) of bananas
can be accessed by growers is important, together and other Musa species. Kew, UK. Commonwealth
with adoption of other control measures. Mycological Institute 177 p.
Thangavelu R, Sundararaju P, Sathiamoorthy S, Raghuchander
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT T, Velazhahan R, Nakkeeran S, Palaniswami A (2001).
Status of Fusarium wilt of banana in India. In: Molina,
The authors want to thank all their colleagues
A.B., Nikmasdek, N.H., Liew, K.W. (Eds.), Banana
and farmers for their assistance in the research for Fusarium Wilt Management: Towards Sustainable
this paper . Cultivation. INIBAP-ASPNET, Los Banos, Laguna,
Philippines, pp. 58– 63.
Received on 15/06/2019 Accepted on 22/09/2019

177 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 174-177

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 178-182 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00093.X

Investigation of Socio-Economic Traits of Tibetan Rehabilitants

and its relationship to their Problems
E K Marbaniang, L Manjunath, V S Yadav, S Sadaqath, K V Natikar, And S S Dolli
Department of Agricultural Extension Education
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad – 580 005 ( Karnataka)

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted during 2009-10 in Uttar Kannada district of Karnataka state. Mundgod
taluk of the district where the Tibetans resided were purposively selected with 135 rehabilitants as the
sample size. Data were collected to analyze the association of the profile characteristics on livelihood
activities of Tibetan rehabilitants. The results revealed that education, family size, annual income, risk
orientation, economic motivation and social participation were found to be significantly associated
with livelihood activities. Major problems expressed by the Tibetan rehabilitants in livelihood
activities were lack of labour force (63.70%), uncertainty of rainfall and lack of irrigation facilities
(62.96%), lack of veterinary facilities in the settlement (29.63%) and lack of remunerative price for
farm produce and high price fluctuation. Majority of the Tibetan rehabilitants (59.25%) suggested
for creating water facilities by sinking open wells, tube wells or by constructing small tanks. A
considerable percent of 44.45 suggested training on skill development in the enterprises, followed by
29.62 and 25.92 percent suggested better milk price for the producer and veterinary hospital facilities.
Key Words: Livelihood activities, Rehabilitants, Training, Remunerative price.

INTRODUCTION wake of the takeover of Tibet in 1959 by the China.

Socio-economic profile is of paramount
importance as it regulates the decision making
and adoption behavior of an individual. Poor
participation of the people in the social organization
and simultaneously average exposure to different
communication sources and education level
contributes a lot to the welfare of the living standard
of the people. A livelihood comprises the capabilities,
assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and
recovers from stress and shocks maintain or enhance
its capabilities and assets and provide sustainable
livelihood opportunities for the next generation and
which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at
the local and global levels and in the long and short
run (Chambers and Conway, 1992).
The Tibetans had been migrated to India in the
Corresponding Author’s Email: ereneusmarbaniang@gmail.com
* Part of M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, submitted by the senior author to the Department of Agricultural Extension Education, University of Agricul-
tural Sciences, Dharwad – 580 005
They brought their culture and implanted here and
became integral part of India. The Tibetans had
been adjusted to host society for over the years-
adaptation to the local environment and social
conditions facing problems in one way or the other.
At first, the incoming Tibetans were accommodated
in transit camps set up on the border. Later they were
moved into other areas. Dalai Lama sent appeals for
help to all the countries of the world. The response
was very encouraging. Initially, the planning and
implementation of the various measures to provide
relief and rehabilitation to the Tibetans refugees
were in the hands of three agencies firstly, the
Government of India/State Government, secondly,
the Tibetan (Dalai Lama’s) Administration-Home
and Rehabilitation office and thirdly, Central Relief
Committee as the authorized channel for the flow

178 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 178-182

 Marbaniang et al
of voluntary as well as international assistance, deviation was used for the study. Chi-square test
including help from foreign Governments. was calculated to find out the association between
The steps taken for the rehabilitation of Tibetan the socio-economic characteristics and livelihood
refugees were required to be in rhythm with their activities undertaken by the Tibetan rehabilitants.
background and customary modes of life. This
was kept in view in shaping the plans for the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
rehabilitation. Occupationally since nearly 85 per A. Association between socio-economic
cent of refugees were either farmers or pastoral characteristics and livelihood activities
peasants, it was both logical and desirable that undertaken by the Tibetan rehabilitants
the bulk of the refugees would have to be settled Education
in agricultural operations, farming or dairying. It is evident from the Table that out of seven
Keeping this in view, the present study was under independent variables the chi square value of the
taken to find out the association between socio- variables, only extension contact was found to be
economic characteristics and livelihood activities non-significant while the others were statistically
undertaken by the Tibetan rehabilitants. found to be positively significant. It can be seen
from the data presented in Table that the chi-square
MATERIALS AND METHODS value (51.26) between education and livelihood
The Tibetan settlement of Mundgod taluk, Uttar activities was found to be highly significant
Kannada district of Karnataka was purposively associated. In terms of education, 17.78 percent
selected for the study. Simple random sampling of the Tibetan rehabilitants with agriculture and
procedure was adopted for the selection of dairy farming had education up to primary school,
respondents. Nine villages and 15 respondents from whereas 0.74 percent of them with non-farm had
each village were selected. Thus, the total sample education up to middle school. The findings were
for the study constituted 135 respondents. The in line with the research results of Sarma (2004).
socio-economic profile was probed with the help Education is not merely a process of imparting or
of an interview pre designed schedule developed acquiring knowledge and habits through instruction
for the study. Interview schedule was prepared or study but its main aim is to prepare an individual
for collecting information on livelihood and their for life and all-round development of human in his/
involvement in these practices. her society.
The teacher made knowledge test was developed
to measure the livelihood activities of the Tibetan Family size
rehabilitants. The livelihood activities were The data (Table 1) further revealed that that
classified into agriculture, dairy activities and non- family size was significantly (chi-square value
farm activities. Agriculture means the cultivation 16.03) associated with the livelihood activities.
of crops practiced by the respondents on their Less percentage of 18.52 with agriculture + non-
farm. Dairy activities mean the rearing of milking farm and agriculture + dairy (17.78%) had medium
breed for milk production. Non- farm activities family size and 2.97 percent each with non-farm
includes the activities like carpet-weaving, sweater and agriculture had large size family. As majority
selling, incense-manufacturing, services like (51.85%) of the Tibetan rehabilitants belonged to
staffs in Tibetan society office, consumer shops, big family, more number of the family members
bank and tractor section, other business activities participated in the livelihood activities. The findings
like tailoring, driving, commission agent etc. For were in line with the research results of Dolli (2006).
quantitative analysis, percentages, mean, standard

179 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 178-182

 Investigation of Socio-Economic Traits of Tibetan Rehabilitants
Table 1. Chi-square value of independent variables with their livelihood activities (n= 135)
Independent variable Chi-square value (χ2 )
Education level 51.26**
Family size 16.03*
Annual family income 65.23**
Extension contact 10.56 NS
Economic motivation 41.91**
Risk orientation 34.37**
Social participation 15.28*
Note: F = Frequency; % = Percentage,*- Significant at 5%, ** -Significant at 1%

Annual family income Tibetan rehabilitants with agriculture + dairy had

Chi-square value (65.23) between annual family
income and livelihood activities was found to be
highly significant associated. Considerable percent
of 19.26 with agriculture had low medium income
level, followed by agriculture + dairy (17.78%) who
had semi-medium income level. More the income
generating activities more will be the opportunities
for generating more annual income. The findings
were in line with the research results of Tranthi et
al (2001).
Extension contact
The results (Table 1) further revealed that
extension contact had no significant difference with
the livelihood activities. Data revealed that 20.74
percent of the Tibetan rehabilitants with agriculture
+ non-farm and agriculture + dairy (19.26%) had
medium level of extension contact, whereas 0.74
percent of them with agriculture had low level of
extension contact. Majority of the respondents had
extension contact with the Tibetan cooperative
service bank limited officials, only whenever
problem arises. Extension contact will not be of
immense help to the respondents unless an individual
really aware enough of the farm technology around,
as well as participate in any farm technology.
Economic motivation
The data (Table 1) reveals that economic Social participation
motivation was highly significant associated with
the livelihood activities. About 18.52 percent of the significant (chi-square value 15.28) associated
high level of economic motivation, followed by
agriculture + non-farm (17.04%) who had medium
level of economic motivation. This shows that there
was a significant difference between the selection
of livelihood activities and economic motivation
among the Tibetan rehabilitants. With 39.25 per cent
of the respondents had semi-medium level of annual
income, and 18.51 per cent of the respondents had
undergone medium training level, the respondents
were encouraged to take new and challenging
employment opportunities. The findings were in
line with the research results of Biradar (2008).
Risk orientation
Risk orientation was highly significant
associated with the livelihood activities. About
19.26 percent of the respondents with agriculture +
dairy had high level of risk orientation, followed by
agriculture + non-farm (17.78%) who had medium
risk orientation. As nearly half of the respondents
(47.40%) were educated up to primary school, the
respondents really had capacity to take decision
under uncertainty and can also withstand the
uncertainties in their activity. Thus, an individual can
progress in his/her day-to-day livelihood activities.
The findings were in line with the research results
of Sushma (2007).
It was evident that social participation was

180 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 178-182

 Marbaniang et al
Table 2. Problems associated with the Tibetan rehabilitants. (n=135)
Sr. No. Problem Frequency Percentage
1. Lack of labour force 86 63.70
2. Uncertainty of rainfall and lack of irrigation facilities 85 62.96
3. Lack of veterinary facilities in the settlement 40 29.63
4. Lack of remunerative price for farm produce and high 15 11.12
price fluctuation

with the livelihood activities. Here, 17.78 percent
of the respondents with agriculture + dairy and
agriculture + non-farm (15.56%) had high level of
social participation, whereas only 1.48 of them with
non-farm had medium level of social participation.
Majority of the respondents used to participate in
any activities conducted by the Tibetan cooperative
service bank limited viz., training, fairs and
festivals. Through their participation they used to
share the problems and suggestions faced in their
livelihood activities among them which brought
more support and strength to face any uncertainty
in their activities. The findings were in line with the
research results of Kumawat and Sharma (1997).
B. Problems and suggestions of the Tibetan
rehabilitants
It is inferred (Table 2) that majority (63.70%) had
lack of labour force problem because the labourers
were mainly the Indian daily wage earners from
the nearest villages (Koppa, Gangarathi, Sindoor,
Hunugund and Bommigatta) of Uttar Kannada
district. They were few in numbers and were more
technically experienced than the Tibetans. Also,
the family labours among the Tibetans were very
few. Lack of irrigation facilities and uncertainty of
rainfall (62.96%) because the farmers were mainly
depend their crops only on monsoon. About 29.63
percent expressed lack of veterinary facilities in the
settlement because more susceptibility of cows and
buffaloes to disease and pests it may cause to lose
their animals frequently. Again 11.12 percent of
the rehabilitants revealed that lack of remunerative
price for farm produce and high price fluctuation.
It may due to the fact that, majority of the Tibetan
rehabilitants were facing the constraints like failure
and erratic rain, high cost of inputs, labour problem.
The findings were in line with the research results
of Manjunath (2007).
C. Suggestions
An analysis (Table 3) revealed that majority
of the Tibetan rehabilitants (59.25%) suggested
creating water facilities by sinking open wells,
tube wells or by constructing small tanks for crop
cultivation as well as for their animals sufficiently
as most of the farmers were depending on monsoon
for agriculture. A considerable percent of 44.45
suggested training on skill development in the
enterprises, followed by 29.62 and 25.92 percent
suggested better milk price for the producer and
veterinary hospital facilities because majority of
the respondents had undertaken cow and buffalo
dairy activities in which the livestock were more
susceptible to pest and diseases so, they need
regular vaccination and other treatments. The
present findings were in line with the investigations
done by Deepak (2003).Other suggestions offered
by Tibetan rehabilitants were educating them
on improvement of dairy management practices
especially on feeding of milch animals, pregnant
animals, care of pregnant animals (31.12%) and
7.40 percent of them suggested to increase the
salary among the service personnel to improve their
daily livelihood. The findings were in line with the
research results of Singh et al (2004).

181 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 178-182

 Investigation of Socio-Economic Traits of Tibetan Rehabilitants
Table 3. Suggestions of the respondents for their livelihood improvement. (n=135)
Sr. Suggestion Frequency Percentage
No.
1. Better milk price 40 29.62
2. Create water facilities 80 59.25
3. Training on skill development 60 44.45
4. Veterinary hospital facilities 35 25.92
5. Increase of salary among the service personnel 10 7.40
6. Education on improvement of dairy management 42 31.12

CONCLUSION Deepak M P, (2003). A Study on perception of beneficiaries

In the present study, all of the variables shown
significant association with the livelihood activities
except extension contact. Attention should be given
to these attributes during the course of their training
for improvement of various dimensions of capitals
such as annual income with improvement of human
capital, risk orientation with social capital and
economic motivation with improvement of financial
capital. So, the extension agencies should aim at
manipulating these variables to their advantage
for promoting income as well as employment
generating activities in the settlement. As the non-
farm occupation contributed highest average annual
income than agriculture, more emphasis must be
given in these activities so as to improve the socio-
economic life of the respondents.
REFERENCES
Biradar B (2008). A study on impact of income generating
activities on sustainable rural livelihoods of KAWAD
project beneficiaries. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ Agric
Sci Dharwad.
Chambers R and Conway G R (1992). Sustainable Rural
Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century.
Discussion Paper 296. Institute of Development Studies,
London.
and non beneficiaries towards WYTEP programme in
Dharwad district. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ Agric Sci
Dharwad.
Dolli S S (2006). Sustainability of natural resources
management in watershed development project. Ph.D.
Thesis, Univ Agric Sci Dharwad.
Kumawat S R and Sharma S K (1997). Factor affecting the
impact of Nirman Sansthan (NGO). Indian J Soc Res
38(1&2): 11-17.
Manjunath K (2007). A study on rehabilitant farmers in Upper
Krishna project area of Bagalkot district in Karnataka.
M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ Agric Sci Dharwad.
Sarma E A S, (2004). Rural economy breaking down –
farmer’s suicide in Andhra Pradesh. Econ Pol Weekly, 39
(28):.3087-3089.
Singh P, Singh M, Jaiswal R S and Raikwar R (2004). Feeding
of existing concentrate mixtures to dairy animals in the
Kumaon Hills of Uttaranchal. Indian J Anim Res 38(2):
147-149.
Sushma K C ( 2007). An analysis of entrepreneurship
development in Women through EDP trainings. M.Sc.
(Agri.) Thesis, Univ Agric Sci Dharwad.
Tranthi O and Hossain A J (2001). Modern farm technology
and infrastructure in Vietnam : Impact on income
distribution and poverty. Econ Pol Weekly, 33(52&55):
4638-4643.
Received on 18/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

182 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 178-182

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 183-186 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00094.1

Job Performance of Subject Matter Specialists Working in

Krishi Vigyan Kendra
S D Sarnaik*1, P P Bhople2, D M Mankar3 and N M Kale4
Department of Extension Education
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola 444 104 (Maharashtra)

ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out to assess the job performance of the Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs)
working in 8 Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra State. Forty Eight SMSs
working in the KVKs were interviewed with a structural interview schedule developed purposively. Total
10 independent variables were selected to measure the relationship between the selected characteristics
of the SMSs and their job performance. The findings revealed that larger proportion (89.58%) of the
SMSs were under good performance category, while none of the respondents found with poor and below
average job performance. Correlational study indicated that among the selected attributes of the SMSs,
sources of information, job commitment, job involvement, achievement motivation and organizational
climate were found to be positive and highly significant (P< 0.01) relation whereas, the infrastructure
facilities had established positive and significant (P< 0.05) relationship with the job performance of SMSs.
Key Words: Subject Matter Specialists, Job, Performance, Correlational.

INTRODUCTION technology backstopping to extension personnel as

The main concern for the administrators of any
organization is the effective and efficient utilization
of available human resources. While working in an
extension organization, the administrators concern
about the effective management of human resources
as well as the efficient performance of people
working in the organization. The performance of
the employees is the important indicator of the
success and health of an organization. One way
of enhancing the performance of employees is to
know their level of performance and delineate the
factors responsible for it.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is the vital
organization which made remarkable contribution
towards development of agricultural sector
and rural development. KVK works towards
well as farmers to enhance their productivity and
profitability (Kokade, 2010). In a KVK, the subject
matter specialists are the grass root level extension
functionaries performing vital task of technology
dissemination. Extension person i.e., SMS does not
only involve in delivering information to farmers,
but also attempt to make farmers creative, self-
confident and competent enough to overcome their
own problems and dilemmas (Sulaiman and Hall,
2003). Hence, for accomplishing the organization’s
mission, extension workers should have optimum
level of job performance. Keeping this in view, the
present study was contemplated with the objectives to
study the level of job performance of the SMSs and
relationship between selected characteristics of the
SMS with its job performance.

Corresponding Author’s Email:shailesh_sarnaik@yahoo.com

1
In-service Ph.D. Scholar & Senior Research Assistant, Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS)
2
Professor (CAS), Department of Extension Education, Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS)
3
Director of Extension Education,Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS)
4
CEEO, Directorate of Extension Education, Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS)

183 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 183-186

 Sarnaik et al
MATERIALS AND METHODS used by the SMS was applied to obtain the superior
An Exploratory Research Design of social rating from Programme Coordinators of KVK
research has been used in the present study. The under study to assess the job performance of SMSs.
study was conducted in the Western Vidarbha Zone The overall job performance of the SMS
of Maharashtra state during 2018-19. The Vidarbha measured on nine different areas. The mean indices
region comprised of 14 KVK which are performing of the respective areas of job performance was
the task of technology dissemination among the worked out by collecting the mean score of the self-
farming community, rural youths, farmwomen ratings as well as the superior ratings. The obtained
and extension functionaries. Among the 14 KVKs, results on the different areas of job performance
eight were selected purposively. In each KVK, 6 were categories on the basis of their ranks. To assess
SMS have been performing the task of technology the relationship between the selected characteristics
dissemination, thus 48 SMS were selected for the and the job performance of the SMSs the rank
study. The data were collected with the help of pre- correlation coefficient was computed.
tested questionnaire.
Performance was operationalized as the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
degree to which the different job activities were Job performance level of the Subject Matter
performed. In order to measure the job performance Specialists
quantitatively, job performance scale developed by It was observed (Table 1) that majority (89.58%)
Kumar and Kaur (2014) was used. The response of the SMSs in their self-ratings and 72.92 per cent
from the SMS was elicited on five point continuum of the SMSs as per their superior’s rating were
i.e. most frequently, frequently, sometimes, seldom observed under good job performance category.
and never with the scores of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, This was followed by, one tenth (10.42%) of the
respectively. The score was converted into the job SMSs were recorded their job performance in the
performance index with the help of the formula above average category in their self-rating whereas
given as job performance of 27.08 per cent of the SMSs
Actual obtained job were recorded in above average category by their
performance score
Job performance index = x 100 superior ratings. It was worthwhile to mention that
Maximum obtainable job none of the SMSs were recorded in poor and below
performance score average job performance category in their own
The SMS were grouped into four categories on ratings as well as by their immediate superiors.
the basis of four quartiles of obtainable index range The above findings were in line with the findings
viz., poor, below average, above average and good reported by Ramannanavar and Nagnur (2016)
categories. The same scale of job performance as the duo studied the job performance of 120 SMSs

Table 1. Distribution of the Subject Matter Specialists according to their job performance. (N=48)
Sr. Category Self-rating of SMSs Superior’s rating of PCs
No Frequency Per cent Frequency Per cent
1 Poor 0 0.00 0 0.00
2 Below average 0 0.00 0 0.00
3 Above average 5 10.42 13 27.08
4 Good 43 89.58 35 72.92

184 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 183-186

 Job Performance of Subject Matter Specialists
Table 2. Mean indices on various areas of job performance.
self-rating superiors rating
Sr. No Areas of job performance
Mean Index Rank Mean Index Rank
1 Organization of training 85.76 VII 85.56 IV
2 Frontline demonstration 86.08 VI 84.04 VII
3 Subject Matter authority 87.64 V 84.31 VI
4 Communication and feedback 85.69 VIII 83.06 VIII
5 Evaluation 84.38 IX 81.04 IX
6 Management 89.58 II 86.25 III
7 Service and supplies 88.33 III 84.48 V
8 Office work and reporting 88.02 IV 86.56 II
9 Supporting activities 89.83 I 87.17 I

working in KVKs of Karnataka State and revealed of correlation and the emerged findings about
that almost all SMSs were having medium to high existence or non-existence of relationship between
(98.34 %) level of job performance whereas, Mishra job performance and the selected characteristics
et al (2007) reported that majority (75.41%) of the under the study (Table 3).
extension officers belonged to medium level of job A closer look at the ‘r’ values depicted in (Table
performance. 3) indicated that among the selected characteristics,
Job performance of the SMSs based on sources of information, job commitment, job
different areas attached to their job involvement, achievement motivation and
The job performance of the SMSs was organizational climate were found to be positive
ascertained about the nine different areas attach and highly significant(P< 0.01) relation whereas,
with their job activities. The findings revealed that the infrastructure facilities had established positive
the mean index score as per self-rating and superiors and significant(P< 0.05) relationship with the job
ratings were in line about the job performance of the performance of SMSs.
SMSs towards supporting activities and evaluation. The rest of the variables viz., age, academic
The mean index score in the self-rating of the qualification, service experience and in-service
SMSs about areas of their job performance ranged training did not show any significant relationship
between 89.83 to 84.38 whereas of the superior, with the job performance of the SMSs. The findings
rating ranged between 87.17 to 81.04. The mean were in concurrence with the findings of Sandika et
index score of the self-rating were recorded at al (2007), Manjunath and Shashidahra (2011) and
par with the mean index score of superior rating Parthasarthi and Ganesan (2015).
which indicated that SMSs and the Programme
Coordinators had collaborative team work in the CONCLUSION
technology dissemination process. The findings of the study indicated that larger
proportion of the SMSs as per their self-rating
Relationship between selected characteristics of (89.58%) and superior rating (72.92%) were
the SMSs with their job performance recorded under good job performance category,
The association of personal, communicational, the mean indices score of the self-rating about the
psychological and organizational characteristics different areas of job performance attached with the
of the Subject Matter Specialists with their job job activities of the SMSs was observed in line with
performance was computed with help of coefficient superior rating. The significant association of the
185 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 183-186
 Sarnaik et al
Table 3. Coefficient of correlation between selected characteristics of the Subject Matter Specialists
with their job performance.
Sr. No Independent variable
1 Age
2 Academic qualification
3 Service experience
4 In-service training
5 Infrastructure facilities
6 Sources of information
7 Job commitment
8 Job involvement
9 Achievement motivation
10 Organizational climate
** Significant at 0.01 level of probability * Significant at 0.05 level of probability
job commitment, job involvement and achievement
motivation indicated that the SMSs had more
committed towards their job, with significant
involvement in their job activities and good level
of achievement motivation which leads towards the
effective and efficient job performance of the SMSs.
This study gives an indication to the administrators
and the policy makers to think over strategies to
enhance the job performance and also to enhance
the expertise of the Subject Matter Specialists which
will proved beneficial for them for their effective
job performance.
REFERENCES
Sulaiman V R and Hall A J (2003). India: The emergence of
Extension-Plus: Future for Extension beyond technology
transfer? In Rivera WM Gary Alex (eds.) Extension and
Rural Development. The World Bank, Washington DC.
Kokade K D (2010). Proceedings of Fifth National
Conference on KrishiVigyan Kendra (22-24th December,
2010) at MaharanaPratap University ofAgriculture and
Technology Udaipur.
186 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 183-186
Job performance ‘r’ value
0.0661
0.0283
-0.0604
0.1951
0.3362*
0.7667**
0.5972**
0.5361**
0.5683**
0.4564**
Kumar Pankaj and Kaur Prabhjyot (2014). A scale to
measure role performance of subject matter specialists of
KrishiVigyan Kendra. Int J Farm Sci 4(3): 157-164.
Ramannanavar Akshata and Nagnur Shobha (2016). Job
performance and applicability of KrishiVigyan Kendra
mandates to Subject Matter Specialists of different
faculties. J Farm Sci 29(4): 539-541.
Mishra D, Chandagri D M, and Hirevenkanagoudar, LV
(2007). A comparative study of job performance and
job satisfaction of men and women extension officers.
Kanataka J Agric Sci 20(2): 432-434.
Sandika A L, Angadi J G, Hirevenkanagoudar L V and
Basavraj H (2007). A study on organizational climate
perception by veterinary officers (VOs) and veterinary
livestock inspectors (VLIs) of the department of animal
husbandry and veterinary service, Karnataka. J Agri Sci
3(2): 75-81.
Manjunath L, and Shashidhara K K (2011). Determinants of
scientific productivity of agricultural scientists. Indian
Res J Ext Edu 11(1): 7-13.
Parthasarthi S and Ganeshan R (2015). Association and
contribution of profile characteristics of Block Level
Officials and their role performance in reorganized
extension system. J Ext Edu 27(4): 5564-5568.
Received on 18/10/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 187-190 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00096.5

Knowledge Level of Farmers about Chickpea Production

Technology in Nagaur District of Rajasthan
Mahendra Kumar and S R Kumawat,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Maulasar-341 506 (Rajasthan)

ABSTRACT
Chickpea is the most important pulse crop in the state occupying 10.82 lakh ha with production of 4.79 lakh
tones and average productivity 443 kg/ha.. Therefore, a study was undertaken to assess the knowledge level
of farmers regarding chickpea production technology in Nagaur district of Rajasthan. A total of 120 farmers
were selected as respondents and a knowledge index consisting of 10 dimensions was prepared to measure the
knowledge level of farmers. The study revealed that the farmers had poor knowledge about soil treatment, high
yielding varieties and bio-fertilizer, while majority of them had knowledge about critical stage of irrigation.
The majority of the respondents had awareness regarding recommended doses of manures and fertilizer, bio-
fertilizer, seed rate, improved varieties, spacing and method of sowing. The socio-economic, communication
and psychological factors had significant positive relationship with knowledge level of farmers except age,
land holding, and farm mechanization. Cosmopoliteness, attitude towards chickpea production technology,
scientific orientation, extension participation, economic motivation, mass media exposure and information
source utilization were the important factors which had direct and indirect effect on knowledge of farmers.
Key Words : Chickpea; Sustainable production, Training ,Knowledge, Package of Practices.

INTRODUCTION state occupying 12.35 lakh ha with production of

India is the largest producer, importer and
consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for
25 percent of global production, 15 percent trade
and 27 percent consumption. In India more than
a dozen of pulse crops including chickpea (40%)
pigeonpea (18%), urdbean (11%), mungbean (9%),
lentil (8%), field pea (5%) and others are grown
on 22 - 24 M.ha. producing 13 - 15 Mt. of grain
with an average productivity of 600 - 650 kg/ha. As
compared to cereals, most of the pulses still wait
for significant breakthrough in terms of production
and productivity. This group of crops is capable
of restoring soil fertility and therefore, remains
an integral part of subsistence and sustainable
production systems. Among pulses, chickpea is the
most important pulse crop in the country grown in
more than 6.93 M.ha. area which contributes 62 per
cent of the global production (5.6 Mt.) and about
37 per cent of total pulse production in the country.
Chickpea is the most important pulse crop in the
Corresponding Author’ Email: muwal24775@gmail.com
7.50 lakh tones and average productivity 607 kg/
ha.. It is also one of the important pulse crop of
Nagaur district of Rajasthan grown in 0.80 lakh
hectares of land annually producing 0.10 lakh
tones with the average productivity of 10.04 q/
ha. Knowledge has been found to be an important
factor contributing to adoption of recommended
technology by the farmers. Keeping this in view,
a study was undertaken to assess the knowledge
level of farmers regarding chickpea production
technology.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Nagaur district of
Rajasthan. Two blocks viz. Kuchaman and Nawa
and five villages from each block were selected
randomly. From each selected village, twelve
farmers were selected randomly thus, a total of
120 farmers were selected as respondents for this
study. The data were collected with the help of a

187 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 187-190

 Kumar and Kumawat
Table 1. Practice-wise knowledge of the respondents about chickpea production technology.
Sr. No. Practice No. Knowledge Awareness Complete
Knowledge
1. High yielding varieties 6 (5.00) 109(90.83) 05 (4.16)
2. Soil treatment 54 (45.00) 66 (55.00) 0 (0)
3. Seed rate 0 (0) 110 (91.67) 10 (8.33)
4. Seed treatment 0 (0) 105 (87.50) 15 (12.50)
5. Bio-fertilizers 5 (4.16) 112 (93.33) 03 (2.5)
6. Manure and fertilizer 0 (0) 116 (96.66) 04 (3.33)
7. Method of seed sowing 0 (0) 78 (65.00) 42 (35.00)
8. Recommended spacing 0 (0) 80 (66.67) 40 (33.33)
9. Critical stage of irrigation 0 (0) 38 (31.67) 82 (68.33)
10. PP Measures 0 (0) 103 (85.83) 17 (14.16)
Figures in parenthesis are percentage of the total

pre-tested interview schedule through personal RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

interview. To measure the knowledge level of
farmers, a knowledge index was prepared taking
the 10 dimensions namely; knowledge of high
yielding varieties, soil treatment, seed rate per acre
for different varieties, seed treatment, bio-fertilizer
and its applications, method of seed sowing,
recommended spacing, critical stage of irrigation,
manure and fertilizer and insect-pest disease and
control. These dimensions were identified after
thorough review of literature and discussions
held with scientists and other experts in the field.
For each of the knowledge dimensions, except
method of sowing, a maximum score of 2 was
given for the farmer who had complete knowledge
of the recommended practice pertaining to those
dimensions. A score of 1 was assigned when the
farmer expressed awareness but did not know the
details and a score of zero was assigned when the
farmer expressed total ignorance. The knowledge
level categories were formulated as low, medium
and high on the basis of mean ± SD. The correlation
analysis was carried out to find out the relationship
between socio–economic, communication and
psychological variables with knowledge.
Practice-wise knowledge of the respondents
about chickpea production technology
The data reveal that majority of farmers
(68.33%) had complete knowledge about critical
stage of irrigation followed by recommended
method of sowing (35%), recommended spacing
(33.33%), plant protection measures (14.16%)
and seed treatment (12.50%).Farmers have higher
Knowledge about line sowing and irrigation at
critical stage, because it increase yield of chickpea
directly. However, very few respondents had
complete knowledge about seed rate (8.33%),
high yielding varieties (4.16%), manure and
fertilizer (3.33%) and bio-fertilizer (2.50%). An
overwhelming majority (96.66%) of the respondents
had awareness about recommended doses of manure
and fertilizers, followed by bio-fertilizer (93.33%),
seed rate (91.67%), high yielding varieties (90.83%),
seed treatment (87.5%), PP Measures (85.83%),
recommended spacing (66.67%), method of sowing
(65.0%), soil treatment (55.0%) and critical stage
of irrigation (31.67%). Similar findings were also
reported by Shakya et al (2008), Devi et al (2013)
and Chauhan (2012). It also apparent from the data

188 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 187-190

 Knowledge Level of Farmers about Chickpea Production
Table 2. Knowledge level of farmers about chickpea production technology
Category Frequency Per cent Mean S.D.
Low (<10score) 02 1.67 12.87 1.61
Medium (10-13 score) 96 80.00
High (>13 score) 22 18.33

that 45 per cent respondents had no knowledge
about soil treatment. Knowledge about soil
treatment, high yielding varieties and biofertilizer
was poor amongst farmers, it might be due to
lack of knowledge, lack of technical guidance and
results are not seen directly to the grower about soil
treatment and biofertilizers.
Distribution of respondents according to their
knowledge level
The respondents were categorized into three
groups low (score<10), medium (10-13) and high
(>13) level of knowledge (Table 2). The data
reveal that large majority (80%) of the respondents
possessed medium level of knowledge about
chickpea production technology while, about 18 %
possessed high level of knowledge.
Correlation of knowledge about chickpea
production technology
The total scores of knowledge about improved
chickpea production technology for each respondent
were put to correlation analysis with socioeconomic,
communication and psychological attributes of
the respondents. Among the 13 variables studied
(Table 3), ten variables viz., education, social
participation, total annual income, information
source utilization, extension participation, mass
media exposure, cosmo-politeness, economic
motivation, attitude towards chickpea production
technology and scientific orientation were
positively and significantly related with knowledge
about chickpea production technology (significant
at 0.01 level of probability). Similar findings were
also reported by Shakya et al (2008), Kumar et

Table 3.Correlation of socio-economic, communication and psychological factors with knowledge

level of farmers.
Sr. No. Factor Correlation Coefficient ‘r’
1. Age 0.078
2. Attitude towards Chickpea 0.784**
3. Cosmopoliteness 0.867**
4. Economic motivation 0.223**
5. Education 0.627**
6. Extension participation 0.234**
7. Farm mechanization 0.136
8. Information source utilization 0.862**
9. Mass media exposure 0.341**
10. Operational land holding 0.084
11. Scientific orientation 0.625**
12. Social participation 0.364**
13. Total annual income 0.315**

189 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 187-190

 Kumar and Kumawat
al (2016) in case of education and mass media
exposure. Whereas the remaining three variables
namely- Age, Operational Land Holding and Farm
Mechanization are not significantly related with
knowledge about chickpea production technology.
CONCLUSION
The study revealed that the farmers had poor
knowledge about soil-treatment, high yielding
varieties, and bio-fertilizer, while majority of them
had knowledge about critical stage of irrigation.
Majority of the respondents had awareness regarding
recommended doses of manures and fertilizer, bio-
fertilizer, seed rate, improved varieties, spacing and
method of sowing. Correlation analysis indicated
that all the socio-economic, communication and
psychological factors had significant positive
relationship with knowledge level of farmers except
age, land holding, and farm mechanization. The
study pointed out that cosmopoliteness, attitude
towards chickpea production technology, scientific
orientation, extension participation; economic
motivation, mass media exposure and information
source utilization were the important factors
which had direct and indirect effect on knowledge
of farmers. The study also pointed out that four
variables viz., information source utilization,
cosmopoliteness, attitude towards chickpea
190 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 187-190
production technology and scientific orientation
have high predictive value as these account for 93
percent of total variation in the knowledge level of
farmers regarding chickpea production technology.
Thus, it may be recommended that the variables viz.,
information source utilization, cosmopoliteness,
attitude towards chickpea production technology
and scientific orientation need to be improved
amongst the farmers of the study area to enhance
their knowledge level regarding chickpea production
technology
REFERENCES
Chauhan Nikulsinh M (2012). Knowledge level of farmers
regarding package of practices for Gram crop. J Krishi
Vigyan : 1(1) : 46-48.
Devi Ganga M, Kumar Ch. Anil and Srinivas Kumar D (2017).
Impact analysis of trainings and front line demonstrations
in Black Gram (Vigna mungo) cultivation. J Krishi Vigyan
6(1) : 97-100
Kumar P V, Khan M A and Sharma M L(2016). The Knowledge
of tribal farmers about the recommended Black gram
cultivation practices and its determinants. Int J Agri Sci
8(9): 1107-1109.
Shakya M S, Patel M M and Singh V B (2008). Knowledge
level of chickpea growers about chickpea production
technology. Indian Res J Ext Edu 8 (2&3):65-68
Received on 26/07/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00097.7

Knowledge Level of Farmers about Improved Production

Technology of Onion Crops in Sikar District of Rajasthan
Mahesh Choudhary, B L Asiwal and R K Dular
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Fatehpur-Shekhawati, Sikar, 332 301 (Rajasthan)
Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner-Jaipur

ABSTRACT
Knowledge about innovation may be an important factor affecting the adoption behaviour of farmers. The
farmers who have more knowledge about newly developed technology also have more level of adoption of
technology compared to those who have low knowledge. Therefore, present study was conducted to assess the
knowledge level of the farmers on the improved production technology of onion in Sikar District of Rajasthan.
The Sikar district consists of 9 blocks, out of which two panchayat samities namely Laxmangarh and Dhod
were selected on the basis of large area coverage under onion crops. From each selected blocks, three villages
were selected and 15 farmers were selected from each selected village randomly, thus making a total sample
of 90 farmers. The selected respondents were interviewed personally with the help of a well structured and
pre-tested interview schedule. The result reveals that the maximum of the respondents (65.56%) had medium
level of overall knowledge, followed by 20.0 per cent of them had low level of knowledge and only 14.14
per cent of them had high level of overall knowledge about onion production technology. 70.74 per cent
respondents had good knowledge about field preparation and hence this practice was ranked first. The second
highest per cent of respondents 61.48 per cent were having knowledge about transplanting of nursery in main
field which was given second rank. Only 25.0 per cent respondents had knowledge about selection of suitable
variety which was ranked last because most of the respondents had minimum knowledge about this practice.
Key Words: Onion, Training, Knowledge level, KVK, Sikar, Production technology.

INTRODUCTION used in the form of dehydrated (form of flakes,

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most
important commercial vegetable crops cultivated
extensively in India and it belongs to the family
Alliaceae. It is one of the few versatile vegetable
crops that can be kept for a fairly long time and
can safely withstand the hazards of rough handling
including long distance transport. It is liked for its
flavour and pungency, which is due to the presence
of a volatile oil “Allyl prophyl disulphide”- It is
dietary essential for human beings because of its
nutritional and medicinal values, which commands
extensive markets. It can also be used in innumerable
ways. The immature and mature bulbs are eaten
raw or they may be cooked and eaten as vegetable
and commonly used as condiments and spice for
flavouring and enriching various cuisines. It is also
rings, kibbles and powder), freezing, canning and
pickling (in vinegar or brine).
India is the second largest producer of onion
in the World next to China with production of
20931.21 thousand MT from an area of 1320.04
thousand hectares (Anonymous, 2017). The major
onion producing states are Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Bihar.
In Rajasthan, it is grown extensively in the districts
of Jodhpur, Sikar, Alwar, Nagaur, Jhunjhunu, etc.
The total production in the state during the year
2016-17 was 1350 thousand MT from an area of
85.0 thousand hectares (Anonymous, 2017). Sikar
district stands second in area and production of
onion cultivation in Rajasthan. In Sikar district, the

Corresponding Author’s Email: balodamahesh@gmail.com

191 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196

 Choudhary et al
cropping season for onions begins in the months
of September-October. Most of farmers choose
local cultivar for sowing in their field during Rabi
season in order to get good returns during winter.
Onion production is not always profitable for
farmers owing to certain risks associated with it.
Due to various constraints like poor knowledge
about proper storage methods of onion bulbs, poor
keeping quality of local cultivar, negligible area
under Kharif onion, lack of storage facilities, etc.
farmers sold their produce at a price below their
cost of production.   The statement having “wrong” responses was given
The farmers could increase their benefit through
adoption of new technologies. The adoption of
improved technologies requires high level of
technical knowledge in areas package of practices
and synchronized with needs and requirement of
farmers like proper post harvest handling, selection
of suitable variety, proper nutrient management,
insect-pest and diseases management, etc. Due to
technological advancement in onion cultivation,
there is a strong need to train the growers to keep
them abreast about improved technologies for
improving their knowledge and increasing income.
Thus, the present study was designed to know
the extent of Knowledge level of farmers about
improved production technology of onion crops in
Sikar District of Rajasthan.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in in Laxmangarh
and Dhod blocks of Sikar district in Rajasthan. In
the district there were nine blocks. Out of which
Laxmangarh and Dhod blocks were selected
purposively and only 06 villages (three villages
each) viz., Kaswali, Khoru and Hameerpura
from Laxmangarh and Sanwaloda Ladkhani,
Jhigar Chhoti and Rashidpura from Dhod were
selected. From each selected village, 15 onion
growers were selected on the basis of random
sampling method. Thus the total sample size was
90 respondents for the purpose of investigation. A
well-structured and pre-tested schedule was used to
192 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196
collect the information from the onion growers. In this
study, an interview schedule, having 29 statements,
regarding different constraints normally faced by
the farmer were asked on different aspect of onion
cultivation practice viz., field preparation, selection
of variety, nursery management, transplanting
of nursery in main field, nutrient management,
weed management, irrigation management,
plant protection, post harvest management. The
responses observed from the different farmers were
divided into two categories i.e., correct and wrong.
zero mark and the statement having “correct” was
given one mark. So, individual onion grower can
get maximum marks of 29 and thus a minimum
mark was zero. The scores obtained under various
practices were summed up with both respondent
wise and as well as component wise and computed
in to low, medium and high knowledge level on the
basis of socio economic status. The collected data
were analyzed with suitable statistical tools.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-Economic Status of Respondents
It was evident from the table 1 that the
majorities (41.11%) of the respondents were middle
aged ranging from 35 to 50 year age group and
belong to backward caste (77.78%). The frequency
distribution was highly skewed towards the younger
respondents. While, looking at the educational
status of respondent, results revealed that majority
(36.67 %) of respondents were secondary passed.
Majority of the farmers had main occupation
as agriculture (70.00 %) followed by business
(8.89%), labour (7.78%), independent profession
(7.78%) and service (5.56%). It is evident from
the data that maximum 61.11 % onion growers had
medium income from onion cultivation. Results
on land holding demonstrated that nearly 76.66 %
of respondents were small (20.00 %) to medium
(34.44 %) farmers. In case of experience of onion
cultivation the data revealed that highest (52.22 %)
onion growers had low medium experience. Out
 Knowledge Level of Farmers about Improved Production Technology
Table 1. Distribution of respondents based on their socio economic characteristics. (N=90)
Variable Category Frequency Percentage
Young (18-35) 35 38.89
Age ( in years) Middle (35-50) 37 41.11
Old (50 and above) 18 20.00
Illiterate 06 6.67
Primary 09 10.00
Middle 13 14.44
Education
High School/High 18 20.00
Secondary 33 36.67
Graduate 11 12.22
General 09 10.00
Cast OBC 70 77.78
SC/ST 11 12.22
Labour 07 7.78
Agriculture 63 70.00
Occupation Business 08 8.89
Independent profession 07 7.78
Service 05 5.56
Low 26 28.89
Income Medium 55 61.11
High 09 10.00
Marginal (less than 1 ha land) 18 20.00
Small(1-2 ha land) 38 42.22
Operational land holding
Medium (2-5 ha land) 31 34.44
Large (above 5 ha) 03 3.33
Low (1-5 yr ) 29 32.22
Experience of onion cultivation Medium (5-10 yr) 47 52.22
High ( above 10 yr) 14 15.56
Low 33 36.67
Mass media exposure Medium 42 46.67
High 15 16.67

of total 90 respondents under study, 46.67 % had
a medium exposure to the mass media followed by
36.67 % and 16.67 % had low and high exposure
to the mass media, respectively, Singh et al (2014)
also lending support to the present findings.
Knowledge level of recommended cultivation
practices of onion
It was evident from the data (Table 2) that
the highest level of knowledge was observed in
days to transplanting (88.89%), land preparation
(86.66%), selection of soil (84.44%), seed rate/ha
(83.33%), appropriate irrigation interval (68.89%),
time of fertilizer application (66.67%), time of
nursery preparation (66.66%), suitable harvesting
stage (62.22%), seed treatment (61.11%), required
spacing for onion crop (57.78%), identification

193 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196

 Choudhary et al
Table 2. Distribution of the onion growers according to their knowledge level.
Sr. No Parameter Knowledge level (N=90)
Frequency Percentage
A. Field Preparation
1. Selection of Soil 76 84.44
2. Soil testing 37 41.11
3. Land preparation 78 86.66
B. Selection of Variety
4. Name of Kharif season variety 18 20.00
5. Selection of variety according to season 27 30.00
C. Nursery Management
6. Soil treatment 39 43.33
7. Time of nursery preparation 60 66.66
8. Method of bed preparation 13 14.44
9. Seed rate/ha 75 83.33
10. Line method of seed sowing 17 18.89
11. Seed treatment 55 61.11
D. Transplanting of nursery in main field
12. Days to transplanting 80 88.89
13. Required spacing for onion crop 52 57.78
14. Seedling treatment 34 37.78
E. Nutrient management
15. Recommended dose of NPK application 31 34.44
16. Application of micro nutrients 21 23.33
17. Time of fertilizer application 60 66.67
F. Weed management
18. Time of weeding 40 40.44
19. Use of weedicide 21 23.33
G. Irrigation management
20. Appropriate irrigation interval 62 68.89
21. Knowledge about method of taking water sample 37 41.11
H. Plant Protection
22. Identification of major insect pest 48 53.33
23. Identification of major diseases 48 53.33
24. Plant protection measures 35 38.89
25. Use of bio-agents 27 30.00
I. Post Harvest Management
26. Suitable harvesting time 56 62.22
27. Curing of onion 34 37.78
28. Grading of onion bulb 10 11.11
29. Storage methods of onion 21 23.30
194 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196
 Knowledge Level of Farmers about Improved Production Technology
Table 3. Distribution of the onion growers under different knowledge levelscategories (N=90)
Sr. No. Knowledge level category No. of respondent Percentage of
respondent
1. Low Knowledge (Score below 6.62) 18 20.00
2. Medium Knowledge (Score from 6.63 to 14.13) 59 65.56
3. High Knowledge (Score above 14.13) 13 14.14
Total 90 100

of major insect pest (53.33%), identification of knowledge, followed by 20.00 per cent respondents
major diseases (53.33%), soil testing (41.11%), having low level and 14.14 per cent having high
knowledge about method of taking water sample level of knowledge. A few of the respondents were
testing (41.11%), time of weeding (40.44%), having low knowledge which might be attributed due
plant protection measures (38.89%), curing of to the fear among them about the new innovations.
onion (37.78%), seedling treatment (37.78%), Respondents and lack of specialized trainings about
recommended dose of NPK application (34.44%), improved production technology of onion crop in
use of bio-agents (30.00%), selection of varieties the area. Similar findings were reported by Jat et al
according to season (30.00%), application of micro- (2011), Singh and Hansra (2018).
nutrients (23.33%), use of weedicide (23.33%) The data (Table 4) revealed that 70.74 per
and storage methods of onion(23.30%). Very low cent respondents had good knowledge about field
extent of knowledge regarding improved production preparation and hence this practice was ranked first.
technology was found in case of name of Kharif The second highest per cent of respondents 61.48
season variety (20.00%), line seed sowing (18.89 %),
per cent were having knowledge about transplanting
method of bed preparation (14.44%) and grading of of nursery in main field which was given second
onion bulb (11.11%). Similarly findings were also rank followed by 55.00 per cent respondents had
reported by Bhise and Kale (2014) in onion, Poonia knowledge about irrigation management and
and Dhaka (2011) in other vegetable crops. given third rank . 47.76 per cent respondents had
It was observed (Table 3) that majority of the knowledge about the nursery management and
respondents (65.56% ) possess medium level of this practice was placed at rank fourth, followed

Table 4. Knowledge levels of respondents about improved production technology of onion. (N=90)
Sr. No. Knowledge level about different practices MPS Rank
1. Field preparation 70.74 I
2. Transplanting of nursery in main field 61.48 II
3. Irrigation management 55.00 III
4. Nursery management 47.76 IV
5. Plant protection 43.89 V
6. Nutrient management 41.48 VI
7. Weed management 33.89 VII
8. Post harvest management 33.61 VIII
9. Selection of suitable variety 25.00 IX

195 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196

 Choudhary et al
by plant protection, nutrient management, weed
management and post harvest management with
43.89 MPS, 41.48 MPS, 33.89 MPS, 33.61 MPS
and as such these were ranked at 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th,
respectively. Only 25.00 per cent respondents had
knowledge about selection of suitable variety which
was ranked last because most of the respondents
had minimum knowledge about this practice.
CONCLUSION
Knowledge is one of the basic components that
greatly affect the extent of adoption of scientific
practices. By enhancing farmers knowledge and
capabilities for applying new scientific techniques in
farm sector will help them to maximization of profit.
For up-gradation farmers knowledge training is one
of the important aspects. Transfer of technology
holds key to rapid development and transformation
of rural society. Farm science centre or Krishi Vigyan
Kendras having district as jurisdiction, are playing
crucial role in training and thereby enhancing
productivity and income of the farming community.
Thus, for organizing effective training programme,
the present study was conducted in Sikar district of
Rajasthan to know the extent of Knowledge level
of farmers about improved production technology
of onion. The overall level of knowledge of onion
production technology was medium. Maximum
knowledge was noticed in the practice of field
preparation, transplanting of nursery and irrigation
management. Knowledge level of farmers should
196 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 191-196
be increased in various aspects of onion production
technology i.e., selection of suitable variety,
post harvest management, nutrient management,
weed management, plant protection and nursery
management through systematic training programme
as well as field demonstration which could be more
effective in future onion production.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2017). Horticulture Statistics at a Glance.
Horticulture Statistics Division, Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry
of Agriculture and Framers Welfare, New Delhi
Bhise R N and Kale N M (2014). Training needs about
improved cultivation practices for the onion growers.
Agric Update, 9(1): 128-131.
Jat J R, Singh S, Lal H and Choudhary L R (2011). Knowledge
level of farmers about improved tomato production
technology. Rajasthan J Ext Edu 19: 139-143.
Poonia M K and Dhaka B L (2011). Training needs assessment
of vegetable farmers in Bundi district of Rajasthan. Indian
J Ext Edu 47(1&2): 80-85.
Singh B (2010). Knowledge of farmers about improved
cultivation practices of moth bean in Jodhpur district.
Ann Arid Zone 49(1): 65-69.
Singh P, Choudhary M and Lakhera J P (2014). Knowledge
and attitude farmers towards improved wheat production
technology. Indian Res J Ext Edu 14(2): 54-59.
Singh S and Hansra B S (2018). Knowledge and adoption
level of improved vegetable farming practices of SHG
members and non-members in Himachal Pradesh, India.
Indian Res J Ext Edu 18 (4): 61-64.
Received on 23/07/2019 Accepted on 13/10/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 197-202 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00098.9

Line Fishing Methods of the Brahmaputra Valley

Deepjyoti Baruah1*, Amalesh Dutta2 and P Pravin3
1
ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal-263136, Nainital ( Uttarakhand

ABSTRACT
An investigation was carried on the availability of different types of fish hooks and liningmethods in the
Brahmaputra valley with an objective to study the respective dimensions, seasonal variation, abundance,
catch, cost, the variability of gears with the targeted fish species and their mode of operation. The identified
fish hooks and lineused by the fishers of Assam can be classified into 10 different types under 2 major
categories based on the principle of capture, design, and operational methods. Many of these gears were
selective and the hook materials have a significant influence on the gear performance. The fish catch is
composed of small fishes viz., C. punctatus, Puntius spp., Anabas testudineus, Eutropiichthys vacha;
mid-sized fishes viz.,Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Channa maruliusand bigger sized fishes viz., Wallago
attu,Rita rita, Bagarius bagarius, Chitala chitalaand Notopterus notopterus. The fishes are caught on
their commercial importance in terms of food, ornamental and sports perspectives. Most of these hooks
are fabricated traditionally and except the ones being importedon recreational purposesin the region.
KeyWords:Assam, Brahmaputra valley,fishing, gear, lining.

INTRODUCTION Choudhury, 2009; Vass and Moza, 2011; Dutta

Knowledge of Indians concerning fishing
techniques, fishing gear and their fabricationis
quite ancientand a number of studies are conducted
in line fishing all over the world as it is one of the
most important fishing aids in the fishing industry
especially to catch large sized predatory fishes.
Most of the studies on long line fishing is restricted
to the marine fisheries (Edwin et al, 2014; Selva et
al, 2015; Kumar et al, 2017) and scanty information
is available for the inland or freshwater fisheries
of the Northeastern region of India. Fishing areas
in the state Assam are mostly river basins, often
associated with extensive areas of floodplains,
connecting channels, lakes, reservoirs and an array
of smaller rivers, irrigation and drainage canals
and a variety of seasonal or permanent small water
bodies (Baruah et al, 2018). Description of the
fishing gears and their mode of operation in these
water bodies under Brahmaputra and Barak valley
are detailed in different seasons and locations(Dutta
and Bhattacharya, 2009;Gurumayum and
*Corresponding Author’s Email : deep_baruah@rediffmail.com
1
ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal-263136, Nainital, Uttarakhand2Department of Zoology, Gauhati University,
Guwahati-781014, Assam 3ICAR, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, New Delhi-110012
et al, 2012; Dutta and Dutta, 2013; Baruah et al,
2013; Saud et al, 2015; Ahmed et al, 2018;Nath
et al, 2018. The usage of these gears werefound to
vary according to water depth, season,water area,
type of fish species, availability of rawmaterial
for gear fabrication etc (Sandhya et al, 2019).
Improvement of the materials used on the designing
of the different types of pole and lines has made a
great influence on their performance with respect
to fishing efficiency, selectivity, gear handling and
cost and catch quality. Due to limited information
available on the applicability of fish hooks and lines
used by the fishers of Assam, an effort has been
made herewith to understand the techniques of line
fishing in the largest river system of the region-the
Brahmaputra drainage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A survey was conducted in forty river fishing
grounds, twenty seven wetlands, eight landing
centers and sixty seven fishing villages in the

197 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 197-202

 Baruah et al
entire stretch of river Brahmaputra and floodplain
wet lands (beels) in the state Assamwith reference
to study the usage of various hooks and line
and their fishing methods. The information was
collected following a prescheduled proformaand
the technical specifications with design details
of the gear and mode of operation were recorded
based on classifications of Brandt A Von(1984)
and Sreekrishna and Shenoy (2001).Based on
the proforma, the details of gear dimensions,
contruction materials and area of operation, fish
catch composition, duration of operation were
collected from more than 120 fishermen, 70 lessees,
mohaldars and middleman.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As a result of the investigation in the different
parts of the river valley and its adjoining floodplain
areas, the identified fish hooks and line can be
classified into 10 different types belonging to 2
major categories based on the principle of capture,
design, and operational methods. These devices
consist of baited hooks attached to a single line
or multiple lines, whereas the principle of capture
is based on the feeding and hunting behaviour of
target species.
Simple hand lines: These types of lines are operated
with few hooks and the operator needs constant
attention to catch the fish. These are locally known
as ‘Boroxi’ in general, ‘Duruk boroxi’ in Kamrup
district, ‘Puthi boroxi’and ‘Jhul boroxi’ in Dhubri
district. Generally used to catch Channa marulius,
C. punctatus, Puntius spp., Anabas testudineus,
Wallago attu, etc.
Hand lines
Hand line is a single vertical line carrying one
barbed hook which is droped into the water and
waited for a fish to bite. It is the simplest form of
line fishing. It consists of a line made of nylon of a
certain length with or without sinkers and with an
iron hook. These hand lines may be of a very shorter
length of about 0.5 m and operated in marginal
water bodies of ponds, tanks, wetlands and river
198 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 197-202
banks to attracted the fish with a baited hook. Baits
such as flour balls, earthworms, insect larvae and
cooked rice are used. The longer version of the
hand lines may be provided with or without sinkers
and floats. The baited hook is thrown to a certain
distance and the line is continuously watched. Any
catch at the hooks is felt by the jerks exerted by the
fish on the line held by the fisher. The line is very
cheap ranging from Rs. 20.00-30.00
Pole lines
These are hand lines attached to a pole or poles
and used with acceptable baits of all kinds (Fig.
1). This is a simple fishing rod made of bamboo of
suitable length (2-10 m) and girth (2-3 cm) with a
line made of cotton or nylon (Baruah, 2014). The
hooks are barbed and every line is fixed with one of
them. The float may be a piece of lightwood, sandal/
rubber while a piece of lead or iron forms a sinker.
Expensive rods provided with revolving reels are
not in use commercially but are actively used for
angling/sports fisheries as a popular hobby in this
wing of India. The prized catches are Tor species
(mahseers, locally pithia) andLabeo dyocheilus
(shilgoria).Pole line can be a hand pole line and a
set pole line. The former is operated by hand and
inserting the butt of the pole to the ground sets the
later. Live form of a frog, small Channa punctatais
given as baits. Predatory fishes like Wallago attu,
Sperata seenghala, Sperata aor, Channa marulius
are attracted to the moving baits and are caught in
the process of swallowing the bait alongwith the
hooks. These gears are fabricated within a cost of
Rs. 100.00-200.00.
Long lines
Long lines are devices anchored with a large
series of baited hooks, either set or drifting and
requiring only periodical attention at more or less
fixed intervals of time.
Set long lines
These are long lines anchored to the ground on
shore or bottom so that they are not free to move
with the current. A long line of this kind has the
 Line Fishing Methods of the Brahmaputra Valley
main line of several hundred or thousand meters in
length. This main line is attached with snoods or
secondary lines/branch lines at suitable intervals
with baited hooks. The two ends of the line are
fixed to stakes on the opposite banks of a river.
Some variations may have only one end fixed to a
stake and the opposite end allowed to sink by using
bricks as sinkers. The lines are generally shot at
night and hauled in the morning. Fishes targeted are
Wallago attu, Rita rita, Bagarius bagarius, Chitala
chitalaand Notopterus notopterus. The cost of the
gear is approximately Rs. 300.00-500.00.
Dham boroxi
It is also known as ‘Lar boroxi’ in the Barak
valley region and ‘Lesera boroxi’ in North
Lakhimpur district. These types of lines are operated
round the year. It is operated in both river and beels.
The main line is tied to bamboo poles fixed on either
side of the river and, in case of beels a particular
spot is selected. The hooks on the branch line are
hanged from the main line at regular intervals (Fig.
2). Sometime one end of the main line is tied to a
bamboo pole fixed on the riverbank and the other
end is set free. The hooks are placed both day
and night and the catch is periodically removed.
Bigger sized fishessuch asWallago attu, Rita rita,
Bagarius bagarius, Channa punctatus, Chitala
chitala, Notopterus notopterus, Clarias batrachus,
Mastacembelus armatus, Catla catlaandSperata
aorare targeted. Other catch includes Mystus spp,
Xenentodon cancila, Eutropiichthys vacha etcare
targeted.The cost of the hooks is approximately
Rs.400.00.
Hazar boroxi
These types of hooks are operated round the
year, especially during winter months. This type
of fishing is mostly practised in river Brahmaputra
and in some beels of Dhubri and Barpeta disticts in
particular. The hooks are hanged from the main line
at regular intervals and are installed at the bottom of
the river- bed or beel (Fig.3). This ‘hazar boroxi’ is
specially targeted to catch the tortoise. Other catch
199 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 197-202
includes Wallago attu, Aorichthys aor, Notopterus
notopterus etc. The cost of the hook ranges from
Rs.700.00-4000.00 depending on the length and
number of hooks being used.
Toponi boroxi
It is a long line with one hook at the end, which
is provided with bait (Fig.4). It is operated in the
rivers of Jorhat district. The line with the bait is
thrown in the middle of the river and the other end
is tied to a bamboo pole fixed at the bank of the
river. It is especially used for catching Bagarius
bagarius and Wallago attu. The total cost of the
hook and line is Rs.60.00. Such type of gear usually
lasts for around 4 years, which may vary depending
upon its usage.
Shal boroxi
It is similar to ‘Toponi boroxi’. The name is
given on the target fish, Channa marulius. It is
operated in beels and rivers of district Jorhat mostly
during the daytime.
Garua dhora boroxi
This is similar in operation to that of ‘Toponi
boroxi’ (Fig.5) and the name is given on the targeted
species, Bagarius bagarius. Apart from it, the other
catch includes Sperata aor, Wallago attu and Rita
rita. This long line is mostly operated in the district
Sonitpur.
Puthi boroxi
This hand line is mostly operated in the district
of Kamrup and is targeted to catch Puntius spp.
Drift long lines
Drift long lines are long lines without a fixed
attachment to the ground on shore or bottom that
are free to drift with the current or tide. These are
locally known as ‘nol boroxi’ or ‘ponga boroxi’
more specifically in the Dhemaji district (Fig.6).
This is a single vertical line suspended from a short
bamboo float of 30-35 cm length, carrying a barbed
hook and operated by simply dropping it into the
water and waiting for a fish to bite. The length of
 Baruah et al
the vertical line is facilated based on the water
depth. This long line is mostly suitable for weed
chocked stagnant water bodies to catch specially
murrels. The acceptable baits to catch these fishes
are earthworms, small fish, eggs of honeybee and
ants and wheat balls.
In line fishing, the fishes are lured to a bait
which is presented in such a manner that it is neither
able to take away the bait or can it escape once it
is taken. Line fishing is prevalent in most parts of
the state due to its simplicity of construction, cost
effectiveness and ease of operation. Line fishing
is considered by the local fishers to be an efficient
technique of fishing in weed choked beels and high
terrain streams where other fishing gearsis difficult
to be employed due to submerged obstructions.
The hand line is the simplest form of fishing line.
However, with the development of set lines, it is
possible to use more lines that have several hooks
and extend to considerable length. Lines are species
and size specific and are used for sport fisheries
(Fig. 7) in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra
and its tributaries viz., Jia Bhorelli, Lohit, Siang,
Subansiri and Dibang. In spite of lower landing in
these forms of fishing gears, the catch structure is of
high quality with prized value.
CONCLUSION
The present study observes that the small
differences in the hook sizes do not influence the
size distribution of the fish catch. Larger hooks
demand a stronger force to penetrate the mouth
tissue. These hooks are more resistant to breaking or
straightening and therefore prevent the largest fish
from escaping. Nowadays, the high quality hook
manufacturers ensure a high breaking strength also
for hooks of small dimensions. In certain hooks,
the numbers of fish caught are affected by the size
of the bait used. Some fish species have a habit of
taking the entire bait in the mouth, while others
nibble the bait piece by piece thereby allowing the
consumption of larger bait. Thus the selectivity of
the hook size can be affected by the size of the bait.
200 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 197-202
The hooks used in line fishing are made of steel and
wrought iron and are marketed in different shapes
and sizes. The Norwegian method of numbering
hooks is followed in India(Sreekrishna and Shenoy,
2001). In this method, the size of hook becomes
smaller as the number increases. Improvement of
the materials used on the designing of the different
types of lines will have their influence on gear
performance with respect to fishing efficiency,
selectivity, gear handling and cost and catch quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their thanks to the ICAR-
Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi,
Kerela for providing facilities in conducting
this research under a project programme. The
authors highly acknowledge the entire fishermen
community and local people in the surveyed areas
of the study together with the Fishery Officers of
Govt. of Assam for their sincere cooperation and
hospitality. The support provided by the Director,
I/c PME and concerned Nodal Officers of ICAR-
DCFR Bhimal in publication of this manuscript is
greatly appreciated.
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Ahmed I, Borah S, Bhattacharjya B K, Landge A T, Kakati A,
Saud B J, Chetia B R, Kumar M, Payeng L K and Dutta R
(2018). An indigenous predatory fish catching technique
of lower Brahmaputra valley, Assam. J Ento and Zool Stu
6(3): 491-494.
Aneesh Kumar KV, Pravin P, Meenakumari B and
Boopendranath MR (2017). Fishing craft and gears of
Lakshadweep islands-a review. South Indian J Biol Sci
3(1): 1-6.
Baruah D (2014). Indigenous bamboo-made fishing
implements of Assam. J Krishi Vigyan 3(1): 37-41.
Baruah D, Dutta A and Pravin P (2013). Traditional fish
trapping devices and methods in the Brahmaputra valley
of Assam. Indian J Trad Know 12(1): 123-129.
Baruah D, Dutta A, Bhuyan A and Pravin P (2018). Fishing
gear and practices in flood waters of Assam. Aqua Asia
22(4): 6-19.
Brandt A Von(1984). Fish catching methods of the world.
Fishery Newsbooks Ltd, Farnham Survey, England.
 Line Fishing Methods of the Brahmaputra Valley

Fig. 1 - A hand pole line Fig. 2 - A set long line Fig. 5 - A set long line (Garua dham boroxi)
(boroxi) (dham boroxi)

Fig. 3 - A set long line Fig. 4 - A set long line (toponiboroxi)

(hazarboroxi)

Fig. 6 - A drift line (pongaboroxi) Fig. 7 - A modern pole and line used in sport fisheries

201 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 197-202

 Baruah et al
Dutta NN, BorahS and Baruah D (2012). Traditionalgears
used for capturing and preservation of fish
byMishingcommunity of northern bank of the
Brahmaputra River, Assam.India. Sci Vis 12(4):156-157.
Dutta R, Bhattacharjya BK (2009). A traditional fishing
method of Assam for catfishes using duck meat as an
attractant.Indian J Trad Know 8(2):234.
Dutta R and Dutta A (2013). Bheta fishing-A traditional
community fishing practice of Noctetribe of Tirap district,
Arunachal Pradesh.Indian J Trad Know12(1):162-165.
Edwin L, Pravin P, Madhu V R, Thomas S N, Remesan M
P, Baiju M V, Ravi R, Das D P H, Boopendranath M R
and Meenakumari B (2014). Mechanised Marine Fishing
Systems: India, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology,
Kochi:277.
Gurumayum SD and Choudhury M (2009). Fishingmethods
in the rivers of Northeast India, Indian J Trad Know 8
(2): 237-241.
Nath K D, Borah S, Chetia B R, Saikia N, Saud B J, Majumdar
R K (2018). Indigenous fishing techniques and their
effectiveness as perceived by fishers in Cachar district,
Assam, India. Indian J Fish 65(1):110-115.
Sandhya K M, Roy A, Hassan M A, Kumari S, Mishal P,
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Lianthuamluaia L, Kumar V, Aftabuddin M, Bhattacharjya
B K, Meena D K, Ali Y and Naskar B (2019). Traditional
fishing gears, fish catch and speciescomposition of
selected floodplain wetlands of lowerGangetic Plains,
West Bengal, India. Fishery Tech 56: 101 – 109.
Saud B J, Chetia M, Borah S, Landge A T, Bhagawati K
and Roul S K (2015). Traditional fishing technique of
Clupisoma garua using fats of freshwater river dolphin in
Brahmaputra river, Assam. Fishing Chimes35(8):43-45.
Selva Muthu Kumaran P , Antony C and Sundaramoorthy B
(2015). Selectivity of hooks for seerfishes in the longline
fishery of Thoothukudi coast, Tamil Nadu, India. Indian
J Fish 62(2): 77-80.
Sreekrishna Y and Shenoy L (2001). Fishing Gear and Craft
Technology, DIPR, ICAR, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan,
New Delhi, 1-123.
Vaas KK and Moza U (2011). Riverine Fisheries. In:
Handbook of Fisheries and Aquaculture. Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India, 169-207.
Viswambharan D, Jasmine S, Swathi Lekshmi P S and Rohit
P (2018). Economic analysis of hook and linefishery of
Thiruvananthapuramcoast, Kerala.J Mar Biol Ass India
60.
Received on 28/12/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 203-207 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00099.0

Loan Repayment Behaviour under

Nagaland State Cooperative Bank Limited
Longma Yanger Pongen, A K Godara and S P Singh
Department of Extension Education
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana agricultural University, Hisar 125 001( Haryana)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Nagaland at randomly selected district of Kohima, Dimapur and
Mokokchung .The requisite information was collected from 120 borrowers taken loan during the year
1998-19 through random sampling, with the help of interview schedule. The repayment behaviour of
the respondents indicated that only 25.0 per cent of the total borrowers (120) were found to be regular
in repaying the loan within the specified period while 75.0 per cent had stop paying completely after
initial installments or had never paid any installment due to some reasons. It was also found that the
reasons for non-repayment of loan were due to low outcome from the project (73.33%), pressing family
needs (56.67%), natural calamities (44.44%), less income source (40.0%), marketing problems and
non-availability of raw materials (35.55 %), mismanagement of income (31.11%), high interest rate
(27.78%) followed by short time duration (26.67%) for loan recovery. Repayment behaviour also had
positive significant correlation with socio-economic status, easy availability and perceived adequacy,
whereas annual income and timely availability had positive correlation but non-significant. However,
adoption behaviour and earner’s percentage exhibited negative correlation with repayment behaviour.
Key Words: Borrowers, Repayment, Cooperative Bank, Nagaland, Loan.

INTRODUCTION farmers with respect to Nagaland State Cooperative

Cooperatives banks has acquired a new
dimension in the changing scenario of globalization
and liberalization of the nation’s economy. These
cooperative institutions are the most emphasized
sources of agricultural credit as it satisfies all the
criteria of a good system of rural credit. The need
for a clear cut national policy on cooperatives for
sustained development, healthy growth and self
reliance for meeting the aspiration of the people in
consonance with the principles of cooperatives have
been initiated. Though the progress of cooperative
bank strengthens the credit structure, mounting
over dues on the other hand is a threatening and
burning issue, these inefficiency in recycling of
fund is affecting their performance as business
entities and blocking the loans for new members
(Anonymous, 2002). An attempt has been made in
this study to examine the repayment behaviour of
Corresponding Author’s Email:longmakvk@gmail.com
Bank (NSCB) Limited.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Location of Study
The study was conducted in randomly selected
three district of Nagaland i.e., Kohima, Dimapur
and Mokokchung. Six cooperative branches two
from each selected district were randomly selected.
Twenty beneficiaries from each bank obtaining
loan during the period 1998-1999 were selected in
consultation with the branch office and the reason
for non repayment were studied
Collection of Data
The data was elicited on carefully structured
interview schedule. Direct personal interview-cum-
discussion technique was used and information on
different variables like as money once advanced

203 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 203-207

 Pongen et al
Table 1. Repayment behaviour of borrowers with reference to the activities. (n=120)
Activity Repayment behaviour Total Borrowers
Regular Irregular Defaulters
Agriculture 14 (21.21) 45 (68.18) 7 (10.61) 66 (100)
Livestock and poultry 6 (23.07) 17 (65.38) 3 (11.54) 26 (100)
Horticulture 7(36.84) 11(57.89) 1 (5.26) 19 (100)
*Transport and other services 3 (33.33) 6 (66.66) - 9 (100)
Total 30 (25.00) 79 (65.83) 11(9.17) (100)
*Including milling machines, cane juice extracting machines, power tillers etc.
Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage.
is very difficult to get back and so the repayment The values (Table 2) showed the repayment
behaviour were categorized as Regular meaning behaviour of borrowers with reference to
borrowers who had repaid the whole amount or independent attributes, nearly half (47.0%) middle
any specific amount earmarked for an installment age group were regular in repaying the loan on time
regularly on or before due date, Irregular on the other whereas the same age group was observed to be the
hand refers to those borrowers who did not repay largest category for irregular (52.0%) repayment. It
the amount as per scheduled or stop repaying after was also revealed that higher the socio economic
some initial installments due to certain reasons and status (SES) better the repayment behaviour as
Defaulters are those borrowers who had not paid even was observed that 53.0 per cent of high SES were
a single installment during the financial year period. regular in repayment followed by 68.0 per cent of
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software medium SES who were irregular followed by 45.50
was used for the purpose of statistical analysis. per cent of low SES who had defaulted. Earners
percentage depicted that medium (40.0%) category
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION were regularly repaying, were as high category
Repayment behaviour of borrowers with (41.0%) were found to be irregular, followed by
reference to the activities medium (45.5%) category who had defaulted. The
The data (Table 1) represent the repayment above findings can also tally with the reports of
behaviour of the borrowers with reference to the Musafiri and Ganesan (2009) which showed that
activities for which the loan was sanctioned. It age, gender and size of the household, purpose for
reveals that 14per cent of had obtained agricultural credit, interest rate charges and number of official
loans, 23 per cent on livestock and poultry, 36.8 per visits to the credit societies, have a strong effect
cent on and rest 3 per cent on transport and other on loan repayment performance. Ramanujam and
services on regular basis . Arun (2017) also reported that the significantly
associated profile variable regarding the level of
The results further showed that there was repayment performance are high level of education,
high percentage of non-repayment (75.00 %) by years of experience, location of the unit and type of
90 individual borrowers (irregular+ defaulter) sector of the unit.
indicates that a large part of the amount advanced as
loan to the borrowers was blocked thereby affecting Problems affecting the repayment behaviour
the recycling of loan to other needy person. The table also reveals that 57.0 per cent of low
Repayment behaviour of borrowers with adoption behaviour category were regular in loan
reference to independent attributes repayment followed by 49.4 per cent of the same

204 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 203-207

 Loan Repayment Behaviour
Table 2. Repayment behaviour of borrowers with reference to independent attributes. (n=120)
Attribute Repayment behaviour
Regular Irregular Defaulters
(30) (79) (11)
Age
Young (<35 yr) 9 (30.0) 7 (9.0) 4 (36.4)
Middle (36-50 yr) 14 (47.0) 41 (52.0) 3 (27.2)
Old (>50 yr) 7 (23.0) 31 (39.0) 4(36.4)
Socio Economic Status
Low 8 (27.0) 8 (10.0) 5 (45.5)
Medium 6 (20.0) 54 (68.0) 4 (36.4)
High 16 (53.0) 17 (22.0) 2 (18.1)
Earners’ percentage
Low 7 (23.0) 19 (24.0) 4(36.3)
Medium 12 (40.0) 28 (35.0) 5 (45.5)
High 11 (37.0) 32 (41.0) 2 (18.2)
Adoption behaviour
Low 17 (57.0) 39 (49.4) 1(9.1)
Medium 7 (23.0) 21 (26.6) 5 (45.45)
High 6 (20.0) 19 (24.0) 5 (45.45)
Perceived adequacy
Low 2 (6.7) 6 (7.6) 4 (36.4)
Medium 8 (26.7) 11 (13.9) 4 (36.4)
High 20 (66.6) 62 (78.5) 3 (27.2)
Timely availability
In time 10 (33.3) 63 (79.7) 6 (54.5)
Can’t say 6 (20.0) 4 (5.1) -
Not in time 14 (46.7) 12 (15.2) 5 (45.5)
Easy availability
easily 10 (33.3) 4 (5.1) 2 (18.2)
Some what 11 (36.7) 23 (29.1) 5 (45.4)
Much difficult 9 (30.0) 52 (65.8) 4 (36.4)
Annual Income
Low (<25,000) 4 (13.33) 38 (48.1) 7 (63.6)
Moderate(25,000-75,000) 13(43.33) 37 (46.8) 4 (36.4)
High (> 75,000) 13(43.33) 4 (5.1) -
Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage.

205 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 203-207

 Pongen et al
category to be irregular followed by 45.45 per
cent medium and high adoption behaviour who
defaulted equally. Majority of borrowers (62) of
high perceived adequacy were found to be irregular,
however 66.6 per cent under the same category
were regular. Majority (79.70%) of the borrowers
who obtained loan on time were found to be most
irregular. Under the easily availability of loan
attributes it was observed that 65.8 per cent of the
borrowers who obtained loan with much difficulty
were most irregular. The table also revealed that
borrowers with lower (<25,000/-) and moderate
(25000-75000/-) annual income represented the
majority groups who defaulted in regular payment
of loan.
To further probe the problems affecting the
repayment behaviour of respondents, questions were
asked to those 90 borrowers who did not recover
the loan within the specified recovery period and
multiple responses were obtained (Table 3).
Table 3. Problems affecting the repayment
behavior. (n=120)
Reason Multiple responses
Low outcome from the project 66 (73.33)
Pressing family needs 51 (56.67)
Natural calamities 40 (44.44)
Less income source 36 (40.00)
Marketing problem 32 (35.55)
Non-availability of raw material 32 (35.55)
Mismanagement of income 28 (31.11)
High interest rate 25 (27.78)
Time duration was short 24 (26.67)
Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage.
It was learnt that 73.33 per cent of the
respondents could not recover within the specified
period as a result of low outcome from the Project,
untimely death of animals and birds due to sudden
diseases in the area was also reported in case of
livestock and poultry. Panday et al (2009) also
reported crop failure, inadequate electricity supply, 8.
excess expenditure on domestic affairs and reduced *Significant at 5% level.
profit margins to be reasons for low repayment of
206 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 203-207
loan. Expenditure due to Pressing Family Needs
was reported as the second (56.67%) reason which
means expenditures were made in non-income
generating activities like social ceremonies, festivals,
children’s school fees etc, similar results were also
reported by Ritu Rathore et al (2017). Next was
followed by Natural Calamities such as landslides
due to heavy rain that affected the projects or crops
as expressed by 44.44 per cent of the respondents.
The table further shows that less income source for
repayment (40.0%) was due to low productivity of
land as a result of traditional technique of agriculture
and higher cost of production. Marketing problem
(35.55%) was the subsequent reason as regulated
marketing facilities were not available in the area
and also higher cost of marketing the produce. The
following reasons further presented in descending
order as non-availability of raw material (35.55%),
mismanagement of income due to improper planning
(31.11%), high interest rate of the bank (27.78%)
and repayment duration being short (26.67 %) were
identified as some reasons for untimely repayment,
these findings were also in consonant with the results
of Yasir Mehmood et al (2012) who found that
sloppy supervision by the bank employees, miss-
utilization of loans, high interest rate and change
in business/residential place of the borrowers etc.
caused delay in repayments of agricultural credit
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between
independent attributes and repayment
behaviour.
Sr. No Independent attributes Correlation
coefficient ‘r’
1. Age - 0.005
2. Socio Economic Status +0.229*
3. Earners’ percentage -0.125
4. Adoption behaviour -0.102
5. Perceived adequacy +0.179*
6. Timely availability +0.008
7. Easy availability +0.184*
Annual Income +0.027
 Loan Repayment Behaviour
CONCLUSION Musafiri Papies M and Ganesan P (2009). Repayment
It was found that socio-economic status behaviour in credit and savings cooperative societies. Int
J Soc Econ 36 (5):608-625.
(r=0.229), perceived adequacy (r=0.179) and easy
availability (r=0.184) had positive and significant Ramanujam V and K Arun Vidya (2017). A Study on the credit
repayment behaviour of borrowers. Int Res J Business
correlation (P≤ 0.05) with the repayment behaviour and Manage 10 (8): 9-18
of respondents. It further revealed that annual
Rathore Ritu, Mishra Shubham and Kumar Pradeep ( 2017).
income (r=0.027) and timely availability (r=0.008) Factors affecting non-repayment of agricultural loan: A
had positive correlation but non-significant. case study of Rajasthan Marudhara Gramin Bank. Int J
Interestingly, age (r=-0.005), adoption behaviour Curr Microbiol App Sci 6 (4): 1052-1059.
(r=-0.102) and earners’ percentage (r=-0.125) Yasir Mehmood, Ahmad Mukhtar and Anjum Muhammad
exhibited negative correlation with repayment Bahzad (2012). Factors affecting delay in repayments
behaviour of the respondents. of agricultural credit; A case study of District Kasur of
Punjab Province. World Applied Sci J 17 (4): 447-451.
REFERENCES Panday R N, Agarwal K and Gangwar A C (2009)An
Anonymous (2002). National policy on cooperatives, analysis of repayment performance of farmers regarding
Department of agriculture and cooperations, Ministry of agricultural loan in kurukshetra district (Haryana) Indian
Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. Cooperative Rev 28(1): 54-61.
Received on 17/11/2019 Accepted on 01/12/2019

207 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 203-207

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 208-211 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00101.6

Micronutrients Spray on Yield and Economics of Cotton in

Rainfed Areas of Prakasam district in Andhra Pradesh
Sahaja Deva,*1 G M V Prasada Rao2, P Vinayalakshmi, Ch Varaprasada Rao
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Darsi, Prakasam District ((Andhra Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
Demonstrations were conducted at farmers fields in Pasupugallu (Mundlamuru mandal) and Tanamchintalaand
Bandiveligandla (Darsi mandal) during Kharif 2016-17 to 2018-19 on 4.0 ha area during each year to study
the effect of micronutrient management in cotton. Under demonstration, treatments consisted of spraying of
MgSo4 @ 10 g/l (45 and 75 d), ZnSo4 @ 2 g/lat 4-5d interval at 45 DAS and Boron @ 1.5 g/l (60 and 90 d) and
compared with control plot without using micronutrients. The results showed that application of micronutrients
significantly improved yield and cost to benefit ratio in cotton .Under demonstration, pooled average yield was
10.9q/ha with B: C ration of 0.70 whereas, under control plot pooled average yield was 9.1q/ha with B: C ratio
of 0.62. Hence, application of micronutrients reduced flower and boll drop and increased returns to farmers.
Key Words: Boron, Cotton, Micronutrient, Magnesium, Zinc.

INTRODUCTION district are applying only macronutrients to cotton.

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is known Essential micronutrients like magnesium, zinc and
as a white gold and king of fibre crops. Cotton is boron plays important role in physiology of cotton
an important cash crop and backbone of textile crop being a part of enzyme system of catalyst
industries mainly because of its lint. It earns about in enzymatic reactions (More et al, 2018). Boron
33 per cent of total foreign exchange in India application resulted in increase of seed cotton
(Anonymous, 2014). India ranks first position in yield up to 22 per cent, application of both the
production and export of cotton in world. India micronutrients in combination (Boron+Zinc), the
contributes 5.6 per cent of area and 5.43 per cent overall increase in seedcotton yield was 40 per cent
of production in world. In Andhra Pradesh, cotton (Mooro et al, 2009). Deficiency of micronutrients
is grown on an area of 6.63 lakh ha with production reduces yields in cotton. Thus for getting
of 19.10 lakh bales with a productivity of 641 kg/ better results, the balance supply of macro and
ha. In Prakasam district cotton was grown in an area micronutrients is an important factor. Keeping the
of 38,822 ha with production and productivity of above points in view, demonstration was conducted
35603 MT and 1082 kg/ha. during 2018-19. As per at farmers’ fields.
the estimates, 47.5 m bales of lint are required to
meet the domestic and export requirements by 2020 MATERIALS AND METHODS
AD in India. To meet these demands, the cotton Front line demonstration was conducted
production and productivity has to be increased at Bandiveligandla (Darsi mandal)-2016-17,
considerably (Ravikiran et al, 2012). Tanamchintala (Darsi mandal)-2017-18 and
Pasupugallu (Mundlamuru mandal)-2018-19 in
One of the factors responsible for low area of 4.0 ha during each year at10 farmers’ fields.
productivity is imbalanced use of fertilizers and In each farmer’s field two treatments were tested
deficiency of micronutrients. Famers in Prakasam in demonstration and control plots. T1: Spraying of

Corresponding Author’s Email : sahajareddy.deva@gmail.com

CoC1
SMS (Crop Production), 2Programme Coordinator,

208 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 208-211

 Deva et al

Sr. Particular Demonstration Control

No. 2016- 2017- 2018- Pooled 2016- 2017-18 2018-19 Pooled
17 18 19 mean 17 mean
1 Plant height 81.3 82.5 79.04 80.9 76.4 79.5 75.6 77.2
2 Number of branch- 19.0 21.5 16.2 18.9 15.2 17.1 13.8 15.4
es/plant
3 Number of bolls/ 22.2 24.5 21.8 22.8 19.1 21.3 18.8 19.7
plant

MgSo4 - 10 g/l (45 and 75 d) , Spraying of ZnSo4 demonstration plots recorded significantly higher
- 2 g/l at 4-5d interval at 45 DAS and Spraying number of branches and bolls/plant compared to
of boron - 1.5 g/l(60 and 90 days). T2: Farmer’s control plots. Under demonstration plots, number
practice (Without micronutrients). of branches per plant was 19.0, 21.5 and 16.2
Five plants were selected in each field and data during 2016-17, 2107-18 and 2018-19, respectively
on plant height, number of branches/plant, number with pooled mean of 18.9 whereas, in control plot
of bolls/plant were recorded. Yield was recorded number of branches were 15.2, 17.1 and 13.8 during
from 10 farmers’ field in each year from 0.4ha/ 2016-17, 2107-18 and 2018-19, respectively with
farmer. Economics was calculated as shown below: pooled mean of 15.4. The number of bolls per plant
were 22.2, 24.5 and 21.8 during 2016-17, 2107-18
Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) and 2018-19, respectively with pooled mean of 22.8
Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) was calculated whereas, in control plot number of bolls per plant
considering the prevailing charges of agricultural were 19.1, 21.3 and 18.8 during 2016-17, 2107-
operations and market price of inputs involved. 18 and 2018-19, respectively with pooled mean of
Gross returns were obtained by converting the 19.7.These findings were in line with Singh et al
harvest into monetary terms at the prevailing market (2015).
rate during the course of studies.
Yield
Gross return (Rs/ha) = (Seed yield x price) Perusal of the data (Table 2) revealed that
Net returns were obtained by deducting cost demonstration plots (T1) recorded significantly
of cultivation from gross return. higher yields compared to control ( T2) plots. Under
Net returns (Rs/ha) = Gross return (Rs/ha) - T1, yields recorded during 2016-17, 2017-18 and
Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) 2018-19 were 10.6, 14.5 and 8.2q/ha, respectively
with pooled mean of 11.1q/ha. Per cent increase in
Cost: benefit ratio yield under T1 plot over T2 was 19.1, 26.1, 18.8
The benefit: cost ratio was calculated by dividing during 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19, respectively
gross returns by cost of cultivation. with pooled mean of 21.3. Higher yield under T1
was due to more number of sympodial branches
Gross returns (Rs/ha) and more number of bolls per plant and good boll
Cost: benefit ratio =
cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) size and shape due to application of micronutrients
compared to farmers’ practice. Flower drop was
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION also low compared to farmers practice. Kausar et
Yield parameters al (2000) obtained increase in yield up to 40 per
Perusal of the data (Table 1) revealed that cent with the applicationof zinc, whereas, with the
209 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 208-211
 Micronutrients Spray on Yield and Economics of Cotton
Table 2. Yield and economics of cotton with and without micronutrients.
Particular Demo Control
2016- 2017-18 2018- Pooled 2016- 2017-18 2018- Pooled
17 19 mean 17 19 mean
Yield (q/ha) 10.6 14.5 8.2 11.1 8.9 11.5 6.9 9.1
Per cent increase in yield
over control 19.1 26.1 18.8 21.3

Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) 66250 71350 65350 67650 63000 68000 64000 65000
Gross returns (Rs/ha) 53000 58000 41000 50667 44500 46000 34500 41667
B :C Ratio 0.80 0.81 0.63 0.75 0.70 0.68 0.50 0.62
*Average rainfall received during 2018-19 was only 50.6 mm with deficit of 51.73%. So the yields were
very less.

application of boron the yield was increased up to of 0.70. whereas, under control plot pooled average
30 per cent. Application of zinc and magnesium yield was 9.1 q/ha with B: C ratio of 0.62.
sulphate significantly increased SCY per plant as
compared with the untreated control (Soomro et al, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2000, Zakaria et al, 2008). Financial support by ATARI and technical
support from ANGRAU is highly acknowledged.
Economics
Cost of cultivation under demo plot was higher REFERENCES
than control plots because of additional application Anonymous (2014). Annual report. All India Coordinated
of micronutrients along with farmers practice. Gross Cotton Improvement Project.
returns and B; C ration were substantially higher Kausar M A, Sadiq M, Khan M A, Hassan M and Haq M A
under demo plot compared to control plot (Table 2). (2000). Nutritional status and susceptibility of advanced
Gross returns of Rs.50,667/-ha with B: C of 0.75 chickpea germplasm to low soil zinc and boron. Pakistan
were obtained in demo plot. In control plot, gross J Biological Sci 3: 473477.
returns were Rs.41,667/- ha. The benefit to cost Mooro A W,  Soomro A R,  Leghari A B,  Chang M S,  Soomro
ratio in control plot was 0.62. Higher gross returns A H  and Runio G H (2009). Effect of boron and zinc
micronutrients on seed cotton yield and its components.
and B: C ratio under T1 plot compared to T2 plot Pakistan J Biological Sci 3 (12): 2008-2009.
was due to higher yield. Yaseen et al (2013) also
More V R, Khargkharate V K, Yelvikar N V and Matre Y
reported 20 to 30 per cent more economic benefit B (2018). Effect of Boron and Zinc on Growth and Yield
over NPK fertilizers alone with foliar application of of Bt. Cotton under Rainfed Condition. Int J Pure and
Zn, B, Mn, Cu and Fe. Applied Biosci 6 (4): 566-570
Ravikiran S, Halepyati A S, Pujari B T, Koppalkar B G
CONCLUSION and Narayana rao K (2012). Effect of macro nutrients
Micronutrients like magnesium, zinc and boron and soluble micronutrients on the growth and yield of
application in cotton showed positive effects on Bt cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) under irrigation.
growth and yield of cotton with higher B: C ratio. Karnataka J Agril Sci 25 (2) : 264-266.
In demo plots where the nutrients were applied Singh K, Rathore P and Gumber R K (2015). Effects of foliar
reddening of leaves, flower and boll drop, malformed application of nutrients on growth and yield of bt cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum L.). Bangladesh J Bot 44(1): 9-14.
bolls were reduced. Under demonstration plot
pooled average yield was 10.9 q/ha with B: C ration Soomro A W, Soomro A R, Leghari A B, Chang M S, Soomro
A H and Tunio G H (2000). Effect of boron and zinc

210 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 208-211

 Deva et al
micronutrients on seed cotton yield and its components.
Pakistan J Biological Sci 3: 2008-2009.
Yaseen Muhammad, Wazir Ahmed and Muhammad Shahbaz
(2013). Role of foliar feeding of micronutrients in yield
maximization of cotton in Punjab. Turkish J Agri Forums
37: 420-426
Zakaria M Sawan, Mahmoud H Mahmoud and Amal H El-
Guibali (2008). Influence of potassium fertilization and
foliar application of zinc and phosphorus on growth, yield
components, yield and fiber properties of Egyptian cotton
(Gossypium barbadense L.). J Plant Ecology 1: 259-270.
Received on 31/10/2019 Accepted on 01/12/2019

211 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 208-211

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 212-216 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00100.4

Marketing Behaviour of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Growers in Tapi District
P K Modi1, P D Verma and S M Chavan
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, NAU, Vyara, Dist.-Tapi 394650 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted on marketing behaviour of 100 okra growers from two talukas of the
Tapi district by simple random sampling technique. The findings of marketing behaviour of farmers
revealed that 75 per cent used bike for transport their produce, 75 per cent used plastic bags as packing
material and majority of the farmers sold their produce immediately after harvest in the nearby
market. Whereas, 81 per cent farmers reported that they received full payment on the spot after sale.
Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee (62%) was important source of market information. Major
problems in the marketing were price fluctuation (100%), high cost of cultivation (83%), poor quality
of seed (69%) and climate change (21%) as well as export of okra very less extent. Independent
variable training and experience significantly correlated with the yield of okra. However, regression
clearly indicated the importance of experience and training in the farming and marketing of okra.
Key words: Marketing behaviour, okra grower, APMC, packaging, export.

INTRODUCTION selected block were randomly selected for the study.

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is one of
the most important warm season vegetable grown
in tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world and
valued for its edible green pods that are popular
vegetable in India (Anonymous, 2018). In Tapi
district of Gujarat okra grown as off season
(September to April) vegetable in 9960 ha area and
production of 1,35,954 MT as well as productivity
of 13,650 kg/ha (Anonymous, 2019). Major
market for okra farmers is Agricultural Produced
Marketing Committee (APMC), Vyara, APMC-
Buhari, APMC- Dolvan, Sardar market, Surat and
some other local market within and outside the
district. Though, the farmers were not benefited
under this situation. It was necessary to know the
marketing behaviour of okra growers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Characteristics of the respondents
The study was conducted in two okra growing
blocks of Tapi district. Five villages from each respondents belonged to age group up to 50 yr
From the universe a sample of about 100 respondents
were selected through random sampling technique
i.e., 10 respondents from each selected village with
a condition that few of the growers should sell
their okra to exporters. The marketing behaviour
dimensions to be studied were inspired by Kumar
(2015). The statements used to analyse marketing
behaviour of okra growers were as follows: when
do you sell the produce, which the study included
mode of transport, packaging, mode of sale, time of
sale, grading, mode of payment and so on. On behalf
of the above, statement responses were recorded
from the respondents. The information collected
was processed and analysed by using percentage,
correlation and regression coefficient methods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was evident (Table 1) that majority of the

Corresponding Author’s Email: pmodi.horti@gmail.com

1
Assistant Research Scientist, Fruit Research Station, NAU, Gandevi. (Gujarat)

212 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 212-216

 Modi et al
Table 1. Distribution of respondent as per their training and majority ( 65%) of the okra growers
characterises. n=100 obtained yield up to 11,385 kg/ha.
Sr. Selected profile Percentage Marketing Behaviour
No.
Mode of transport
1 Age
It was found that 75 per cent of okra growers
Up to 35 yr 40.00
transported their produce through bike followed by
More than 35 to 50 45.00 tempo 25 per cent. This clearly indicated that most
More than 50 15.00 of the farmers sold their produce nearby market. The
2 Education selection of mode of transport depended on quantity
Illiterate 12.00 of the produce and distance of market. If quantity
Up to Primary 15.00 was large and to sell their produce in far away
Up to higher secondary 53.00 markets they used tempo as a mode of transport.
Graduate 20.00 Small land holding farmers near to market, they
3 Size of land holding (SL) used bike for transportation (Phukan et al, 2018).
Marginal 58.00 Packing and selling
Small 25.00 It was clear (Table 2) that majority (75%) of okra
Medium 15.00 growers used plastic bag whereas, only 25per cent
Large 2.00 of the respondents used plastic carets for packing.
4 Occupation The reason behinds to use plastic bag was that the
Agriculture 10.00 quantity of okra on Bike carry more quantity as
Agriculture & Animal 82.00 compared to plastic carets. Majority (64%)
Husbandry of the okra growers sold their produce in nearby
Agriculture & Animal 8.00 market (56%) and village itself (8%). However, 36
Husbandry & others per cent of the okra grocer sold in far away markets.
5 Farming Experience
Grading and Selling
< 3 yr 44.00 It was inferred that all the okra growers graded
3 to 5 yr 35.00 their produce after harvest depending upon size and
> 5 yr 21.00 shape in order to fetch the better return. Further,
6 Training acquired respondents sold their produce immediately after
Yes 35.00 harvest. The reason behind that farmers sold okra
No 65.00 immediately after harvest in order to reduce the
7 Yield (kg/ha) damage and weight, quality to gain immediate
Low< 5025 17.00 monetary benefit. It was showed that majority 81 per
Medium Upto 11385 64.00 cent of the respondents received full payment after
sale the okra whereas 19 per cent of the growers
High 1>11385 19.00
received payment delayed by 5-7d, there were no
(85%), educated up to higher secondary to graduate issues about any malpractice in case of payment.
level (73%), marginal to medium land holding
(98%), agriculture and animal husbandry was the Source of Marketing Information
main occupation 82%. Seventy nine per cent of the The data (table3) showed that about 62 per cent of
respondents having experience of Okra cultivation the respondents were seeking the market information
up to 5 yr. twenty five per cent respondents acquired from the Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee.

213 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 212-216

 Marketing Behaviour of Okra Growers
Table 2. Category wise distribution of respondents Table 3. Source of Marketing Information.
based on their marketing behaviour. n=100 N= 100
Sr. Category Percentage Sr. No. Information Source Percentage
No. 1 Newspaper 1.00
1 Mode of Transport 2 Neighbour / relative 3.00
Head load 0 3 Commission agent 15.00
Bike 75 4 Exporter 19.00
Tractor 0 5 Direct visit to APMC 62.00
Bus 0 6 Input dealer 0.00
Tempo 25 7 Television 0.00
2 Mode of Packing 8 Internet 0.00
Plastic crates 25 9 Local traders 0.00
Gunny bags 0 10 Radio 0.00
Net / Mesh bags 0
growers. The variable namely age, education size
Plastic bags 75
of land holding experience in okra farming and
3 Place of sale
training were considered as independent variables
Village itself 8 however, yield was considered as dependant
Nearby Market 56 variable (Maratha, 2015).
Far away market 36
Table 4. Relationship between selected dependent
4 Time of Sale
(Yield) and independent variables n= 100
Immediately after harvest 100
After initial storage 0 Sr. No. Factor Correlation
5 Grading behaviour 1 Age 0.2603
Grading 100 2 Education 0.1632
No grading 0 3 Size of land holding 0.1573
6 Payment pattern 4 Experience 0.7015
Advance payment 0 5 Training 0.7287
Spot payment 81 Value at 2 tail 0.1945
Delayed payment 19 The data (table 4 and 5) that independent
variables namely experience and training
However, 19 per cent of the growers seek from the significantly correlated with the yield of okra.
exporters and only 15 per cent of the respondents However, in regression analysis both the variables
getting the information from commission agents. contributed to the extent of about 63 per cent clearly
Least important sources were neighbour/relatives indicated the importance of experience and training
and newspapers. The accessibility of exporters was in the farming of okra.
limited and tendency of exports not disclose all the
The data (Table 6) revealed that the exporters
information (Dambazau et al, 2015 and Maratha and
group of farmers were not ready to provide clear
Badodiya, 2017)
picture about their farming as well as price procured
Relationship by them.
An attempt was also made to study the various It was noticed (table 7) that the major constraints
factors may be responsible for yield kg/ha of okra faced by the growers were price fluctuation, high

214 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 212-216

 Modi et al
Table 5. Relationship between selected dependent (Yield) and independent variables. n= 100
Sr. No. Factor Regression coefficient t value Partial r2
1 Age -17.5812 -0.924 .0091
2 Education 70.2776 1.504 0.0235
3 SL -236.2829 0.980 0.0101
4 Experience 441.2702 5.422 0.2383
5 Training 3115.5747 5.798 0.2634
Add. R Square 0.6325
R Square 0.6510
Multiple R 0.8069 F Ratio 35.073

Table 6. Difference between APMC exports-oriented okra marketing system

Sr. No. Okra for APMC market Okra for export market
1 APMC market required 4-6 cm okra pod Exporter demand size of okra pod about 8-10 cm
size
2 Weight of pod is average 8-10gm Wight of pod is 14-16 gm
3 In the APMC grade I price higher and II For export market price of II grade pods purchased in I
grade price about 60-70% only as compare grade ultimately farmers get higher price
to I grade
4 In APMC every lot of okra pods price is For export only one lot is send to APMC market for price
changed check and all farmers get that price. As well as Some
exporters give higher price as compared to APMC market
5 APMC doesn’t check residual as well as Exporters weekly check crop status and pesticides used by
pesticides sprayed by farmers farmers as well as some exporters provide pesticides and
their experts for crop management
6 Payment cash Payment delayed 5-7 day
7 Some agents of APMC in village purchase Some exporters purchased directly from villagers by their
but give less price compared to APMC vehicle due to which transport expenditure reduced
market. Otherwise farmers go to nearby
APMC market due to which transport and
time expenditures increases.

Table 7. Constraints in marketing. n=100

Sr. No. Constraint Percentage
1 Price fluctuation 100
2 High cost of cultivation especially insecticides/pesticides loads 83
3 Poor quality of seed also affects the quality of Okra 69
4 Climate change effect the quality and growth of okra 21

215 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 212-216

 Marketing Behaviour of Okra Growers
cost of cultivation, poor quality of seed and climate Dambazau S A, Srivastav J P and Tajudeen A (2015).
change. The suggestion offered by the okra growers Communication behaviour of potato growers. J Comn
Stud 33:48-56.
were availability of good quality okra seeds and
export of okra should be on large scale to fetch the Kumar P (2015). Communication and Marketing Behaviour of
Tribal Vegetable Growers: A Study in Ranchi District of
better return from the winter season okra (Shrinivas Jharkhand State. Ph.D Thesis, Department of Extension
et al 2016). Education Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras
Hindu University Varanasi.
CONCLUSION Maratha P and Badodiya S K (2017). Study on Marketing
It can be concluded that to promote the winter behaviour and other attributes of vegetable growers at
season okra in tribal areas, there should be common Kota Block of Kota District in Rajasthan. Int Pure and
marketing facility in the area of tribal farmers can Applied Bio Sci 5 (1): 329-337
fetch better return. As the training and experience Maratha P (2015). A study on marketing behaviour of vegetable
significantly contributed to get the higher yield of growers in Morar Block of Gwalior district(M.P). M.Sc.
(Ag.) Thesis, Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa
okra indicated the possibility of cluster-based group Vidyalaya, Gwalior.
farming in the area.
Phukan P, Avasthe R, Lepcha B and Singh R (2018). Marketing
behaviour of vegetable growers in East Sikkim. J Krishi
REFERENCES Vigyan 6(2):157-162
Annonymous (2018). Horticultural Statistics at a Glance.
Shrinivas M V, Laxman Reddy B S and Venkata Reddy Y B
Horticulture statistics division, Department ofAgriculture,
(2016). Marketing behaviour of vegetable growers. Agri
Coopn& farmers welfare.
Update 11: 434-437.
Annonymous (2019). District wise area and production of
Horticultural crops, Director Horticulture,Department
Received on 20/10/2019 Accepted on 01/12/2019
of Agriculture, Coopn & farmers welfare department,
Gujarat.

216 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 212-216

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 217-220 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00104.1

Performance of Pekin Ducks and Desi Ducks under Integrated

Farming System at Kancheepuram District in Tamilnadu
K Devaki1*, K Senthilkumar2 and P R Nisha3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kattupakkam,
Tamil Nadu veterinary and Animal Sciences University (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Ducks play a very important position next to chicken for the small-scale farmers in India because
they are a source of income and part time employment for the growers. Ducks easily adapt to various
environments and are more resistant to poultry diseases (than chicken), many rural people in the country
practice commercial duck farming. However, compared to broiler chickens, broiler duck industry is less
popular and its development seems relatively slow because of the low consumption rate of duck meat
by consumers and less efficient feed conversion. Keeping these points in mind, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Kattupakkam conducted an on-farm testing on the performance of Pekin ducks in Integrated farming
system (IFS) model. A total number of five farmers with fish farm pond were identified from five different
villages. Each farmer was provided with 20 Pekin ducklings, 20 desi ducklings and 20 kg duck mash.
It was found that on an average the pekin ducks attained the weight of around 1.780 kg as compared to
the desi bird (1.250 kg) at 60d of age. The feed conversion ratio was found to be higher (3.75kg) in local
ducks than the Pekin ducks (2.63kg). It was also found that the mortality rate of Pekin ducklings reduced
after advising the farmers on scientific duck farming practices. The benefit cost ratio was found to be
1.71 which in turn reveals that duck farming is a profitable venture to the farmers. It was also noticed
that the benefit cost ratio for the demo-Pekin ducks (1.71) was higher than the check- desi ducks (1.19).
Key Words: Efficiency, Feed, On-farm testing (OFT), Pekin ducks, Integrated farming.

INTRODUCTION Duck dropping contains 0.9 per cent nitrogen and

Integrated farming is a sequential linkage 0.4 per cent phosphorous. Duck dropping act as
between two or more agri-related farming activities good organic manure which helps in production of
with one farming as major component. The different variety of phytoplankton & zooplankton in
integrated of fish farming with agriculture and pond. About 250 - 300 ducks are enough to fertilize
animal husbandry is considered as sustainable a hectare of water spread. The fish-cum-duck
farming system. Raising ducks over fish ponds fits integration system provides meat, eggs in addition
very well with the fish polyculture system, as the to fish. It generates production of additional food
ducks are highly compatible with cultivated fishes. and income to the farmer. Approximately 40-50 kg
Fish pond being a semi-closed biological of organic waste is converted into one kg of fish.
system with several aquatic animals and plants The duck cum fish farming practices can utilize
provides an excellent disease-free environment the waste from duckery for fish production. Animal
for the ducks. Pond bottom racking and swimming wastes and waste feed particles that enter the food
activity by ducks help in aerating the pond water. web of a pond ecosystem are utilized as a source of

*Corresponding author E-mail : devaki.k@tanuvas.ac.in

1
Assistant Professor, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tamil Nadu veterinary and Animal Sciences University (TANUVAS), Kattupakkam, Tamil Nadu
2
Assistant Professor, PGRIAS, Kattupakkam
3
Professor and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kattupakkam

217 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 217-220

 Devaki et al
nutrients required for primary production (Banerjee into two to house both breeds of ducks in the same
et al., 2014) reported that the use of cow dung and pond area. All the ducklings were vaccinated against
duck manure for practicing aquaculture is a viable duck plaque.
option for natural biodiversity.
Methodology
In an integrated fish culture, animal wastes A total number of five villages were selected
and undigested and spilt food particles are directly for the study. From each village, one farmer
consumed by the fish and some portion of waste acts was selected and a total number of 200 Pekin
as nutrients and organic substrates for many micro- and desi ducklings (100 each) were procured
organisms which in turn consumed directly by fish from Postgraduate Research Institute in Animal
or by invertebrate fish food organisms (Misra et al, Sciences, Kattupakkam. Duck mash of 100kg was
2019). Ducks are habituated to consume juvenile procured from Central Feed Technological Unit,
frogs, tadpoles and dragonfly etc. and there by Kattupakkam. A total number of 40 Pekin (20) and
make a safe environment for fish. Duck droppings desi(20) ducklings , 20 kg feed were distributed to
provide essential nutrients go directly into the pond each selected farmers for the conduct the study.
droppings as good sources of carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus, which in turn stimulate growth of One-day-old birds were weighed individually
natural food organism. In general, the farmers are on electronic scales to the nearest 0.1 g, after which
using local indigenous variety of ducks for fish- they were weighed at 49 days of age on electronic
cum-duck integration. crane scales to the nearest 1 g. Daily gain during
the rearing period was calculated from body weight
The problems encountered in integrated duck on days 1 and 49. Throughout rearing, a record was
cum fish farming were collected during farm and made of the weight of feed offered and refused,
field visit. Some of the major constraints were which was used to calculate average feed consumed
lack of awareness on integration in IFS model per bird. The feed efficiency was calculated using
to enhance income, non availability of Pekin the data on feed consumption and weight gain in
ducklings, marketing problems, irregular out-flow terms of feed conversion ratio as suggested by
of ducklings, low income due to poor performance Thiele and Alletru (2017):
of native ducks. Based on this data, an on-farm trial
was conducted to compare performance of Pekin Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = Feed intake /
ducks and desi ducks in Kancheepuram district. Weight Gain
The data on income, marketing weight and feed
MATERIALS AND METHODS efficiency were recorded and analysed using simple
Location of study statistical tools.
The present study was conducted at farmer’s
fields at five locations of district Kancheepuram RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
namely Chinnamangulam, Silavattam, It was found from that on an average the pekin
Pudhinathottam, Sogandi and Mudaiyur of various ducks attained the 1.780kg weight at 60 d of age as
blocks from using about 0.5 ha pond area. The duck compared to the desi bird (1.250 kg). The finding
sheds were constructed on the dyke of the fish ponds of better egg production capability of Pekin in the
using locally available wood and bamboo. The floor present study was in agreement with OnbaŞılar et
of each house was made of slated bamboo and the al (2011). The feed conversion ratio was found to
space between slates was just enough to facilitate be 3.75 in local ducks compared to 2.63 in Pekin
the wasted food and duck dropping to fall directly ducks. It was also observed that the mortality rate
into the pond water. The duck shed was partitioned of Pekin ducklings were reduced after advising the

218 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 217-220

 Performance of Pekin Ducks
Table 1. Average Marketing weight, Feed Efficiency and Income from Ducks.
Sr. No. Farmer Marketing weight Feed Efficiency Income BCR
Desi Pekin Desi Pekin No. of Income
Eggs /month
/month (Rs.)
1 Farmer 1 1.200 1.750 3.83 2.63 750 3750 1.72
2 Farmer 2 1.250 1.800 3.84 2.67 780 3900 1.69
3 Farmer 3 1.300 1.900 3.62 2.47 840 4200 1.82
4 Farmer 4 1.300 1.750 3.69 2.74 810 4050 1.62
5 Farmer 5 1.200 1.700 3.75 2.65 900 4500 1.68
Average 1.250 1.780 3.75 2.63 816 4080 1.71

farmers on scientific duck farming practices. The ducks and the number of eggs was increased. Hence,
benefit cost ratio was found to be 1.71 which in turn awareness was created among the duck farmers
reveals that Pekin duck farming is a better profitable on duck cum fish culture which in turn increase
venture to the farmers than desi ducks. their income in considerable amount to improve
The data (Table 2) showed that an average their livelihood status. Favorable cost benefit ratio
amount of Rs.1800/month was earned through desi was self explanatory of economic viability of the
duck eggs sales and Rs.2250/month through Pekin demonstration and convinced the farmers for
duck eggs sales @ Rs.5/egg. On an average 27 eggs adoption of intervention imparted. The technology
/day was collected from the ducks (Pekin + desi). suitable for enhancing the productivity of ducks
So the egg collection per month was around 816 and calls for conduct of such demonstrations under
nos. which in turn fetches him Rs. 4080/month and the transfer of technology programme by KVKs.
sold the eggs in the nearby market where there was
a great demand for duck eggs (Kumar et al, 2012). REFERENCES
Banerjee S Ruska N and Sudip B (2014). Study on the
It was also noticed that the benefit cost ratio for the zooplankton production in ponds under different fish
demo (1.71) was higher than the check (1.19). farming system in West Bengal. J Krishi Vigyan 3(1):79-
83.
CONCLUSION Misra V K Singh C P Singh N D Mishra T S Mishra N
The performance of Pekin ducks surpass the desi K Tripathi A N and Singh S (2019). Integrated Fish cum
ducks with the intervention on balanced nutrition Poultry Farming for Self Employment and Household
coupled with the disease management. The farmer’s Nutritional Security in Arunachal Pradesh. J Krishi
Vigyan 7 (2) : 163-167.
income was increased as the marketing weight of the

Table 2. Economic parameters of Pekin ducks and Desi ducks.

Sr. No. Parameter desi ducks Pekin ducks
1 Marketing weight (kg) 1.250 1.780
2 Feed Efficiency 3.75 2.63
3 Average no. of eggs /day 12 15
4 Income per month (Rs.5/egg) 1800 2250
5 BCR 1.19 1.71

219 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 217-220

 Devaki et al
Kumar J Y Chari M S and Vardia H K (2012). Effect of Thiele H H and Alletru B (2017). Feed Efficiency and
integrated fish-duck farming on growth performance Feeding Behaviour in Pekin Ducks. Accessed Semantic
and economic efficiency of Indian major carps. Live Res scholar on 19.11.2019. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/
Rural Dev 24(12): 15-19. a40b/7798a172e6c0dc4c82961239cebd48bf0ee2.pdf
OnbaŞılar E E Erdem E Poyraz Ö and Yalçın S (2011). Received on 18/11/2019 Accepted on 01/12/2019
Effects of hen production cycle and egg weight on egg
quality and composition, hatchability, duckling quality,
and first-week body weight in Pekin ducks.  Poult Sci
90(11), 2642-2647.

220 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 217-220

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 221-224 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00102.8

Peer Victimization among School Children

Varsha Saini* and Shanti Balda**
Department of Human Development and Family Studies
I.C. College of Home Science
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125 004 (Haryana)

ABSTRACT
In present scenario victimization has become a matter of great concern in schools. In this paper researcher
will discuss about peer victimization among children which can be defined as children experiencing spiritual,
physical, or property damage from a person or group in a aggressive and unfriendly environment. Peer
victimization associated with many types of adjustment difficulties. Students who are constant victims of
school bullying often rejected by their peers and they feel depressed, anxious, and lonely. Thus the aim of the
present study was to assess the peer victimization among school children. The present study was undertaken on
1070 children (570 rural and 500 urban) of secondary and senior secondary schools of Hisar district of Haryana
state. The study was conducted with all children enrolled in classes 6th to 10th from six selected schools (three
schools from urban area and three schools from rural area i.e. Ladwa). Multidimensional Peer-Victimization
Scale was used to assess the victimization among school children. Children were personally interviewed
about their victimization behaviour. Frequency, percentages and Chi- square test were used to analyse the
data. The results of the study highlighted that there was no association between peer victimization and rural-
urban setting but among boys and girls there was association between sex of child and peer victimization
and found to be significant. Further, results depicted that majority of children were mildly victimized.
Percentage of boys was greater in moderate and severe peer victimization behaviour as compared to girls.
Key Words: Peer victimization, sex, rural, urban

INTRODUCTION experiencing spiritual, physical, or property

Peer victimization is a problem of social concern damage from a person or group in a aggressive and
for researchers, educators, and clinicians. Children unfriendly environment (Anonymous, 2013).
pursuit for peer aggression are variously expressed Among school children it is expected that
as being bullied (Rigby, 1996), being victimized or 40 percent to 80 percent of children experience
sometimes as being rejected. Peer victimization bullying at some point during their school careers.
as single or repeated episodes of peer-perpetrated Earlier peer  victimization has been considered an
aggression that results in real or perceived harm to inevitable childhood occurrence. Parents, school
others (Finkelhor et al, 2012). Peer victimization has personnel, and health professionals have accepted
been defined as child suffering being exposed to the impact of being victimized on a range of
intentional injury or discomfort from one or more psychosocial adjustment problems, but now policy
age mates in the form of physical bullying ( hitting changes within schools have lagged, resulting in
and pushing), verbal bullying (making threats, few improvements in the situation.
calling a disliked nickname, and spreading rumors),
or other forms of bullying (Olweus, 1994). Further Peer victimization is not only quite prevalent
Peer  victimization  has been defined as children even it also associated with many of adjustment
difficulties (Juvonen and Graham, 2001). Students
Corresponding Author’s Email: varshasaini90@gmail.com
+Post-graduate teacher
**Professor

221 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 221-224

 Saini and Balda
who are constant victims of school bullying often (2). So, the range for the victimization could be
rejected by their peers and they feel depressed, 0 to 32 with higher scores indicating severe status
anxious, and lonely. Many studies suggested that of victimization in school children. Victimization
victimized youth also have physical problems and status was categorized in four categories i.e. not
they frequent visits to the hospitals (Nishina et al, involved, mild, moderate and severe.
2005).
In a study it was found that peer victimization RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
commonly occurs in school grounds where the level Extent of peer-victimization among rural and
of supervision is low (Vaillancourt et al, 2010). urban children
Many terms can be use to describe peer victimization The data (Table 1) revealed that 17.94 per
such as bullying, peer harassment, peer abuse, and cent of the children had not been peer victimized at
bullying victimization (Vitoroulis and Vaillancourt, all but about 60.18 per cent rural children and 60.0
2015). This study was conducted with an objective per cent urban were mildly victimized by peers.
to assess peer victimization among school children. This was followed by moderate (17.48 %) and
severe peer victimization (4.49%). c2 depicted no
MATERIALS AND METHODS association between peer victimization and rural-
The sample for the present study consisted of urban setting.
1070 school children (500 from urban and 570 from It can be interpreted from these results that about
rural schools) from the six selected schools in Hisar 18 per cent children were not at all victimized by
district of Haryana State. The samples were selected peers. Majority of children were mildly victimized
from both urban and rural (village Ladwa) areas. and about 5 per cent children were severely
To draw the sample three secondary and senior victimized. Some of these results get support from
secondary schools each were selected randomly the previous literature. (Troop-Gordon, 2017)
from Hisar city and each from rural area. All the studied and found that approximately 10-15 per
children participated in the study were enrolled in cent of youth continues to be victimized by peers
6th to 10th classes. throughout adolescence. Haltigan and Vaillancourt
Tools (2014) showed that majority of youth followed a
Multidimensional Peer-Victimization Scale trajectory of low and declining victimization between
by Mynard and Joseph (2000) was used to assess 5th and 8th grade and a small percentage, 14.5 per
victimization in children. This scale included 16 cent showed moderate and declining victimization
items and students were asked to respond on a over time. Another study also found that children
three-point Likert-type scale with the assigned have higher frequency of peer victimization during
values for not all (0), once (1), more than once middle-school years than during high-school years

Table 1. Extent of peer-victimization among rural and urban children. (n=1070)

Extent Rural (n=570) Urban (n=500) Total (n=1070) 2-value
Not at all (0) 100 (17.54) 92 (18.40) 192 (17.94)
Mild (1-10) 343 (60.18) 300 (60.00) 643 (60.09) 0.28
Moderate (11-20) 100 (17.54) 87 (17.00) 187 (17.48)
Severe (21-32) 27 (4.74) 21 (4.20) 48 (4.49)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages

222 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 221-224

 Peer Victimization among School Children
Table 2. Extent of peer-victimization among boys and girls (n=1070)
Extent Boys (n=571) Girls (n=499) 2-value
Not at all (0) 85 (14.89) 107 (21.44)
Mild (1-10) 317 (55.52) 326 (65.33)
47.56**
Moderate (11-20) 128 (22.42) 59 (11.82)
Severe (21-32) 41 (7.18) 7 (1.40)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages, **significant at 1% level of significance

(Hong and Espelage, 2012).
Extent of peer-victimization among boys and
girls
Table 2 depicts the extent of peer victimization
among boys and girls. It was evident that 14.89
per cent boys and 21.44 per cent girls were never
victimized. Finding also revealed that 55.52 per cent
boys and 65.33 per cent girls were mildly victimized
by peers, 22.42 per cent boys were in moderate
category of peer victimization and 7.18 per cent
belonged to severe category of peer victimization.
Among girls 11.82 per cent were in moderate
category of peer victimization and only 1.40 per cent
belonged to severe category of peer victimization.
c2 was computed to examine association between
sex of child and peer victimization and was found
to be significant (c2=47.56, d.f=1, p<.01).
It can be interpreted from these findings that boys
were more victimized by their peers as compared to
girls. On the other hand, many researchers found
in their study that boys were more physically
victimized and girls were more likely to be victims
of relational victimization (Chokprajakchat et al, Anonymous (2013). Ministry of Education, Taiwan, ROC.
2015). Among urban youth 32.8 per cent of boys
and 27.3 per cent of girls were involved in physical
peer violence victimization (Swahn et al, 2008).
CONCLUSION
On the bases results it can be concluded that
there was no association between peer victimization Nishina A , Juvonen J and Witkow M (2005). Sticks and
and rural-urban setting. But among boys and girls
there was significant association was between sex
of child and peer victimization. Majority of children
were mildly victimized. Majority of the children
both boys and girls were engaged in mild level
of peer- victimization. Percentages of boys were
greater in moderate and severe peer victimization
behaviour as compared to girls.
REFERENCES
Chokprajakchat S , Kuanliang A and Sumretphol, N (2015).
What children say about violence, victimization, and
punishment. J Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 13: 309- 329.
Finkelhor D , Vanderminden, J , Turner H , Shattuck A and
Hamby S. (2014). Youth exposure to violence prevention
programs in a national sample. Child Abuse and Neglect
38(4): 677-686.
Haltigan J D and Vaillancort T (2014). Join trajectories
of bullying and peer victimization across elementary
and middle school and associations with symptoms of
psychopathology. Developmental Psychology 50: 2426-
2436.
Hong and Espelage (2012). A review of research on bullying
and peer victimization in school: An ecological system
analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior  17(4):311-
322 · 
Juvonen, J and Graham S (2001). Peer harassment in school:
The plight of the vulnerable and victimized. New York:
Guilford Press.
School bullying prevention. Retrieved from https://csrc.
edu.tw/bully/bullying.asp (Original work published in
Chinese).
Mynard H and Joseph S (2000). Development of the
Multidimensional Peer-Victimization Scale. Aggressive
Behavior 26: 169–178.
stones may break my bones, but names will make me
sick: The consequences of peer harass145 Adolescent
Mental Health ment. J Clinical Child and Adolescent
Psychology 34: 37–48.

223 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 221-224

 Saini and Balda
Olweus D (1994). Bullying at school: Basic facts and effects of
a school based intervention program. J Child Psychology
and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 35(7): 1171–1190.
Rigby K (1996). Bullying in schools : And what to do about
it. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Swahn M H, Simon T R , Arias I and Bossarte R M (2008).
Measuring sex differences in violence victimization and
perpetration within date and same-sex peer relationships.
J Interpersonal Violence 23: 1120–1138.
Troop-Gordon W (2017). Peer victimization in adolescence:
The nature, progression, and consequences of being
bullied within a developmental context. J Adolescence
55: 116-128
Vaillancourt T, Trinh V, McDougall P, Duku E, Cunningham L,
Cunningham C, Hymel S and Short K (2010). Optimizing
population screening of bullying in schoolage children. J
School Violence 9: 233-250.
Vernberg E M (1990). Psychological adjustment and
experience with peers during early adolescence:
Reciprocal, incidental, or unidirectional relationships ? J
Abnormal Child Psychology 18: 187–198.
Vitoroulis I and Vaillancourt T (2015). Meta‐analytic results of
ethnic group differences in peer victimization. Aggressive
Behavior 41(2): 149-170.
Received on 10/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

224 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 221-224

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 225-230 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00103.X

Perception and Adoption of Soil Health Cards by Farmers in

YSR Kadapa District of Andhra Pradesh
Veeraiah1 A, Shilpakala1 V, Ramalakshmi devi2 S and Ankaiah Kumar2 K
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Utukur, Kadapa , YSR District– 516 003( Andhra Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to know the perception and adoption of soil health card
recommendations through purposive sampling of 60 respondents selected from twelve divisions of the
district. The data collected through interview schedule prepared for the purpose. The results showed
that majority of respondents had medium level of perception (91.67%) and adoption (71.67%). The
correlation Coefficients between independent variables, and dependent variables i.e., perception and
adoption showed non – significant relationship. With regard to constraints in adoption, respondents
expressed that crop not sown due to lack of rains, not able to understand the results given in soil
health cards and lack of faith in the results presented in soil health cards were the major constraints.
Key Words: Adoption, Perception, Soil health, Soil fertility.

INTRODUCTION all these parameters the soil health card will specify
Soil health and fertility are the basis for fertilizer recommendations and soil changes required
sustainable profitability of the farmers all over for the farm. SHC (Soil health card) will be made
the world.Further, utilising optimum doses available once in every 3 yr to farmers and this will
of fertilisers & cropping pattern according to indicate the status of soil health of his land for that
scientific recommendation is the initial step particular period. The state government collects soil
towards sustainable farming. As far as agriculture samples twice in a year after harvesting of Kharif
production is concerned, soil health play vital role and Rabi crop or when there is no standing crop.
in ensuring sustainable production with optimizing The main motive behind introducing the soil health
with utilization of fertilizer and reducing its waste scheme was to discover the type of particular soil
(Patel et al, 2017). Neufeld et al(2006) stated that and then tell farmers as to how they can improve it.
soil testing is necessary and available tool for Knowing the motive and importance of the soil
determining the amount of soil nutrients. For this health card the present investigation was undertaken
reason, Government of India launched Soil health to study the farmers perception and adoption of
card scheme on 19 February, 2015. The scheme soil health card recommendations and constraints
aims at promoting soil test based and balanced use associated with adoption of SHC’s by farmers.
of fertilisers to enable farmers to realise higher
yields at low cost and also to make them aware MATERIALS AND METHODS:
about the appropriate amount of nutrients for the The present study was conducted in YSR
concerned crop depending on the quality of soil. district of Andhra Pradesh. The district consists
Soil health card is basically printed report that a of 12 Agricultural divisions and 51 mandals. 12
farmer is given for all his land holdings. It contains Agricultural divisions were selected purposively
the status of soil considering 12 parameters N, P, K, and one mandal from each division i.e., 12 mandals
S, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Bo and PH, EC, OC. Based on and 5 farmers from each mandal thus, making a
Corresponding Author’s Email: daattc.kadapa@gmail.com
1
District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centre

225 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 225-230

 Veeraiah et al
Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to their personal, socio, economic characteristics .
(N=60)
Sr. No Characteristic Frequency Percentage
1. Age
Young age (Up to 35 Yr) 9 15
Middle age (36 – 50 Yr) 35 58
High age group(Above 50 Yr) 16 27
2. Education
Illiterate 12 20
Primary ( 1st to 7th Standard) 10 17
High School ( 8th to 10th Standard) 15 25
Intermediate (11th to 12th Standard) 9 15
Graduate &above 13 23
3 Farming Experience
Below 10 Yr 05 08
In between 10 – 20 Yr 27 45
Above 20 Yr 28 47
4 Size of Holding
Marginal (Below 1 ha) 7 12
Small (1 – 2.5 ha) 35 58
Medium(2.5 – 5 ha) 13 22
Large(Above 5 ha) 05 08
5 Annual Income
Below 1 lakh 45 75
Inbetween 1 – 2 Lakh 15 25
Above 2 Lakh - -
6. Sources of information
Scientists 14 23
ADA’s 1 2
MAO’s 22 37
AEO’s 14 23
Neighbours 8 13
Private dealers 1 2
7 Family Type
Joint 27 45
Nuclear 33 55

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 Perception and Adoption of Soil Health Cards
8 Family size
Up to 5
5 and above
9 Social participation
No membership
Membership in one organisation
10 Extension contact
Frequently
Some times
Rarely
total of 60 farmers for the study. To determine the
perception, adoption and constraints in adoption
of soil health cards, an interview schedule was
prepared. For perception measurement, 11
statements on three points continuum with the
score of agree 3 undecided 2 and Disagree 1 were
given for the response of farmers. With regard to
adoption, 6 statements with two point continuum
with the score of adopted 2 and not adopted 1 was
given for respondents. For assessing the constraints/
reasons for non adoption, a response was recorded
in the schedule itself. The frequency and percentage
for each were worked out and rank was given based
on frequency and percentage. Statistics such as
frequency, percentage, Mean, SD and correlation
coefficients were used in the presentation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of respondents
The data (Table I) indicated that majority of
the respondents (58%) from middle age group
followed by 27 per cent and 15 per cent from high
age group and young age group, respectively. This
might be due to moving of young age people for
other occupations. In cities due to higher income
compared to Agriculture.
In case of education, majority (25%) of the
respondents were educated up to high school level,
where as 23 per cent up to Graduate level 20 per cent
were illiterates. 17 per cent up to primary school
level and 15 per cent were Intermediate level. This
227 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 225-230
40 67
20 33
41 68
19 22
19 32
27 45
14 23
might be due to lack of Job opportunities for high
school and below high school level of education and
they stayed in villages and depend on Agriculture
for income.
The data (Table 1) revealed that majority (47%)
belong to above 20 yr of farming experience,
where as 45 and 8 per cent respondents possessed
10 – 20 yr and below 10 yr of farming experience,
respectively. This might be due to continuation of
old age people in farming and moving of young
people to cities for other jobs. The data about size of
holding indicated, majority (58%) belongs to small
farmers, 22 per cent possessed medium holdings,
12 per cent possessed marginal holdings and 8 per
cent possessed large holdings.
The data (Table 1) indicated that majority 75 per
cent getting below one Lakh income per annum and
where as 25 per cent respondents gained between
1 – 2 lakh annual income/yr. This might be due to
majority of the respondents belongs to small and
marginal farmers and also due to level of income
in agriculture compared to other enterprises. The
study revealed that majority 37 per cent respondents
contacted mandal agricultural officer for information
on agriculture, where as 23 per cent contacted
scientists. 23 per cent agricultural extension officers,
13 per cent neighbours, 2 per cent ADA’s and 2 per
cent approached private dealers. This might be due
to availability of mandal Agricultural officers very
nearer to them in terms of distance. Majority (55%)
belonged to nuclear family and 45 per cent had joint
 Veeraiah et al
family. This might be due to preference of people It could be observed that majority of the
towards nuclear families compared to joint families respondents (91.67%) had medium level of
at present in the existing society. perception, followed by low level of perception
The data further indicated that majority (67%) (8.33%) and high level of perception observed were
respondents contains up to 5 members only in nil. From the above results, it could be concluded
their family, where as 33 per cent of respondents that majority of respondents had medium level of
contains family size of above 5 members. This perception about soil health card recommendations
might be due to preference for nuclear families and its use.
and also due to self imposed restriction of having Table 3. Adoption level of farmers. (N=60)
one or two children per family. The above data Sr.No Level of Adoption Frequency Percentage
also revealed that majority (68%) of respondents
1. Low 17 28.33
had no membership in organisation; where as 32
2. Medium 43 71.67
per cent of respondents had membership in one
organisation. Further majority (45%) had extension 3. High Nil Nil
contact sometimes only, 32 per cent of respondents It could be seen that majority of farmers
had frequent extension contact and 23 per cent had (71.67%) had medium level of adoption of soil
rare extension contact. This might be due to that health card recommendations followed by low level
the programmes related to agriculture not regularly of adoption (28.33%) and Nil observed under the
attended by the farmers and also not approaching category of high level of adoption. From the above
the extension agencies for solving day to day findings, it could be concluded that majority of the
problems of Agriculture. farmers had medium level of adoption with regard
Table 2. Perception level of farmers. (N=60) to soil health card recommendations. The low
level knowledge was the reason for low adoption
Sr.No Characteristic Frequency Percentage percentage.
1. Low Perception 05 8.33
It was evident that the computed ‘r’ value
2. Medium 55 91.67
between age, education, experience in farming, size
Perception
of holding, annual income, sources of information,
3. High Perception Nil Nil

Table 4. Relationship between personal, socio economic characteristics of farmers and their
perception and adoption of soil health card recommendations.
Sr.No Variable Correlation Co-efficient ‘r’ value
Perception Adoption
1. Age -0.13 0.00
2. Annual income -0.36 0.13
3. Education -0.16 -0.17
4. Extension contact 0.14 0.22
5. Experience in farming -0.06 0.05
6. Family size -0.21 -0.20
7. Family type -0.29 -0.20
8. Size of holding -0.33 -0.12
9. Social participation 0.30 0.21
10. Sources of information -0.31 -0.13

228 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 225-230

 Perception and Adoption of Soil Health Cards
Table 5. Constraints faced by the farmers in adoption of soil health card. (N=60)
Sr.No Constraint Frequency Percentage Rank
1. Crop not sown due to lack of rains 8 14.81 I
2. Not able to understand the results given in soil health cards 4 7.40 II
3. Lack of faith in the results presented in soil health cards 4 7.40 II
4. Lack of irrigation facilities 3 5.50 III
5. Use of more fertilisers leads to more yields 2 3.70 IV
6. Expected yield will not be obtained 2 3.70 IV
7. Soil testing not done in their fields 2 3.70 V
8. Non issuance of new soil health cards 2 3.70 IV
9. Same results were observed in other cards 1 1.85 V
10. Low yields even if STBF application followed 1 1.85 V
11. Following the neighbouring farmers 1 1.85 V
12. Lack of timely rains 1 1.85 V

family size and family type were non significant
negative correlation observed with perception of
farmers about soil health card recommendations,
where as social participation, extension contact
were found non significant positive correlation with
perception of soil health card recommendations
among farmers.
Further, it was evident that the computed ‘r’
values of education, size holding, annual income,
sources of information, family size and family type
were non significant negative correlation observed with
adoption of soil health card recommendations, where
as age, experience in farming, social participation
and extension contact were found non significant
positive correlation with adoption of soil health cards
recommendations by the farmers(Table 4).
The perusal of data (table 5) revealed that the
respondents expressed that crops not sown due to
lack of rains (14.81%), not able to understand the
results given in soil health cards (7.40%), Lack of
faith in the results presented in soil health cards
(7.40%), lack of irrigation facilities (5.50%), use
of more fertilisers leads to more yields (3.70%),
expected yield not obtained (3.70%) soil test was
not done in their fields (3.70%) and non issue of
new soil health cards (3.70%) were the constraints
in adoption of soil health card recommendations.
But according to Padmaja and Angadi (2018) the
mean yields of kharif paddy, rabi paddy and maize
before and after distribution of soil health card
increased and it was not to the significant level.
CONSCLUSION
The study revealed that the respondents were
dominated by middle age group having high school
education with high farming experience. Similar
findings were reported by Chowdary et al (2018).
The majority farmers were with small holdings
and with majority were below one Lakh income.
Majority were approached mandal agricultural
officer for their information, families were nuclear
in nature with below 5 family members, majority
no social participation and extension contact with
some times only.
Further, the majority respondents showed
medium level of perception and adoption. The
relationship between personal, socio-economic
characteristics and their perception and adoption
of soil health card recommendations also showed
non significant relationship. The adoption of soil
health card recommendations by the respondents
was affected by the constraints i.e., non sowing of
the crop due to lack of rains, not able to understand
the results given in soil health cards, Lack of faith

229 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 225-230

 Veeraiah et al
in the results presented in soil health cards and Neufeld J, Cramb R, Catacutan D, Culsero-Arellano Z and
Lack of irrigation facilities etc. In order to improve Mriano K (2006). Farm level impacts of land care in
Lantapan. Working paper, No. 5. Philippines-Australia:
the adoption of soil health card recommendations, Land Care Project.
practical demonstrations to be organised on large
Padmaja B and Angadi J G ( 2018). Utilisation of soil health
scale, awareness meetings on interpretation soil card by farmers in nutrient management. Int J Curr
health cards and taking samples before farmer Microbiol App Sci 7 (12):1583-1592.
presence are needed. Patel G G, Lakum Y C, Akash Mishra and Bhatt J H (2017).
Awareness and knowledge regarding soil testing and
REFERENCES utility perception of soil health card. Int J Curr Microbiol
Chouhan R S, Sharma H O, Rathi D and Niranjan H K( 2017). App Sci 6(10):329-334.
Impact of soil health card scheme on farmers’ income- A Raghavendra chowdary K, Prasadbabu G and Theodore R
case study of kharif crops in Madhya Pradesh. Agril Econ (2018). Soil health card adoption behaviour of farmers in
Res Rev 30:139-141. Andhra Pradesh State of India. Int J Curr Microbiol App
Chowdary RK, Jayalakshmi M and Prasadbabu G ( 2018). Sci 7(12):4028-4035.
Factors determining the soil health card adoption Veeraiah A (1991). Study on Adoption and dissemination of
behaviour among farmers in Andhra Pradesh. An Asian J critical skills in rainfed Groundnut cultivation by the
Soil Sci. 13(1):8386. farmers trained in Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Anantapur
Jadav N B, Undhad S V and Sharma P S ( 2018) . Growers district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc(Ag) Thesis, Andhra
knowledge and adoption of chemical fertilizer in Bt Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar,
Cotton. J Krishi Vigyan. 7(Special issue): 69-73 Hyderabad.
Received on 24/07/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019

230 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 225-230

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 231-234 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00105.3

Potential of Dry Khirni (Manilkara hexandra Roxb.) Fruits as

Nutritional Substitute
Kanak Lata, Sanjay Singh, Raj Kumar and Shakti Khajuria
ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Panchmahal 389 340 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
Panchmahal district of Gujarat is having large undulating and hilly areas and scattered plantation of khirni
(Manilkara hexandra Roxb.). Khirni fruit is very potential minor fruit as it is full of antioxidants, minerals
and other phytochemicals. Dried fruits of khirni are used by the tribals and other local people during fast
in many festivals and treated as raisins. Recently, Central Horticultural Experiment Station, Vejalpur has
developed khirni variety Thar Rituraj which is early, semi-spreading type, regular bearer, semi-dwarf and
starts flowering in 4th year after planting. For easy harvesting, proper canopy architecture (plant height
up to 3.0-4.0 m) is required and for this, annual pruning (25-40 % of annual growth) during June-July is
very effective. A total of 10 genotypes were used for chemical analysis. The experiment was laid out in
completely randomized design with 3 replications. Fresh fruits of khirni (Thar Rituraj) recorded 5.10 g
average fruit weight, 24.80o Brix T.S.S., 0.35 per cent titratable acidity, 17.90 per cent total sugar and
28.40 mg/100g vitamin C and carotene (6.90 mg/ 100g). Dried fruits after one year recorded 64.20o Brix
T.S.S., 45.70 per cent total sugar and 1.30 per cent acidity. It may be concluded that sun drying with
the application of castor oil on the khirni fruits is very economical and eco friendly technology for the
resource poor farmers. There is need for further popularization of dried khirni fruits as nutritional substitute.
Key Words: Antioxidants, Minerals, Nutritional value, Phytochemicals.

INTRODUCTION soil moisture profile resulting into water stress in

Khirni (Manilkara hexandra Roxb.) is an soil during major parts of the year. Arid and semi-
economically multipurpose tree of the family arid regions have peculiar eco-climatological
Sapotaceae (Singh et al, 2015; Singh et al, 2017; features in which several major agronomical crops
Singh et al, 2019). The tree is medium size, fail to sustain. It is very hardy and thrives well on
evergreen with spreading growth habit. It bears rocky and gravelly soils.
oval, sweet edible fruit with one or more seeds. It Panchmahal is a tribal populated district of the
is commercially used as a rootstock for vegetative Gujarat. Climatologically, it comes under semi-
propagation of sapota in different parts of the arid zone. This region is endowed with plenty of
country. The fruit is good source of iron, sugars, scattered khirni plants in nearby villages and on the
minerals, protein and carbohydrate etc. The plant fringes of the cultivable land. Fresh fruits produced
can tolerate drought conditions if occurs for some in these areas are sold locally by the rural people
time as well as heavy rainfall conditions. Hot semi- at very cheap rate (Lata et al, 2019). Tribal people
arid zone is characterized by the low annual rainfall collect the fruits and sell to local traders @Rs
(750 mm) and the rainy spells are confined to 3 wet 20 to 30/- per kg. Famers were not adopting any
m (July to September) and the remaining parts of technology for value addition of fresh khirni fruits.
the year are dry months. The rains are also erratic Present study was undertaken with objective to
and often come in a few storms of short duration develop the low cost and eco friendly technology
which results in great runoff without charging the of value addition in khirni to support nutritional
Corresponding Author’s Email : kvkpanchmahal@gmail.com

231 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 231-234

 Lata et al
Table 1. Fruit quality attributes of Khirni genotypes.
Genotypes Fruit TSS Acidity (%) Total sugar Vitami C Carotene
weight ( Brix)
o (%) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g)
(g)
CHESK1 4.15 22.10 0.36 15.20 27.13 4.50
CHESK2 4.26 23.12 0.35 15.40 26.40 5.50
CHESK3 3.10 22.10 0.36 15.12 25.12 5.50
CHES K4 3.42 23.20 0.32 15.45 30.26 5.70
CHESK5 3.25 22.11 0.31 13.82 29.25 5.00
CHESK6 3.11 22.89 0.28 13.93 24.53 4.80
CHESK7 4.89 21.10 0.39 13.10 28.10 5.20
CHESK8 5.10 22.22 0.37 14.12 26.20 5.40
CHES K9 4.35 23.10 0.39 15.15 25.13 5.19
Thar Rituraj 5.15 24.89 0.36 17.93 28.45 6.80
CD(P=0.05) 0.12 1.13 0.09 0.45 0.52 0.32

security for the resource poor farming community.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Panchmahal organized
training programme for value addition of khirni
fruit to popularize among the local communities
with the collaboration of ICAR-C.H.E.S., Godhra.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fruits of 10 genotypes were collected from
experimental orchard of ICAR- Central Horticultural
Experiment station, Godhra and used for physico-
chemical analysis. The experiment was laid out in
completely randomized design with 3 replications,
parameters on fruit quality attributes were observed
on 1.0kg fruits each treatment. Number of fruits
per treatment varied in each genotype according to
its size. For drying, well ripened fruits free from
any bruising, blemishes and injury of different
genotypes were collected, they were dried and
evaluated for different fruit quality attributes. Total
soluble solids, Vitamin C, total sugar and carotene
content were analyzed by the method advocated
by AOAC (1980). Ten farm women were trained
as panelists to evaluate the product. Each farm
women was asked to taste the coded samples and
score each product for preference on a five-point
scale, ranging from most preferred (5) to the least
preferred (1). This process was repeated three times
and the results were recorded for statistical analysis.
The mean data were statistically analyzed as per
method given by Gomez and Gomez (1984). The
data statistically calculated as per method given by
Snedecor and Cochran, (1994).
For sun drying of fruits, the flow chart is as
under:
Fresh ripened fruits® sorting®washing®sun
drying for one week (42+ 2 oC)® cleaning of dried
latex from skin of fruits® application of castor oil
(50 ml/ kg fruits) ® storage in glass jar.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The fruit weight ranged from 3.10-5.10g and
found to be highest in Thar Rituraj, followed by
CHESK1 and CHESK7. Khirni fruits were rich
source of total soluble solids, sugars, vitamin C and
carotene and these values varied significantly in
different genotypes. Total soluble solids and total
sugar content of fruits ranged from 21.10 to 24.890
Brix and 13.10 to 17.93 per cent, respectively in
different genotypes.
The highest Total soluble solids (TSS) was
recorded in Thar Rituraj (24.890 Brix) followed

232 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 231-234

 Potentia of Dry Khirni
Table 2 Preference mean scores for dried khirni fruits.
Time period Appearance Color Texture Flavor Taste Over all Grading
during storage
after months
2 3.50 3.50 3.60 3.40 3.65 3.52 I
4 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.40 3.60 3.52 I
6 3.40 3.40 3.50 3.30 3.60 3.44 II
8 3.40 3.40 3.50 3.30 3.50 3.40 II
10 3.30 3.40 3.50 3.30 3.40 3.38 III
12 3.30 3.40 3.50 3.30 3.40 3.38 III

by CHESK3 and CHESK7. Maximum total sugar CONCLUSION

content was found in CHESK5 (17.93%), closely
followed by CHESK4 (15.45%) and CHESK2
(15.40%). Vitamin C content was found to be
highest in CHESK4(29.25 mg/ 100g) closely
followed by Thar Rituraj (28.45 mg/100g) ,
CHESK7(28.10 mg/ 100g) and CHESK1(27.13
mg/ 100g), whereas CHESK6 recorded the lowest
(24.53 mg/ 100g). Singh et al( 2017) and Malik et
al ( 2013) have also recorded the variation in fruit
quality attributes in different khirni genotypes.
Carotene content varied from 4.50-6.80 mg/100g
being highest in Thar Rituraj, closely followed by
CHESK2 and CHESK3. The remarkable variability
was observed in relation to fruit quality attributes of
khirni (Patel et al, 2009; Malik et al, 2010; Malik
et al; 2012, Lata et al, 2019). Dried fruits after one
year recorded 64.200 Brix T.S.S., 45.70 % total
sugar and 1.30 % acidity.
The data (Table2) revealed that the overall
highest grade (3.52) was given up to 4th m of storage Malik S K, Choudhary R, Kumar S, Dhariwal O P, Deswal
by the panel, followed by 6 and 12 m after storage.
For appearance, product got maximum score (3.50).
The highest score (3.60) for texture of product was
given after 2 and 4 m of storage. The preference
mean scores for flavor of the product were noted to Malik S K, Chaudhury R, Dhariwal O P and Bhandari D
be maximum up to 4th day of storage. The highest
score (3.6) for the taste of the product was found on
2nd and 4th m of storage. Malik S K, Kumar S, Choudhary R, Kole P R, Chaudhary
Selected khirni fruits of different genotypes
were cleaned with water followed by sun drying for
a week (42+ 2 oC). After drying, latex were cleaned
from fruit surface followed by polishing with castor
oil @ 50 ml/ kg fruits and storage in glass jar. It may
be concluded that sun drying with the application
of castor oil on the khirni fruits is very economical
and eco friendly technology for the resource poor
farmers. There is need for further popularization of
dried khirni fruits as nutritional substitute.
REFERNCES
AOAC (1980). Official methods of Analysis. Association of
official Agricultural Chemists. 13th Edn.Washington, D.C.
Gomez K A and Gomez A A (1984). Statistical Procedure for
Agricultural Research (2nd Edn.), John Wiley and Sos
Inc., New York.
Lata K, Kumar R and Singh S (2019). Khirni chhuhara: A
phytochemically rich nutritional substitute for tribal
farmers. Indian JAarid Hort 1(1):67-68.
R P S and Chaudhary R (2012). Socio-economic and
horticultural potential of Khirni [Manilkara hexandra
(Roxb.) Dubard]: a promising underutilized fruit species
of India. J Res Crop Evol 59 (6):1255-1265.
C (2010). Manilkara hexandra (Khirni). In: Genetic
Resources of Tropical Underutilized Fruits in India.
NBPGR, New Delhi, pp. 99-112.
R and Bhat KV (2013). Assessment of genetic diversity

233 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 231-234

 Lata et al
in khirni [Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard]:An
important underutilized fruit species of India using
random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. Indian J
Hort 70(1): 18-25.
Patel P R and Rao T V R (2009). Physiological changes in
relation to growth and ripening of khirni [Manilkara
hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard] fruit. Fruits 64 (3):139-146.
Singh Sanjay, Singh A K, Apparao V V and Bhargav R (2015).
Thar Rituraj: A new khirni variety. Indian Hort 60(6):14-
15.
Singh, Sanjay, Singh A K, Appa Rao V V and Bhargawa
R (2017).Genetic divergence in khirni ( Manilkara
hexandra) under semi- arid ecosystem of western India.
Indian J Agric Sci 87(3):337-41.
Singh Sanjay, Singh A K, Mishra D S, Appa Rao V V and Saroj
P L (2019).The Khirni (Monilkara hexandra Dubard).
CIAH/ Tech/Pub. No. 79, ICAR-CIAH, Bikaner, pp1- 25
Snedecor G W and Cochran W G (1994). Statistical Methods,
7th Edn. Oxford IBH Publishing Co., Calcutta, India.
Received on 01/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

234 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 231-234

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00106.5

Reasons for Discontinuance of Agricultural Innovations by

Farmers in Tarai Region of Uttarakhand
1
Arpit Huria, 2V L V Kameswari and 3Neelam Basera
Department of Agricultural Communication, College of Agriculture
G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 263 145 (Uttarakhand)

ABSTRACT
Innovations play an important role in increasing food production and optimizing resource utilization by
farmers. Despite herculean extension efforts, there is still a wide gap between agricultural technologies
developed at research institutions and their adoption by farmers. Often, innovations are rejected by the
farmers after initial adoption due to several reasons. Hence, this study was undertaken to find out the
reasons behind the discontinuance of agricultural innovations. The study was carried out in U.S. Nagar
district of Uttarakhand. Five agricultural innovations viz. direct seeding of rice, application of bioagents,
mushroom cultivation, polyhouse cultivation and nutritional gardening were selected for the study. For
data collection, 89 farmers were interviewed by the researcher using a pretested schedule. The findings
revealed that major reasons for discontinuance of agricultural innovations were non-availability of inputs
(68.57%), lack of extension agency contact/support (51.42%), lack of interest (37.14%), engagement in
other activities (28.57%), cumbersome operation & maintenance (28.57%) and lack of training (22.85%).
Key Words: Adoption, Agricultural innovations, Discontinuance, Farmers, Reasons for discontinuance.

INTRODUCTION but also have a potential to optimize resource

Agriculture sector continues to be the backbone
of Indian economy and play a key role in the socio-
economic development of the nation. Small farms
are the main providers of food and nutritional
security to the nation. But Indian farmers working
under small farms conditions face difficulties in
terms of limited access to technology, inputs, credit,
capital and markets. One of the serious challenges
facing agriculture sector today is the need to
produce more food for a growing population with
limited land and water resources which heightens
the critical role of innovations in making Indian
agriculture more competitive and sustainable. There
is a broad consensus that innovations are critical
for meeting the challenges that confront the human
race, including the need to improve competitiveness,
sustainability and equity in agriculture. Innovations
not only play an important role in food production
Corresponding Author’s Email: arpithuria@gmail.com
1
Ph.D. scholar, 2Professor, 3Senior Research Fellow, Deptt of Agricultural Communication, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technol-
ogy, Pantnagar
management and utilization by the farmers.
Rogers (2003) defined an innovation as an idea,
practice or object that is perceived as new by an
individual or unit of adoption”. Irrespective of time
when the idea or practice was originally developed,
it may be considered as an innovation when a
person first becomes aware of its existence. Using
something old in a new way or applying something
new to successfully produce desired change/
outcome can also be termed as an innovation. Thus,
“perceived newness” is the critical feature of any
innovation. A number of facts determine whether an
innovation will be adopted or rejected by the unit of
adoption. However, besides these two decisions, the
unit of adoption may decide to reject an innovation
after using it for some time, which is known as
discontinuance. Once the innovation is adopted,
the adopter usually continues to use it till a better

235 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 Huria et al
alternative is available. But, at times, the adopter or development staff to adopt acid treatment
may stop using it even when a better alternative is technology in their farms as they were not very
not available. Discontinuance refers to the decision confident in adopting the technology on their own
of the adopter to discard the innovation after which was not forthcoming. Wijerathna et al (2014)
bringing it to full use. Over a period of time, the found that marketing and transport problems were
real extent of adoption of innovation is indicated by the major reasons for discontinuation of protected
the number of adopters who are still using it at that cultivation by half of the farmers. The second
particular point of time and not the initial number important reason was pest and disease attacks
of adopters who had started using the particular (13%). Non-availability of labour in time (10%)
innovation. To find out the real adoption level, one and inability to maintain and low profit (7%) were
has to consider the number of discontinued users as the other reasons. Loganandhan et al (2015) in a
well and subtract their number from that of initial study on post adoption behavior of farmers found
adopters. that the discontinuance of red gram was due to less
Indimuli (2013) reported that among various preference and lack of awareness about the indirect
reasons which have been attributed to farmers’ benefit of border strip.
discontinuance decision, lack of information on Thus, finding out the reasons behind their failure
various aspects of the technology was the main is essential for generation of better innovations and
reason. Majority of the respondents did not know more successful efforts to diffuse them within the
where to get the planting material from. The second social system. Hence, this study was conducted to
reason was the high cost of tissue cultured plantlets find out the reasons for discontinuance of selected
when compared to conventional suckers. The last agricultural innovations in the study area.
reason was the greater requirement for water for
the tc-plantlets during their entire period of growth. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Palanisami et al (2014) found that one of the reasons The study was conducted in Udham Singh
for discontinuance was the insufficient knowledge Nagar district of Uttarakhand state because farmers
about drip irrigation system. Most of the farmers in the district are well known throughout the
were ignorant about the maintenance package to be country for their progressiveness and have shown
adopted for the drip system which acted as one of a great prosperity towards use of improved seeds,
the reasons for its discontinuance. The findings also fertilizers and agricultural technologies on a large
revealed that majority of the trained farmers (80%) scale. Agricultural innovations were listed. Five
expressed high cost of the water soluble fertilizers innovations that were promoted and disseminated to
as the major constraint. About half of them revealed farmers by scientists of the College of Agriculture,
that non-availability of pressure gauge was one of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology
the constraints. Some farmers (12%) were reluctant and Department of Agriculture in the last ten years,
to invest in the venturi unit which is needed for viz. direct seeding of rice, application of bioagents,
the adoption of fertigation and acid treatment as mushroom cultivation, polyhouse cultivation and
well. About 41 per cent of them stated that non- nutritional gardening were selected randomly for
availability of water soluble fertilizers in the local the study using chit method.
village/town market was one of the reasons for The initial list of adopters of these innovations
discontinuance of fertigation practice even though from four blocks in the district comprised of 138
they had been supplied with the fertilizer tank on respondents. Out of these, only 89 respondents
subsidy by the Government. One-fourth of the could be traced by the researcher and all of them
farmers (24%) expected the assistance of extension were selected for the study.

236 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 Reasons for Discontinuance of Agricultural Innovations
The potential reasons for the discontinuance Caste
of the innovations were listed on the basis of General 55 61.8
preliminary field visits and by concerning literature. OBC 13 23.6
The list was triangulated during pilot testing of the
SC/ST 21 14.6
interview schedule and the obtained reasons were
Education
ranked according to the frequency and percentage
after the final data collection. Illiterate 3 3.4
Can read & write only 1 1.1
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Primary education 11 12.4
Secondary education 11 12.4
Characteristics of the farmers
The findings revealed that most of the Higher secondary 14 15.7
education
respondents were middle-aged (44.90%), males
(84.3%), belonging to general caste (61.8%) and Diploma 1 1.1
were educated up to graduation level (32.6%). Most Graduation 29 32.6
of the respondents had small-sized families (78.7%), Post Graduation & above 19 21.3
farming was the primary occupation of majority of Family size
the respondents (73%) and 36.36% had business Small (2-6) 70 78.7
as the secondary occupation. It was found that Medium (7-11) 17 19.1
46.1% respondents owned marginal-sized holdings. Large (>12) 2 2.2
Majority of the respondents (97.8%) belonged to Primary Occupation
Above Poverty Line (APL) category, had low level Business 1 1.1
of social participation (81%), medium level of
Independent profession 3 3.4
information seeking behavior (46.1%) and neutral
Cultivation 65 73
attitude towards the research station (65.17%). Study
Service 7 7.9
also revealed that maximum number of respondents
had medium level of economic motivation (49.4%), Student 3 3.4
high innovativeness (59.6%) and medium level No work 10 11.2
of risk taking ability (61.8%). A brief account of Secondary Occupation
socio-economic, communication and psychological Labour 9 27.27
characteristics of farmers in the study area is given Business 12 36.36
below in Table 1. Independent profession 1 3.03
Table 1. Distribution of respondents on the Cultivation 2 6.06
basis of socio-economic, communication and Service 9 27.27
psychological characteristics. Size of the landholding
Characteristic Frequency Percentage Marginal (<1 ha) 41 46.1
Age Small (1-2 ha) 12 13.5
Young (21-38 yr) 35 39.4 Semi-medium (2-4 ha) 13 14.6
Middle (39-56 yr) 40 44.9 Medium (4-10 ha) 18 20.2
Old (57-74 yr) 14 15.7 Large (>10 ha) 5 5.6
Gender Family income
Women 14 15.7 APL category 87 97.8
Men 75 84.3 BPL category 2 2.2

237 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 Huria et al

Social participation spawn in case of mushroom cultivation. However,

Low 81 91 no such constraint was reported in case of polyhouse
Medium 7 7.9
cultivation and kitchen gardening. In case of
polyhouse cultivation, the National Horticultural
High 1 1.1
Board and the State Agricultural Department
Information seeking behavior
provided 50 per cent subsidy for construction. In
Low 39 43.8 case of kitchen gardening, trial packs were provided
Medium 41 46.1 during the training and later seeds and other inputs
High 9 10.1 were available at affordable prices.
Attitude towards Research Station
Table 2. Reasons for discontinuance of selected
Favourable 24 26.97 agricultural innovations.
Neutral 58 65.17
S r . Reason for Percentage Rank
Unfavourable 7 7.86
No. discontinuance
Economic motivation
1 Non availability of 68.57 1
Low 7 7.9 inputs
Medium 44 49.4 2 Lack of extension 51.42 2
High 38 42.7 agency contact/support
Innovativeness 3 Lack of interest 37.14 3
Low 9 10.1 4 Engaged in other 28.57 4
Medium 27 30.3 activities
High 53 59.6 5 Cumbersome operation 28.57 4
Risk taking ability and maintenance
Low 24 27 6 Lack of training 22.85 5
Medium 55 61.8
High 10 11.2 7 No nearby market 14.28 6
where produce can be
Reasons for discontinuance of agricultural sold
innovations 8 Lack of funds 8.57 7
A number of reasons were found during the 9 Culturally/socially non-
2.85 8
study that led to the discontinuance of agricultural acceptable
innovations by farmers in the study area (Table 2). *Multiple responses
Non-availability of inputs Lack of extension-agency contact
Non-availability of inputs was cited as the Another important reason cited by the
reason for discontinuance by maximum number of respondents for discontinuance of the agricultural
respondents (68.57%). The inputs, however, vary innovations was the lack of contact/support of
from innovation to innovation. Non-availability of the extension agency/research station. In case
inputs was found to be especially critical in case of direct seeding of rice, heavy weed infestation
of three innovations viz., direct seeding of rice, was noticed by the farmers and they lacked the
use of bioagents and mushroom cultivation. Under scientific knowledge of weed management. Hence,
this, the respondents reported non-availability of after adoption they expected the extension agency/
weedicides in case of direct seeding of rice, non- research station to provide information/solution for
availability of bioagents and lack of good quality the problem. However, the support of the extension

238 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 Reasons for Discontinuance of Agricultural Innovations
agency/research station was not forthcoming at this
point because of which a large number of farmers
discontinued direct seeding of rice. In case of
polyhouse cultivation also, less than satisfactory
contact/response by the extension agency was
reported by some farmers. In case of application of
bioagents, the farmers were given bioagents as a part
of project on a one-time basis. Hence, they expected
support from the extension agency/research station
for the supply of bioagents after adoption which was
not forthcoming. In case of mushroom cultivation,
support by the extension agency was appreciated by
the respondents and it was reported that they had
frequent contacts with the extension agency either
through visit by the Subject Matter Specialist or
visits of the respondents to the research station. The
findings were in line with the study of Oladele and
Adekoya (2006) who found that lack of extension
support was the major reason for discontinuance of
farm innovations.
Lack of interest
Lack of interest was also cited as the reason of
discontinuance by some respondents. It was found
that some of the respondents had initially adopted
the innovation due to free distribution (application of
bioagents) or had attended the training programme
with no serious intention of adopting the innovation
(for eg. mushroom cultivation). Lack of interest
was not a serious constraint for adoption of direct
seeding of rice and polyhouse cultivation as these
innovations were mainly promoted among people
who had agriculture as their primary occupation
and were hence keen about innovations that are
likely to increase their farm productivity.
Engagement in other activities- Mushroom
cultivation was mostly adopted by people who
either had a secondary occupation or whose primary
occupation was not farming. Hence, these people
could not spare time for continuing mushroom
cultivation and cited pre-occupation with other
income-generation activities as the reason for
discontinuance. These people initially took up
mushroom cultivation as an additional livelihood
239 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242
activity but were not able to spare time for its
continuation. In case of the other four innovations,
engagement in other activities was not cited as the
main reason for discontinuance as the respondents
were primarily engaged in agriculture.
Cumbersome operation and maintenance
Complexity of an innovation is defined as
the degree to which it is perceived to be difficult
to understand and use. Complexity is one of
the important attributes of an innovation and is
negatively related to the rate of adoption. In other
words, more complex an innovation, there is less
likelihood of it being adopted by the potential
adopters. In case of direct seeding of rice, rampant
weed infestation was one of the major problems.
This not only reduced the yield but also made it
difficult to carry out other farm operations (irrigation
and application of fertilizers became much more
cumbersome process in plots where direct seeding
of rice was carried out). No such issue was reported
as a problem in case of the other four innovations.
Lack of training
Training is an important input not just prior to
adoption but also for continuation of the innovation.
Information needs of the adopters vary in different
stages of the Innovation Decision Process and
training plays a critical role in fulfilling these needs.
During the study, training support was found to
be lacking at two stages: pre-adoption and after-
adoption. In case of application of bioagents, the
innovation was distributed to the respondents and
they were told to apply it in their fields without
any training on its working, importance and use.
In case of polyhouse cultivation and mushroom
cultivation, training was given to the respondents
prior to adoption. Despite this, respondents felt that
they needed follow-up training on construction of
the structures and disease-management. In case
of polyhouse cultivation, the respondents felt that
the content of the training programme was out-of-
date. Some of them reported that they had received
training in the neighboring states and felt that
 Huria et al
training content of the research station should be factor leading to adoption and continued use of
updated according to what was taught there. an innovation. Compatibility of an innovation is
defined as the degree to which it is perceived to be
Lack of market in line with past experiences, values and needs of
In today’s world market-ward orientation of the potential adopters. It has a significant positive
agriculture is seen as a pre-requisite especially for relationship with the rate of adoption. Direct seeding
small holders. Consequently, efforts are being made of rice is carried out in a manner different from the
to incorporate changes in the sector which are going conventional type of rice-cultivation. As a result,
to give better returns to the farmers. Diversification adopters of this innovation eventually faced social
of agriculture is one such strategy. Studies also ridicule by fellow farmers who had not adopted the
indicate that innovations which had greater relative innovation. This led to eventual discontinuance of
advantage (more returns in this case) are more likely direct seeding of rice in some cases.
to be accepted easily by the potential adopters. It
was reported that the respondents had discontinued Besides these reasons, during the study the
mushroom cultivation due to lack of market. researcher also came across some unanticipated
Marketing in case of mushrooms is complicated reasons that eventually led to the discontinuance
by the fact that the produce is highly perishable, of the selected agricultural innovations. A large
lack of awareness among local consumers are not number of farmers in the study area follow rice-pea/
aware and far-off markets which look for bulk mustard-rice cycle. In such cases, the summer rice
suppliers (most of the respondents who had adopted is ready for harvesting only by June-July. In case of
mushroom cultivation were doing it on a small direct seeding of rice, the sowing has to be done in
scale). Availability of market was a non-issue for the first fortnight of June which is not possible as
the other innovations. the field is not ready. Also, it was found that due to
heavy weed infestation and lack of control measures,
Lack of funds the yield was comparatively lower than expected in
Some respondents also reported lack of funds case of direct seeding of rice. The problem of weed
as the reason for discontinuance of the innovations. infestation was made worse by lack of availability
In the study area, some polyhouse structures were of labour for farm operations during the monsoon
damaged by accidental fire, thunderstorms etc. and period. In some cases of polyhouse cultivation,
it was found that the farmers were unable to repair pest infestation led to severe damage to the crop
or rebuild the structure due to lack of funds. The and heavy losses. As a result, the farmers had to
initial structures were often set up with the help of uproot the entire crop and re-sow the area thereby
government subsidies and they were unable to bear increasing the production cost considerably.
the cost of repair or rebuilding. In some cases, it From Table 3 it was evident that direct
was also found that the farmer had not yet received seeding of rice was mainly discontinued due to
the subsidy from the government and had taken non-availability of weedicides and complexity of
a loan to construct the initial structure. In such operations. In case of bioagents, the respondents
cases, damage to the structures led to financially mainly discontinued due to lack of support by the
gregarious condition for the farmer. The results extension agency and lack of any serious intention
were in line with those of Sofranko et al (2004) who to adopt the innovation since the beginning. On the
reported similar results. other hand, mushroom cultivation was discontinued
Culturally/socially not acceptable due to engagement in other income generating
Compatibility with social norms is an important activities by the respondents.

240 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 Reasons for Discontinuance of Agricultural Innovations
Table 3. Innovation-wise reasons for adopter decides to adopt or reject an innovation
discontinuance. following interaction with other members within
Sr. Reasons for Percentage Rank
the social system. Experiences of others not only act
No discontinuance as vicarious trials but also influence one’s adoption
1 Direct seeding of rice
decision. In case of mushroom cultivation, it was
found that some of the respondents had decided not
Non-availability of 87.5 1
inputs
to adopt due to less than satisfactory experience of
other adopters (lack of market, training and non-
Cumbersome operations 62.5 2
and maintenance
availability of good quality spawn).
Lack of extension agency 50.0 3
contact/support
CONCLUSION
There were several reasons for discontinuance
Culturally/socially not 6.25 4
acceptable
of agricultural innovations in the study area. The
most important reason for discontinuance was non-
2 Bioagents
availability of inputs. Non-availability of weedicides
Lack of extension agency 83.33 1
in case of direct seeding of rice, bioagents for
contact/support
application and good quality spawn in case of
Lack of interest 83.33 2
mushroom cultivation led to the discontinuance of
Non-availability of 75.0 3 these innovations. Lack of extension agency contact/
inputs
support was found to be another major reason for
3 Mushroom cultivation discontinuance, especially in case of direct seeding
Engaged in other 80.0 1 of rice and application of bioagents. Lack of interest
activities was also cited as the reason of discontinuance in
Lack of market 60.0 2 case of application of bioagents and mushroom
Lack of training 40.0 3 cultivation. Respondents’ engagement in other
4 Polyhouse cultivation activities led to the discontinuance of mushroom
Lack of funds 75.0 1 cultivation in some cases. Cumbersome farm
Lack of training 50.0 2 operations due to rampant weed infestation in the
During the study, an attempt was also made by fields of direct seeded rice led to the discontinuance
the researcher to find out the reasons where non- of the practice. Lack of funds to reconstruct the
adoption was high (mushroom cultivation and accidently-destroyed polyhouses and mushroom
polyhouse cultivation). It was found that in case of huts was the another important reason to discontinue
both these innovations, farmers did not adopt due to these practices.
non-availability of infrastructure. Some respondents Non-availability of labour for farm operations,
did not adopt as they did not have sufficient land to unsuitable sowing-time in case of direct seeding
set up the infrastructure. On the other hand, in some of rice and huge crop losses in case of polyhouse
cases, it was also found that while the respondent cultivation due to severe pest incidences were the
had sufficient land to construct the structure required unanticipated reasons for discontinuance of the
for mushroom cultivation or polyhouse, they did not corresponding innovations. In order to prevent the
have funds for the same. Studies on diffusion and higher extent of discontinuance of useful agricultural
adoption of innovations indicate that interpersonal innovations, the role of extension agencies should
channels and peer groups play an important role in extend beyond mere information giving in present
furthering the adoption process. Often, a potential day context and should include providing inputs or

241 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 Huria et al
linking the clients with input agencies. In case of Palanisami, K, Ranganathan, R R C, Kumar, S D and Malik,
innovations that are market oriented, the agencies R P S (2014). Enhancing the crop yield through capacity
building programs: Application of double difference
should examine the market before promoting the method for evaluation of drip capacity building program
innovation. They may also suggest possible buyers in Tamil Nadu State, Indian J Agril Sci 5(2): 33-42.
to the adopters. Rogers, EM (2003). Diffusion of Innovations, 5th Edn. Free
Press. New York.
REFERENCES Wijerathna, M, Weerakkody, W A P and Kirindigoda, S (2014).
Indimuli, R (2013). Factors Influencing the Discontinuance Factors Affecting the Discontinuation of Protected
in Adoption of Tissue Culture Banana Technology: A Agriculture Enterprises in Sri Lanka. The J Agril Sci
Study of Smallholder Farmers in Maragwa District. 9(2):78-87.
Unpublished Thesis. Institute for Development Studies,
University of Nairobi. Received on 05/08/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019
Loganandhan, N, Patil, S L, Srivatsava, S K and Ramesha, S
K (2015). Post Adoption Behavior of Farmers towards
Soil and Water Conservation Technologies in a Semi-
Arid Watershed. Indian Res J Ext Edu 15 (1): 40-45.

242 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 235-242

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 243-246 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00107.7

Regression Analysis of Knowledge Level and Socio Economic

Impact of Drip Irrigation System with the Selected
Characteristics of Drip Owners
Mahammad Shafi Rupanagudi Shaik *1, Swati Khandave2 and Nikitaben Thakor3
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, 385506 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
Drip method of irrigation has immense potential to enhance the productivity of several crops and socially
beneficial for improving the profitability by reducing the cost of cultivation. Thus, this study aimed
to investigate the relationship between socio economic impact and knowledge level with profile of
drip farmers. A total of 150 respondents were selected by using randomly sampling technique. In the
regression analysis 46.50 per cent and 16.70 per cent of the socio economic impact of drip irrigation and
knowledge level of drip irrigation were influenced by the profile of drip owners. Whereas education,
attitude and extension contact variables predicts the socio economic impact of drip irrigation system and
knowledge level on drip irrigation system was predicted by the age, education and social participation.
Key Words: Analysis, Characteristics, Drip Irrigation System, Knowledge level, Socio-Economic, Impact.

INTRODUCTION income from the agriculture by saving of water,

In India, demand of water for all the major
sectors is growing spontaneously and demand
management mechanism becomes the major key
strategy to manage scarce resources of water. Water
is going to be increasingly scarce and thereby
limits the agricultural development in almost all the
corner of entire world. Efficient development with
proper management of the scarce water resources
is the key determinants for achieving food security
not only for India, but for the entire world. Drip
method of irrigation has immense potential to
enhance the productivity of several crops with a
reduction in the cost of cultivation, the reason is drip
system of irrigation increased benefits through well
sponsored central as well as state subsidy schemes.
The drip irrigation in agriculture is profitable and
socially beneficial to the farmers as it reduces
the cost of water extraction by adoption of solar
energy. The consequent effect of drip irrigation
system are reflected in terms of generating more
labour, fertilizers and plant protection measures.
Several socio economic factors are responsible for
creating impact of drip irrigation technology viz.,
knowledge of drip irrigation system, attitude, social
participation, income, area under drip, crops grown
etc. The regression analysis was done to study the
influence of the independent variables on dependent
variable.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in purposively
selected Aravalli district of Gujarat state by Ex-
post facto research design. The district has six
talukas, out of these, Bhiloda, Dhansura, and
Bayad districts were selected randomly. From the
selected talukas, five villages were selected on the
basis of more number of farmers those adopted
drip technology. Thus, total 15 villages having
more number of drip farmers were selected. A list
of farmers who installed drip irrigation system on

*
Corresponding Author’s Email: shafiagri23@gmail.com
1&3
Ph. D. Scholar, Dept of Agri. Extn. and Communication, B. A. College of Agriculture, A.A.U., Anand, Gujarat – 388001
2
Associate professor, Collage of Agriculture, Pune, Maharashtra.

243 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 243-246

 Shaik et al
their farm was prepared from each selected village.
Ten respondents from each village were selected
by using random sampling techniques making a
sample of 150. The data were collected personally
by interviewing, the selected drip owners with the
help of carefully constructed structured and pre-
tested interview schedule. Regression coefficient
was used to find out relationship between the
selected attributes of drip farmers with knowledge
and socio economic impact of drip technology with
the help of following formula.
Y = a+bX+c
Whereas Y represents the observed values of the
dependent variable, and X represents the values
of the independent variable. While a is slope of
regression line and c is constant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was evident (Table 1) that R2 value was 0.167
revealed that there was around 16.70 per cent
influence on knowledge level of farmers about drip
irrigation. The F values found to be significant at
0.01 level of significance. So, it can be interpreted
that knowledge level was significantly influenced
by the profile of selected respondents in the Aravali
District. Similar results were found by Verma
(2017).
Data (Table 2) revealed that characteristics
like age, education and social participation were
better able to predict knowledge level of drip

Table 1. Regression analysis between Knowledge level and Profile of Drip farmers.
Adjusted R Std. Error of
Model R R Square F value Significance
Square the Estimate
Profile of drip
.472a .223 .167 4.62911 3.995 0.000**
farmers
**Significant at 0.01 per cent level

Table 2. Regression analysis with the characteristics of drip farmers and knowledge level .
Variable Predictor Variable Regression Level of
t- Ratio
Coefficient Significance
Knowledge Age .498 4.658 .000**
level Education .438 4.366 .000**
Social participation .166 2.201 .029*
Area under DIS -.123 -.517 .606
Irrigation potentiality .044 .381 .704
Cropping intensity -.027 -.225 .823
Annual income .121 .511 .610
Economic motivation .017 .193 .847
Attitude .064 .603 .548
Extension contact .014 .142 .887

**Significant at 0.01 per cent level

*Significant at 0.05 per cent level

244 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 243-246

 Regression Analysis of Knowledge Level
Table 3. Regression analysis between Socio economic impact and Profile of Drip farmers.
Adjusted R Std. Error of
Parameter R R Square F value Significance
Square the Estimate
Profile of drip
.682a .465 .427 2.42512 12.095 .000**
farmers
** Significant at 0.01 per cent level
farmers (The results of this study were in line with 0.465 which means that there was an around 46.50
Babu et al (2017). The probable reason might be per cent influence on socio economic impact of
age, education and social participation had shown drip irrigation system. The F values found to be
highly significant relationship with knowledge significant at 0.01 level of significance. So, it can
because majority of the drip farmers were middle be interpreted that socio economic impact was
aged group and were more interested to get more significantly influenced by the profile of farmers in
information on drip system to increase their the Aravali District. Similar results were found by
income level through production. Whereas the high Vinayakumar et al (2013)
education status of drip farmers may be influenced It was evident (Table 4) that the characteristics
to get more information on drip irrigation systemviz., education, attitude and extension contact were
increased their knowledge and participation in any
better able to predict socio economic impact. The
meetings conducted by any organisation on drip results of this study were in line with the results of
irrigation may influence the drip farmers to get the study conducted by Jitarwal and Sharam, (2007)
more knowledge on drip irrigation system. and Kumar and Jitarwal (2012). The probable
The result of regression analysis is depicted reason might be that education, attitude and
in Table 3. Results stated that the R2 value was extension contact having highly significance with

Table 4. Regression Analysis with the characteristics of drip farmers and socio economic impact.
Variable Predictor Variable Regression Level Of
“t” Ratio
Coefficient Significance
Socio economic Age .047 .534 .594
impact Education .354 4.259 .000**
Social participation .070 1.114 .267
Area under DIS .181 .914 .362
Irrigation potentiality .103 1.071 .286
Cropping intensity .025 .254 .800
Annual income -.130 -.662 .509
Economic motivation .143 1.965 .051
Attitude .212 2.390 .018*
Extension contact .172 2.035 .044*
**Significant at 0.01 per cent level
*Significant at 0.05 per cent level

245 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 243-246

 Shaik et al
socio economic impact are due to the drip farmers on drip irrigation system showed high relationship
who adopted drip irrigation system having high with age education and social participation. The
education status may influence the farmers towards reason may be middle aged farmers may have more
the adoption of new technologies i.e., drip irrigation interest to get more knowledge on drip irrigation
system. Moreover change in attitude might be due system. Whereas membership in drip company may
to acute shortage of water, financial incentives influenced them to get more information on drip
under schemes may be motivated the farmers irrigation system.
towards drip irrigation and due to higher education
status farmers may be contacted to extension agents REFERENCES
for any information regarding the Drip irrigation Babu T M, Lakshmi T, Sathya Gopal P V and Prasad S V
system (2017). Extent of knowledge and its influence various
variables on micro irrigation system (MIS) among APMIP
beneficiaries. Bull Env Pharmaco Life Sci 6 (1): 452-456
CONCLUSION
Jitarwal R C, and Sharam N K (2007). Impact of drip irrigation
The aim of the study was to examine the technology among farmers in Jaipur region of Rajasthan.
relationship between socio economic impact and Indian Res J of Ext Edu 7 (2&3):88-89.
knowledge about drip irrigation with the personal Kumar M and Jitarwal R C (2012). Review of factors affecting
characteristics of drip farmers. The overall results the adoption of drip irrigation technology. J Krishi
showed that the drip farmers achieved high socio Vigyan 1(1):69-71.
economic status due to higher education level, Vinayakumar H M, Mahatabali K M, Sujaykumar S, Ramanna
attitude and extension contact of drip farmers K N and Gowda G V (2013). Personal and socio
exclusively. These characteristics influenced due psychological characteristics of the beneficiary farmers
of community based tank management project and their
to education level, due to shortage of water, to
relationship with socio-economic status. Int J Adv Bio
promote the drip irrigation system by government Res 3(2):184-187.
to increase irrigation efficiency and attending Verma H L, and Sharma S K (2017). Factors Associated with
seminars and trainings conducted by various Adoption of Drip Irrigation System by the Farmers in
agencies to get more information may influenced Bikaner District of Rajasthan. Asian J Agri Ext Eco &
to increase the socio economic status. Knowledge Socio 18(1): 1-8.
Received on 31/07/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019

246 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 243-246

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 247-251 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00108.9

Resource Use Efficiency of Bt Cotton in Hanumangarh

District of Rajasthan
Vikas1, Hari OmSharma2 and Mukesh Kumar3
Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management,
College of Agriculture, Jawaharlal Nehru KrishiVishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur 482 004 (Madhya Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
An attempt has been made to examine the resource use efficiency of Bt cotton in Hanumangarh district
of Rajasthan. The purposive random sampling method was used to select 60 farmers. Survey method
was adopted to conduct the inquiry by personal interview with the help of interview schedule. The
Cobb-Douglas production function was used for estimation of the resources use efficiency. The results
revealed that the Marginal Value Product (MVP) to Marginal Factor Cost (MFC) ratio for human labour
(1.44), machine labour (5.07), seed (12.76) and irrigation (1.88) were found to be underutilized, which
implies the increased usage of these inputs add to the gross income from cultivation of Bt cotton.
Hence, there is an ample potential of raising Bt cotton production through adoption of improved and
new technologies and optimum utilization of resources like human labour, machine labour, seed,
manure and fertilizer, plant protection chemical (PPC) and irrigation with better management practices.
Keywords: Bt cotton, Marginal value product, Marginal factor cost, Resource use efficiency.

INTRODUCTION Resource use efficiency can be defined as the

Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is a natural fibre
of vegetable origin, like linen, jute or hemp and
composed of cellulose. The cotton is a variety of
plants of the genus Gossypium, belonging to the
Malvacae family. It is an important fibre crop of
global significance, which is, cultivated in tropical
and sub-tropical regions of more than seventy
countries across the world(Manjunath et al,2013).
In India cotton the white gold and king of fibres,
is an important commercial crop. Cotton plays a
key role in the national economy in terms of both
employment generation and foreign exchange
earnings (Reddy et al, 2011). Rajasthan is one of
the important states in terms of cotton cultivation.
Being a major commercial crop, cotton occupies
an important place in agricultural scenario of
Rajasthan. It covered an area of about 4.71 lakh
ha with the production of 15.60 lakh bales in
2016-17(Anonymous, 2018).
ability to derive maximum output per unit of resource.
Resource allocation and productivity is an important
aspect to increased agricultural production, which
is associated with the management of the farmers,
who employ these resources in production. Actual
yield of Bt cotton differ significantly from potential
yield and this has been attributed to low resource
productivity. Farmers might use resources rationally
but not at the economic optimal level. As the aim of
every agribusiness firm is to maximize profit while
minimizing cost, it is important to determine the
efficiency of resource-use.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan was selected
purposively as this district covered highest area
(34.15%) of Bt cotton to total area in the state in
2016-17. The district consists of seven blocks:
namely, Hanumangarh, Tibbi, Sangaria, Pilibanga,

Corresponding Author’s Email: vikasjhorarhmh22@gmail.com

1
Post graduate student 2Professor 3Ph.D. Scholar

247 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 247-251

 Vikas et al
Rawatsar, Bhadra and Nohar, out of which
Hanumangarh block was considered for study
purpose as this block cover highest area (28.15%)
under Bt cotton in the district. A list of villages
was prepared form the selected block and five
village viz. Dablirathan, Pakkasaharana, Dholipal,
Rodawaliand Nourangdesar were selected on the
basis of maximum area of Bt cotton. Purposive
random sampling method was used for selection of
samples. A list of Bt cotton growers were prepared
of these selected villages and further categorized
into three size groups small (upto 2.0 ha), medium
(2.01 to 4.0 ha) and large (above 4.0 ha). 20 farmers
were selected randomly from each category. Thus,
the total 60 farmers were considered for detail
investigation to fulfill the stated objectives. Primary
data collected from the selected respondents.
Survey method was adopted to conduct the inquiry
by personal interview with the help of interview
schedule. The study was conducted during the year
2018-19.The Cobb-Douglas production function
was used for estimation of the resources use
efficiency of different sizes of Bt cotton growers.
The Cobb Douglas production function was as
under
Y= a X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6
Where, Y=Gross income (in Rs)
a= Constant
X1 =Expenses on human labour (in Rs) fertilizer, plant protection chemicals and irrigation
X2 =Expenses on machine labour (in Rs)
X3 =Value of seed (in Rs) cent (small farmers), 77 per cent (medium farmers),
X4 =Value of manure and fertilizer (in Rs)
X5 =Value of plant protection chemical(PPC)(in Rs)
X6 =Irrigation charge (in Rs)
b1-b6 =Regression co-efficient of concerned
variables
Marginal Value Product (MVP) in relation to
Marginal Factor Costs (MFC)
To decide whether a particular input is used
rationally or irrationally, its marginal value product
248 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 247-251
(MVP) was computed.
The marginal value product was calculated at
the geometric mean levels of variables by using the
formula:
MVPith resource = bi /i
Where, = Geometric mean of the gross income
= Geometric mean of ith independent variable
i
bi = The regression co-efficient of the ithindependent
variable
In order to determine the efficiency of allocation
of the resources or price efficiency, the value of
the marginal product obtained by multiplying the
marginal product by the price of the product was
compared with its marginal cost. The criterion
for determining optimality of resource use was as
follows:
MVP/MFC > 1: Underutilization of resources
MVP/MFC = 1: Optimal use of resources
MVP/MFC < 1: Overutilization of resources.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Resource use efficiency
The Cobb- Douglass production function
choose gross income realized from Bt cotton output
as dependent variable while expenditure made on
human labour, machine labour, seed , manure and
as independent variables. The inputs included in
function explained 92 per cent (overall) and 86 per
95 per cent (large farmers) variation in gross income
from Bt cotton as revealed by the coefficient of
multiple determination (R2), which indicated that
the selected form of the production function was
best fit (Table 1). The summation of regression
coefficients was found to be less than one, which
indicated decreasing returns to scale i.e. for each
incremental use of all inputs. Simultaneously,
farmers would get less than one unit of output for
overall (0.98) and for small (0.90), medium (0.30)
and large farmers (0.37).
 Resource Use Efficiency of Bt Cotton
Table 1.Factors affecting gross income in different size of farms.
Sr.No. Particular Small farmers Medium farmers Large farmers Overall
(upto 2.0 ha) (2.01 to 4.0 ha) (above 4.0 ha)
A Regression coefficient (bi)
of
1 Human labour (X1) -0.318 0.129 0.141* 0.269*
(0.217) (0.248) (0.054) (0.118)
2 Machine labour( X2) 0.493* 0.127** -0.057 0.399**
(0.198) (0.044) (0.058) (0.082)
3 Seed (X3) 0.517** 0.274* 0.189** 0.379**
(0.183) (0.121) (0.057) (0.066)
4 Manure and fertilizer (X4) -0.031 -0.174 -0.015 -0.061
(0.251) (0.109) (0.059) (0.048)
5 PPC (X5) -0.200 -0.119 -0.010 -0.025
(0.086) (0.095) (0.014) (0.038)
6 Irrigation (X6) 0.436** 0.066 0.126* 0.023
(0.134) (0.180) (0.055) (0.137)
B Constant (a) 2.101 4.141 4.184 1.237
C Returns to scale (Σbi) 0.897 0.304 0.374 0.983
D Coefficient of multiple 0.862 0.775 0.947 0.922
determination (R2)
Figures in the parentheses indicate their respective standard errors.
* and ** shows level of significance at five and one per cent, respectively.
The estimated parameters of seed (0.517) and labour were significant, which implies the increased
irrigation (0.436) were found to be significant at one usage of these inputs adds to the gross income.
per cent, while machine labour (0.493) co-efficient Since the Bt cotton crop was labour intensive and
was significant at five per cent for small farmers. the operations such as ploughing, inter cultivation,
In medium farmers machine labour (0.127) was manures application, hand weeding, spraying of
found to be significant at one per cent, while seed plant protection chemicals and harvesting/picking
(0.274) co-efficient was significant at five per cent. which significantly contributes towards increased
Where as in the case of large farmers seed (0.189) yield and thus the income. The other inputs such as
was found to be significant at one per cent, while seed and irrigation co-efficient were also significant
human labour (0.141) and irrigation (0.126) co- and had positive impact on gross income.
efficient were significant at five per cent level. In
MVP to MFC ratio
the case of overall level machine labour (0.399) and
seed (0.379) were found to be significant at one per In the case of small farmers the MVP to MFC
cent, while human labour (0.269) co-efficient was ratio for machine labour (6.60), seed (16.55) and
significant at five per cent level. irrigation (29.63) were found to be more than one
indicating that these inputs were underutilized,
The co-efficient of human labour and machine still there is scope for higher utilization of these

249 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 247-251

 Vikas et al
Table 2.MVP to MFC ratio of selected variables under Bt cotton.
Sr. No. Particular Small farmers Medium farmers Large farmers Overall
(upto 2.0 ha) (2.01 to 4.0 ha) (above 4.0 ha)
1 Human labour (X1) -1.48 0.67 0.99 1.44
2 Machine labour( X2) 6.60 1.78 -0.63 5.07
3 Seed (X3) 16.55 9.27 6.45 12.76
4 Manure and fertilizer (X4) -0.39 -2.35 -0.24 -0.89
5 PPC (X5) -5.65 -3.44 -0.39 -0.94
6 Irrigation (X6) 29.63 5.19 14.46 1.88
Note: MVP: - Marginal Value Product, MFC: - Marginal Factor Cost
inputs and which in turn would increase the gross In the case of overall the MVP to MFC ratio
income from Bt cotton (Table 2). This would help for human labour (1.44), machine labour (5.07),
to maximize their profit in Bt cotton production. seed (12.76) and irrigation (1.88) were found to
However, lower MVP to MFC ratio for human be more than one indicating that these inputs were
labour (-1.48), manure and fertilizer (-0.39) and underutilized, which implies the increased usage of
PPC (-5.65), thus it were over utilized than the these inputs adds to the gross income from Bt cotton.
requirement, there is a need to reduce these inputs The MVP to MFC ratio for manure and fertilizer
to optimize returns. (-0.89) and PPC (-0.94) was less than one showed
In the case of medium farmers the MVP to that over utilization of these inputs, than need to
MFC ratio for machine labour (1.78), seed (9.27) decrease the use of that inputs to optimize returns.
and irrigation (5.19) was found to be more than one
showed that these inputs were underutilized and CONCLUSION
there is potential for medium farmers to increase It was concluded that the sum of regression co-
their profit by increasing the use of these inputs efficient was 0.983, indicating decreasing returns
in Bt cotton crop. However higher ratio for seed to scale in the case of overall category. The ratio
indicated that additional usage of seed would bring of MVP to MFC of human labour (1.44), machine
more returns. MVP to MFC ratio of human labour labour (5.07), seed (12.76) and irrigation (1.88)
(0.67),manure and fertilizer (-2.35) and PPC (-3.44) was found to be greater than unity indicating that
was found to be less than one showed that over farmers have an opportunity to increase their profit
utilization of these inputs, than need to decrease the by using more of these inputs in their fields. Human
use of that inputs. labour, machine labour, seed and irrigation were
the major contributors to the Bt cotton output. This
Similar analysis for large farmers the MVP to indicates the importance of these inputs in Bt cotton
MFC ratio for seed (6.45) and irrigation (14.46) production. Therefore, timely supply of these quality
were found to be more than one indicating that inputs to the farmers must be ensured. There is an
these inputs were underutilized, still there is scope ample potentiality of raising Bt cotton production
for higher utilization of these inputs to increase on farms through adoption of improved and new
gross income from Bt cotton. However, lower MVP technologies along with optimum utilization of
to MFC ratio for human labour (0.99), machine resources like human labour, machine labour, seed,
labour (-0.63), manure and fertilizer (-0.24) and manure and fertilizer, PPC and irrigation with better
PPC (-0.39),thus it were over-utilized than the management practices.
requirement, there is a need to reduce these inputs
to optimize returns.

250 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 247-251

 Resource Use Efficiency of Bt Cotton
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Tayade P M and Borkar P (2016). Resource use efficiency and
return to scale in smallholders cotton farming system in
Parbhani, Maharashtra. Int J Applied and Pure Sci and
Agri 2(5):155-159.
Tiralapur L N and Mundinamani S M (2015). Resource use
efficiency in cultivation of major crops of Dharwad
district. Agri Update10(2):93-99.
Received on 11/08/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 252-255 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00109.0

Response of Micronutrient Mixture Application in Banana for

Enhanced Growth and Yield
Bindu B
Farming Systems Research Station ,Sadanandapuram,
Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur 680 656 (Kerala)

ABSTRACT
Banana is one of the most preferred crop gaining popularity in Kerala. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kollam
conducted an experiment for assessing the effect of foliar and soil application of micronutrient
mixtures in banana for yield enhancement. The trial was replicated at ten farmer’s field. Different
treatments were T1-Farmers practice, T2-(recommended dose of fertilizers as per package of practices
(190:115:300g NPK/plant/yr) along with Sampoorna KAU multimix at the rate of 10 g /l at 2,4, 6 and
8 m after planting and T3- (recommended dose of fertilizers (190:115:300g NPK/plant/yr) along with
Ayarat at rate of 100 g/plant at 2 and 4 m after planting. The results revealed that soil application of
Ayar along with recommended dose of fertilizers resulted in 12.6 per cent yield increase than the foliar
application of Sampoorna KAU multimix in banana. Highest yield of 20.6 t/ha was reported from
Ayar application in banana followed by Sampoorna KAU multimix (18.3 t/ha) while lowest yield was
from farmers practice (14.8t/ha). Farmers practice reported highest pest incidence of 15.6 per cent,
followed by application of Sampoorna KAU multimix (6.3 %), while least pest incidence was reported
in ayar application (4.1%). Highest BC ratio of 1.94 was noticed in Ayar applied banana followed by
1.71 in Sampoorna KAU multimix application, while least BC ratio of 1.40 from farmers practice.
Key Words : Ayar, Banana, Micronutrients, Sampoorna,Yield.

INTRODUCTION fertilizer application had resulted in reduced nutrient

Banana is an important fruit crop has a great
socio-economic significance in Kerala.The crop has
also attained wide acceptability among farmers and
consumers. Balanced nutrition is very important
for high yield, quality and resistance to diseases.
Banana is a high nutrient requiring crop. It requires
a continuous supply of nutrients at proper growth
stages for enhanced yield and productivity. The
unscientific crop management practices being
followed by farmers led to poor utilization of
nutrients and thereby result in low productivity.
Due to low organic matter in the soil, introduction
of high yielding cultivators and fast growing tissue
culture plants, deficiency of micronutrients has
become a major problem in banana cultivation.
Continuous uptake of nutrients from the soil due
to intensive cultivation and unscientific methods
use efficiency and soil degradation (Mahato et al,
2016) .Micronutrients are often referred to as minor
elements and their deficiency or toxicity can reduce
plant yield similar to macronutrient deficiency
or toxicity. So, an efficient and judicious use of
fertilizers along with micronutrient application is
essential for attaining higher yield per unit area. It
is efficient in correcting both visible deficiencies
and hidden hunger of micronutrients. Ayar is a
secondary and micro nutrient mixture containing
Calcium, Magnesium , Sulphur, Boron and
Zinc. Sampoorna KAU multimix for banana is a
micronutrient mixture containing Zinc, Boron,
Iron , Copper, Manganese and Molybdenum.
Keeping this in view, the present study is initiated
to find out the response of micronutrient mixture
application in banana. This will be useful for

Corresponding Author’s Email:drbindusanthosh @gmail.com

252 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 252-255

 Bindu B
commercial cultivation and area expansion under by T1. The highest number of functional leaves at
Kerala conditions. The study also aimed to equip 2m, 4m and 6m after planting was reported from T3
the farmers in scientific nutrient management of followed by T2 and lowest by T1.
banana and also to evolve a cost effective nutrient Table 1. Effect of micronutrient mixture
management system for banana. Hence Krishi application on pseudo stem height in banana.
Vigyan Kendra, Kollam during 2016-17, conducted
an experiment for assessing the effect of foliar Treatment 2MAP 4MAP 6MAP
and soil application of micronutrient mixtures in (cm) (cm) (cm)
banana for yield enhancement. T1 57.62 150.28 265.37
T2 74.13 179.24 285.62
MATERIALS AND METHODS T3 77.58 212.36 310.41
The experiment was conducted during 2016-17 CD (0.05) 32.80 85.33 133.10
for assessing the effect of foliar and soil application
of micronutrient mixtures in banana for yield MAP- Months After Planting
enhancement. The experiment was replicated at ten Table 2. Effect of micronutrient mixture
farmer’s field. Different treatments were T1-Farmers application on number of functional leaves in
practice, T2-(recommended dose of fertilizers as per banana.
package of practices (190:115:300g NPK/plant/yr) Treatment 2MAP 4MAP 6MAP At harvest
along with Sampoorna KAU multimix at the rate
of 10 g /l at 2,4, 6 and 8 m after planting and T3-
(recommended dose of fertilizers (190:115:300g T1 8.00 9.56 9.46 2.64
NPK/plant/yr) along with Ayarat at rate of 100 T2 9.54 10.51 10.12 3.27
g/plant at 2 and 4m after planting. Farmers were T3 10.20 10.73 10.52 4.16
trained for the foliar application of micronutrient CD (0.05) 4.317 4.749 4.638 1.613
mixtures in banana. Tissue culture plants of banana MAP- Months after planting
variety Nendran was used for the experimental
purpose. Inter and intra row spacing maintained The earliest bunch emergence was noted in T3
was 2.0m × 2.0 m. Different biometric and yield (190.56) and duration for bunch emergence was
parameters were recorded during the study period. more in T1 (210.42 ). Crop duration was more in
Pest and disease incidence were also noted. Bunches T1(293.47) and lowest in T3 (272.31 ). Number of
were harvested at full maturity as indicated by the hands/ bunch was more in T3(5.78) followed by T2
disappearance of angles from fingers (Patil andPatil, (5.51) and lowest in T1(5.10). Number of fingers/
2017). The middle finger in the top row of the second bunch was lowest in (40.12) T1 and highest in T3
hand (from the base of the bunch) was designated as (58.32). Number of fingers in D hand was highest
the representative finger or index finger or D finger in T3 (12.0) followed by T2 (28.53 cm) and lowest in
for studying the fruit characters. Pest and diseases T1(9.43).Patel et al (2010) and Mahato et al (2016)
observed in the field were recorded and scoring of reported that foliar application of micronutrients
them were done following the method adopted by like ZnSO4 (0.50 %) and FeSO4 (0.50 %) was
Mahato et al (2014). observed to be the best for increasing bunch length
, bunch girth , number of hands/ bunch and yield in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION banana.
The results revealed that highest pseudo stem Weight of D finger was highest in T3 (237.74g)
height at 2m, 4m and 6 m after planting was and lowest in T1(185.81g).While lowest length
reported in treatment T3 followed by T2 and lowest of D finger was reported from T1(23.16 cm) and

253 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 252-255

 Response of Micronutrient Mixture Application
Table 3. Effect of micronutrient mixture application on bunch emergence, crop duration, sucker
production after bunch emergence, bunch, hand and finger characteristics in banana.
Treatment Bunch Crop Number Number Number of Number Weight Length Girth
emergence duration of suckers of fingers/bunch of of D of D of D
(d) (d) produced hands/ fingers finger finger finger
after bunch in D (g) (cm) (cm)
bunch hand
emergence
T1 210.42 293.47 7.52 5.12 40.12 9.43 185.81 23.16 12.26

T2 201.11 281.65 9.44 5.51 53.52 11.52 225.00 26.38 13.13

T3 190.56 272.31 10.66 5.78 58.32 12.00 237.74 28.53 14.64
CD (0.05) 92.75 130.43 4.34 2.53 24.02 5.13 100.99 12.10 6.19

highest in T3 (28.53 cm). Highest girth of D finger
was noted in T3 (14.64 cm) followed by T2 (13.13
cm) and lowest in T1(12.26 cm). Similar result was
reported by application of Hyfer (foliar fertilizer)
at the rate of 3.50 ml/l water/ plantor 60 ml for 16 l
along with half the dose of chemical fertilizer was
found beneficial in increasing yield parameters of
banana like number of hands and weight of hands /
bunch.
The highest yield (20.6 t/ha) was reported
by T3, followed by (18.3 t/ha) T2 and while
farmer’s practice (T1) recorded lowest yield (14.8
t/ha). Similar increase in yield attributes by foliar
application of 19-19-19 and bunch spray with SOP
were recorded by Patel et al (2010) and Kumar et
al (2009), respectively. Highest BC ratio (1.94) was
reported from T3 followed by T2 (1.71) and lowest by
T1 (1.40 ). Similar result was obtained by Mayadevi
et al (2017) noted that higher B : C ratio of 1.94:1
was obtained by foliar application of ZnSO4 (0.50
%) and FeSO4 (0.50%) .Highest disease incidence
(12.8 %) was reported from T1 followed by T2
(5.2%) and lowest from T3 (3.4%). Highest pest
incidence (15.6%) was reported from T1 followed
by T2 (6.3%) and lowest from T3(4.1%).
CONCLUSION
It was concluded that micronutrient application
is essential for attaining higher yield in banana. Soil
application of Ayar applied at the rate of 100 g/plant
at 2 and 4m after planting along with recommended
dose of fertilizers as per package of practices
(190:115:300g NPK/plant/yr resulted in highest
yield (40 t/ha) , benefit cost ratio (1.61) and less pest
and disease incidence in banana variety Nendran
. The highest pseudo stem height and functional
leaf number at 2MAP, 4MAP and 6 map was
reported from Ayar followed by foliar application
of Sampoorna KAU multimix applied at the rate of
10 g/l at 2,4, 6 and 8 m after planting and lowest
in farmer’s practice. The earliest bunch emergence
was also noted in Ayar applied banana. Crop
duration was more in farmers practice and lowest
in Ayar application. Number of hands/ bunch was

Table 4 . Effect of micronutrient mixture application on yield , pest and disease incidence in banana.
Treatment Yield (t/ha) B:C Ratio Pest incidence Disease incidence
(%) (%)
T1 14.8 1.40 15.6 12.8
T2 18.3 1.71 6.3 5.2
T3 20.6 1.94 4.1 3.4
CD(0.05) 8.43 0.79 NS NS

254 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 252-255

 Bindu B
more in ayar application followed by Sampoorna application on leaf mineral content of plantain (cv.
application and lowest in farmer practice. Number Nendran) and on the nutritional status of studied soil. Int
J Environ Agric Biotechnol 1: 25-30.
of fingers/ bunch was lowest in farmer practice and
highest in Ayar application. Number of fingers in D Mayadevi M R ,Sushama P K and Sandeep S (2017). Effects
on insitu bio conservation of farm residues on growth
hand was also highest in Ayar applied banana . and quality of banana cv. Nendran on the laterite soils of
Kerala. J Exp Agric Sci 5: 341-350.
REFERENCES Patil Y J and Patil V S (2017). Effect of planting material and
Kumar A, Kumar A, Singh H K, Kumari N and Kumar mode of fertilizer and micronutrient on growth, yield and
P (2009). Effect of fertigation on banana biometric properties of banana under Western Ghat zone. Vegetos-
characteristics and fertilizer use efficiency. J Agric Eng Int J Plant Res 3: 1-5.
46: 27-31.
Patel A R, Saravaiya S , Patel A N, Desai K D, Patel N M
Mahato S K, Suresh C P and Kuna R K (2014). Effects foliar and Patel J B (2010). Effect of micronutrients on yield
micronutrient application on growth, yield and fruit and fruit quality of banana (Musa paradisiacaL.) cv.
quality of plantain cv. Nendran. Plant Arch 4: 939-944. Basrai under pair row planting method. Asian J Hort 5:
Mahato S K, Gurung S, Chhetri B and Suresh C P ( 245-248.
2016). Effect of inorganic fertilizers and micronutrient
Received on 03/11/2019 Accepted on 01/12/2019

255 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 252-255

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00112.0

Studies on Ambient Storage of Lime Juice

Concentrate Packed in Sachet
R A Kachhadia, B L Jani, B M Devani and D M Vyas
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362001 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
Lime is one of the important citrus fruits and due to its acidic nature, cannot be consumed fresh. In industry,
lime juice concentrate has a big role. Lime juice was concentrated with 300, 400 and 500 g/l (GPL) citric
acid concentration by heating in thin film evaporator at 60oC and 610 mm of Hg vacuum for about 90-180
minutes according to concentration levels. Subsequently, Potassium Meta-Bisulphate (0, 50 and 100 ppm)
was added as preservative. Sugar syrup (50, 60 and 70 0Brix) was also added along with 1 per cent
salt to enhance the taste. The prepared lime juice concentrate was packed in sachet and stored at
room temperature for 3m for its shelf life. During storage, physicochemical parameters of stored lime
juice concentrate such as total soluble solids, titrable acidity, total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing
sugar, ascorbic acid, browning and pH as well as microbial analysis in terms of total plate count and
sensory analysis were determined for every 15d interval. Maximum storability and consumer acceptance
of prepared lime juice concentrate were found better using level of concentration (500 GPL), preservative
(100ppm) and sugar syrup (70 0Brix) and can be stored up to 3m at ambient temperature in sachet.
Key Words: Lime juice concentrate, Physicochemical parameters, Sensory analysis, Sachet.

INTRODUCTION cosmetic for external applications (hair rinse, skin

Lime (Citrus aurantifolia L.) is one of the
important citrus fruits appreciably not only for its
beautiful appearance and pleasing flavor but also
for its excellent food qualities. India ranks first in
the world in lime production (Anonymous, 2011).
Lime or lemon fruit is available in the market
almost round the year. The lime fruit is utilized in
many ways. It contains nearly 50 per cent juice and
rest portion goes waste, whereas, the waste portion
includes albedo (34%), flavedo (20%), seed (2%) and
rang (24%). The juice can be utilized for beverage
making. Lime is highly sensible to refrigeration,
freezing, ethylene and odour. Lime fruits, due to its
acidic nature are not consumed fresh but its juice
is diluted to lemonades/sherbets for consumption.
Lime is used for seasoning of various culinary
preparations, salad and for making pickles. It is also
used in alcoholic /non-alcoholic beverages. Lime
juice finds use as a mouthwash and as a natural
Corresponding Aurhtor’s Email : jbq_bhavesh@yahoo.com
lotion). The various value added products that can
be possibly manufactured from lime are juice, juice
concentrate, powder, squash, cordial/barley water,
Ready to Serve (RTS) beverage, Ca citrate, Na
citrate, citric acid, peel oil and wet peels (dry peels
and pection-150 grade). Lime pieces are preserved
in brine (common salt solution) and packed in
food grade plastic containers (drums/barrels) for
subsequent conversion into pickles and chutneys.
The peel finds use in production of marmalade,
candied, brined or dried peel, bioflavonoid and
peel seasoning. Lemon, considered as commonly
used citrus fruit (Cautela, 2010, Peng, 2017). If its
juice is concentrated and packed in a consumer
pack then it makes it more valuable, available
throughout the year, easily transportation and
better storage. In market as well as in processing
industry, lime juice concentrate has a big
role for different purposes (Erdal et al, 2018).

256 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263

 Kachhadia et al
The concentration of fruit juices is industrially
performed in order to reduce storage, packaging,
handling and shipping costs. Concentration results
in a reduction in the cost of package, shipping
and storage. Sachet, as involves a small quantity,
economic and readily available, more in demand
particularly as retail pouch. The sachet is having
attractive packaging, ease of storing and can be kept
easily while travelling and working. It is also useful
in food processing sectors for retail consumption.
Also, Sachets have an appealing outer appearance
but also protect the product through tight pouch
seals and high quality materials (Raut et al, 2008).
In the present study, lime juice was concentrated
followed by bio-chemical and sensory analysis, and
then stored in sachet for shelf-life study.
Experimental details
The uniform and fully matured yellow
coloured fresh lime fruits of cv. Kagzi Lime were
manually harvested from the nearby orchards.
Details of various factors such as concentration,
preservative and sugar syrup and their level are
depicted in the table 1. The experimental flow chart
is shown in figure 1.
This acidity represented in Gram per Liter
(GPL) concentration of citric acid present in the
fresh lime juice. Therefore, for the preparation of
300, 400 and 500 GPL lime juice, the amount of
the lime juice to be evaporated and the final volume
from one liter of fresh lime juice, respectively was
calculated (Petruzzi et al, 2017; Maldonado et al,
2008).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Addition of preservative, sugar syrup and salt

The experiment followed the sequence of
processes viz., harvesting of lime fruits, selection
and preparation of samples, extraction and straining
of juice, concentration of lime fruit juice, addition
of preservative, sugar syrup and salt, packing of
concentrated lime fruit juice in sachet and storage
of sachet under ambient condition.
Potassium Meta-Bisulphate (KMS)
Three levels of KMS as 0, 50 and 100 ppm
concentrations were decided. Accordingly, 0, 0.75
and 1.5 mg of KMS was weighed and dissolved in
the 15 ml of lime juice concentrate, respectively as
per treatment combinations.

Table 1. Details of Treatments.

No. Details of various factors Factors and their levels
1 A) First factor’s name and levels Concentration (C) with three levels
i) C1 = Concentration at 300GPL
ii) C2= Concentration at 400GPL
iii) C3 = Concentration at 500GPL
B) Second factor’s name and levels Preservative (P) with three levels
i) P1 = 0 ppm KMS
ii) P2 = 50 ppm KMS
iii) P3 = 100 ppm KMS
C) Third factor’s name and levels Sugar syrup (S) with three levels
i) S1 = 50 OBrix
ii) S2 = 60 OBrix
iii) S3 = 70 OBrix
2 Total treatment combinations Twenty Seven (27)
3 Number of replication Two

257 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263

 Studies on Ambient Storage of Lime Juice
Fresh lime fruit Packing of concentrated lime fruit juice in
sachet
The treated lime juice concentrate was packed
Washing in Aluminum coated sachet having width of 6 cm
and height 8 cm. The volume of concentrate in each
Sorting sachet was kept as 15 ml. The aluminum coated
sachets of three sides sealed.

Cutting into halves Storage of sachet under ambient condition

Extraction of juice
Pressed juice
Straining
Vacuum concentration
(60° C at 610 mm of hg of vacuum in Thin Film
Evaporator)
Addition of ingredient (Sugar syrup, preservative-
PMS and salt)
Lime juice concentrate (50oB, 60oB & 70oB)
Fill and Seal in Sachet (15ml/pouch)
Fig. 1 Flow sheet for preparation of lime juice
concentrates sachets
Sugar solution (0Brix)
As decided sugar syrup was prepared using
burner available in the laboratory and added into
the concentrated just adequate to obtain 50, 60
and 70 0Brix. The 0Brix was measured by using
hand refractrometer.
Salt solution (%)
To enhance the taste 1 percent salt was added in
all the samples irrespective of treatments.
The prepared sachet with 15 ml lime juice
concentrate was than packed in a corrugated box
and stored under room temperature for 3 m.
During storage the observations on biochemical
parameters, sensory score and microbial status
were recorded at 15 d interval. Moreover,
during the experiment period, the meteorological
observations in terms of maximum and minimum
temperature and relative humidity on daily basis
were also recorded
Observations recorded during storage
Biochemical parameters of lime juice
concentrate
Total soluble solids (%) - Total soluble solids
of stored concentrated lime fruit juice packed sachet
was recorded by using Hand Refractometer.
Acidity (%) - The method as reported by
Ranganna (1979) was adopted.
Total sugar (%) - The percentage of total
sugar was expressed as invert sugar and was
calculated by using following formula.
Glucose Total Volume
equivalent x volume x made up after
Total
Sugar
(0.05) made up inversion
x100
(%) Titre x Volume of sample x Aliquot taken for
inversion
Reducing sugar (%), non-reducing sugar (%)
and Ascorbic acid (mg/100 ml of juice) were
determined as per method given by Ranganna
(1979).
Browning - Browning was scientifically observed
by taking transmittance of the solution in Systonic
spectrophotometer.

258 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263

 Kachhadia et al
pH - The pH of stored lime fruit concentrated juice concentrates
was measured by dissolving the juice of sample in The parameters viz., TSS (0Brix), acidity (%),
distilled water in 1:2.5 (juice:water) ratio and kept total sugar (%), reducing sugar (%), non-reducing
for 4hr. sugar (%), ascorbic acid (mg/100 ml), browning
and pH of prepared lime juice concentrate were
Sensory evaluation of stored lime juice determined by the procedures as above. The
concentrate prepared sachets were shown in Figure 2.
The lime juice stored under different treatments
was evaluated for sensory characteristics viz.,
color, aroma, taste and flavor by using Hedonic
scale. Each attribute was given a separate score of
10 points.
Microbial analysis of stored lime juice
concentrate
The stored lime juice concentrate was subjected
to microbial analysis for total viable count using
Nutrient agar for bacterial analysis and Potato
dextrose agar for fungus analysis as per the standard
Fig. 2 Prepared sachets of lime juice concentrate
procedure given by Ranganna (1979).
Preparation of dilutions Effect of different concentration levels,
Sample of one gram was aseptically taken into preservative levels and sugar syrup levels
a sterilized glass test tube and transferred to 9 ml on bio-chemical compositions of lime juice
sterile phosphate buffer dilution blank to obtain 1:10 concentrate
dilution. Subsequently, 0.1 ml of above prepared Total soluble solids (0Brix)
dilution was used for making further dilutions in The maximum TSS was observed at the
9.9 ml phosphate buffer tubes. Suitable dilutions concentration level C1 followed by C2 and C3 during
were prepared and poured in a set of sterile petri 3 m storage period at room temperature when packed
plates in duplicates. in sachet. While in case of preservatives levels, the
maximum TSS was observed in the treatment with
Total viable count
P1 followed by P2 and P3 levels during three month
One ml of suitable dilution from each sample
storage period under the room temperature and
prepared and was used for plating in duplicates
packed in sachet. Whereas for sugar syrup levels,
and thereafter 15 ml of molten Nutrient Agar was
the maximum TSS was observed in S3 samples
poured aseptically to plates. The contents were
followed by S2 and S1 levels showing significantly
mixed and plates were cooled. The plates then were
higher results throughout the storage period.
inverted and incubated in an incubator, maintained
at 37±0.5 °C for 24 hour and number of colony Acidity (%)
forming units (CFU/g) was recorded at regular The maximum acidity was observed at
interval. The experiment was laid out in a Factorial concentration level C followed by C and C
3 2 1
Completely Randomized Design. during three month storage period under storing
at room temperature in sachet. In case levels of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION preservatives, the maximum acidity was observed
Biochemical composition of prepared lime juice at level P1 followed by P2 and P3 levels during

259 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263

 Studies on Ambient Storage of Lime Juice
entire three month storage period in sachet at room 3 m storage period in sachet at room temperature.
temperature. While for sugar syrup levels, the In case of preservative levels, maximum ascorbic
maximum acidity was observed at level S1followed acid was observed at preservative level P3 followed
by S2 and S3 levels showed significantly higher by P2 and P1 during 3 m storage period. While the
results throughout the storage period. maximum ascorbic acid was observed at sugar syrup
level S1 followed by S2 and S3 showing significantly
Total sugar (%) higher results throughout the storage period.
The maximum total sugar was observed at
concentration level C3 followed by C2 and C1 Browning
during 3 m storage period in lime juice concentrate The lime juice concentrate prepared with
packed in sachet and stored at room temperature. concentration level C3 showed higher browning
In case of preservative levels P1, P2 and P3 was and it was statistically differed with treatment C2
observed non-significant during three month storage and C1. In case of lime juice concentrate prepared
period. The maximum total sugar was observed at with preservative level P3 giving higher browning
sugar syrup level S3 followed by S2 and S1, showing and it was also statistically differed with treatment
significantly higher results throughout the storage P2 and P1. The lime juice concentrate treated with
period in sachet at room temperature. sugar syrup level S3 showing higher browning and
was statistically differed with treatment S2 and S1.
Reducing sugar (%)
The maximum reducing sugar was observed at pH
concentration level C1 followed by C2 and C3 during The maximum pH of lime juice concentrate
3 m storage period in sachet at room temperature. was observed at concentration level C1 followed by
In case of preservative levels P1, P2 and P3, the non- C2 and C3 during three month storage period when
significant change was observed during three month packed in sachet and kept at room temperature. In
storage period in sachet at room temperature. The case of preservative levels, the maximum pH was
maximum reducing sugar was observed at sugar observed non significant for all the preservative
syrup levels S3 followed by S2 and S1 showing level P1, P2 and P3 during three month storage
significantly higher results throughout the storage period. While the maximum pH of sachet packed
period. lime juice concentrate was observed at sugar syrup
level S3 followed by S2 and S1 during storage at
Non reducing sugar (%) room temperature.
The maximum non-reducing sugar was observed
at concentration level C1 followed by C2 and C3 Sensory evaluation of lime juice concentrate
during 3 m storage period at room temperature Colour
in sachets. The preservative levels P1, P2 and P3 Amongst all the treatment combinations
were observed non-significant during three month prepared from the different concentration
storage period in sachet at room temperature. The levels, preservative levels and sugar syrup
maximum non-reducing sugar was observed at levels, combination of concentration (C3) with
sugar syrup level S3 followed by S2 and S1 showing preservative (P3) sugar syrup level at 70 0B (S3)
significantly higher results throughout the storage of lime juice concentrate with natural yellow
period in sachet at room temperature. colour obtained highest sensory score during three
Ascorbic acid (mg/100ml) months of storage period stored in sachet at room
The maximum ascorbic acid was found at temperature and it was remain good up to three
concentration level C1 followed by C2 and C3 during months of storage followed by same combination
with concentration level 400 GPL (C2) and lowest

260 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263

 Kachhadia et al
score for concentration level 300 GPL (C1). The
combinations with preservative level P1 and sugar
syrup level S1 obtained relatively lower score for
colour. While lime juice concentrate prepared from
preservative level (P1) with sugar syrup level (S1)
scored lowest. The treatment combination C3P3S3
obtained higher score for colour as 9.0 followed
by C2P3S3 and C1P3S3. The lowest rating was given
for combinations of concentration level C1. From
the above it was concluded that concentration level
500 GPL (C3), preservative level 100 ppm (P3)
and sugar syrup level 70 0Brix (C1) was best from
the sensory results point of view for the colour.
Ratings for color were decreases as storage period
increases.
Aroma
It was revealed that acceptability for aroma
varied significantly due to different concentration
levels, preservative levels and sugar syrup levels.
The combination of concentration (C3) with
preservative (P1) sugar syrup level at 70 0Brix
(S3) of lime juice concentrate obtained highest
sensory score for aroma during three months of
storage period stored in sachet at room temperature
and it was remain good up to three months of
storage followed by same combination with
concentration level 400 GPL (C2) and lowest
score for concentration level 300 GPL (C1). The
combinations with preservative level P3 and sugar
syrup level S1 scored relatively lower score for
aroma. While lime juice concentrate prepared from
preservative level (P3) with sugar syrup level of lime
juice Concentrate (S1) assigned lowest score during
storage period. The treatment combination C3P1S3
scored higher score for aroma as 8.9 followed by
C3P2S3 and C3P3S3. The lowest ratings were given
for combinations of concentration level C1. From
the above fact it was observed that concentration
level 500 GPL (C3), preservative level 0 ppm (P1)
and sugar syrup level 70 0Brix (C3) obtained best
sensory results for the Aroma. Ratings for aroma
were decreases for all the treatment combinations
as storage period increases.
261 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263
Taste
It was found that acceptability for taste varied
significantly due to different concentration levels,
preservative levels and sugar syrup levels. The
combination of concentration (C3) with preservative
(P1) sugar syrup level at 70 0Brix (S3) of lime juice
obtained highest sensory score for taste during
three months of storage period stored in sachet at
room temperature and it was remain good up to three
months of storage followed by same combination
with concentration level 400 GPL (C2) and lowest
score for concentration level 300 GPL (C1). The
combinations with preservative level P3 and sugar
syrup level S1 was having relatively lower score for
taste. While lime juice concentrate prepared from
preservative level (P3) with sugar syrup level of lime
juice concentrate (S1) assigned lowest score during
storage period. The treatment combination C3P1S3
obtained higher score for taste as 8.8 followed by
C3P2S3 and C3P3S3. The lowest ratings were given
to combinations of concentration level C1. The
results of sensory analysis for aroma indicated
that concentration level 500 GPL (C3), preservative
level 0 ppm (P1) and sugar syrup level 70 0Brix (C3)
was best from sensory results for the taste. Ratings
for taste were decreases as storage period increases
for all the samples.
Flavour
It was revealed that acceptability for flavor
varied significantly due to different concentration
levels, preservative levels and sugar syrup levels.
The treatment combination of concentration (C3)
with preservative (P1) sugar syrup level at 70 0Brix
(S3) of lime juice concentrate obtained highest
sensory score for flavor during three months of
storage period stored in sachet at room temperature
and it was remaining good up to three months
of storage followed by same combination with
concentration level 400 GPL (C2) and lowest
score for concentration level 300 GPL (C1). The
combinations with preservative level P3 and sugar
syrup level S1 obtained relatively lower score for
flavor. While lime juice concentrate prepared from
preservative level (P3) with sugar syrup level of lime
 Studies on Ambient Storage of Lime Juice
juice concentrate (S1) was assigned the lowest score
during storage period. The treatment combination
C3P1S3 obtained higher score for flavour as 8.6
followed by C3P2S3 and C3P3S3. The lowest ratings
were given to combinations of concentration
level C1. From the above it was concluded that
concentration level 500 GPL (C3), preservative
level 0 ppm (P1) and sugar syrup level 70oB (C3)
fond best from the sensory results for flavor. The
ratings for flavor were following decreasing trend
with storage period.
Microbial analysis
The microbial analysis of the stored lime juice
concentrate was carried out at an interval of 15 days
with the assumption that there was no change in total
plate count during less than 15 days. It was clear
that the no total plate count was found in lime juice
concentrate combinations stored in sachet up to 60th
days of storage period stored in room temperature.
After 75th day of storage period, bacterial load was
found to be nil in treatment combinations viz.
C3P3S3, C3P2S3, C3P1S3 and C3P3S2 while minimum
microbial load was found in combinations with
concentration of 500 GPL (C3) concentration level.
The treatment combinations of concentration C3
was counted minimum microbial infection and
increased with C1 while, the combinations with
concentration level C1 was showing maximum
microbial count after 75th days of storage period.
After 90th days of storage, combination C3P3S3,
C3P2S3, C3P1S3 and C3P3S2 were found to be free
from microbial load. From the above discussion
it was concluded that lime juice Concentrate
was stable against microbial load up to two
months of storage period. The combinations with
concentration level C3 (500 GPL) gave minimum
microbial count, while concentration C2 (300 GPL)
relatively highest microbial count than C2 and C3.
The combinations with preservative levels (P) also
affected with the microbial load during storage.
While it was found that maximum microbial load
was presented in combinations with preservative
level P1 (0 ppm) followed by P2 (50 ppm) and
262 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263
P3 (100 ppm). However concentration with 500
GPL level (C3) showed minimum microbial load
followed by 400 GPL (C2) and 300 GPL (C3).
CONCLUSION
During the storage period TSS, total sugars, non-
reducing sugars in stored lime juice concentrate
was increased with the advancement of storage
period but declined towards the end of storage. The
acidity, browning increased throughout the storage
while pH decreased marginally during the entire
storage period. The microbial status and sensory
acceptability of the samples was satisfactory for
storage period considered and the level was differed
according to treatment. Maximum storability and
consumer acceptability were recorded by lime juice
concentrate prepared by using concentration level
with 500 GPL, preservative level of KMS with 100
ppm and sugar syrup level 70 0Brix. Thus prepared
lime juice concentrate, packed in sachet gives better
taste, aroma, flavor and could be stored up to 90
days at ambient temperature.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2011). Area, production, origin, growing belts,
varieties, storage condition and productivity of major
fruit and vegetable crops in India. Indian Horti Database.
pp. 46-50.
Cautela D, Castaldo D, Servillo L and Giovane A (2010).
Enzymes in citrus juice processing. In: Bayındırlı, A.
(Ed.), Enzymes in Fruit and Vegetable Processing, Chem
and Engg Appli, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Erdal A, Asiye A and Burcu D (2018). Thermal Pasteurization
and Microbial Inactivation of Fruit Juices. Fruit Juices.
Extraction, Composition, Quality and Analysis. Academic
Press, 309-339.
Lopez M D, Garcia P, Munoz-Cuevas M, Fernandez P S and
Palop A (2011). Thermal inactivation of Alicyclobacillus
acidoterrestris spores under conditions simulating
industrial heating processes of tangerine vesicles and
its use in time temperature integrators. Eur Food Res
Technol 232 (5): 821-827.
Makwana A and Makwana A N (2009). Studies on preservation
of lime (citrus aurantiifoliaswingle) juice cv. Kagzi. In:
Souvenir, Production technology and marketing of acid-
lime in India, JAU, Junagadh.
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Maldonado M, Belfiore C and Navarro A (2008). Temperature, Ranganna S (1979). Manual of analysis of fruits and vegetables
soluble solids and pH effect on Alicyclobacillus products. 2nd Reprint, Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing Co.
acidoterrestris viability in lemon juice concentrate. J Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Food Indus Microbiol 35: 141-144. Raut V U, Dod V N, Jogdande N D and Wagh P (2008).
Peng J, Tang J, Barrett D M, Sablani S S, Anderson N and Preparation and storage stability or RTS beverages of
Powers J R (2017). Thermal pasteurization of vegetables: lime. In: Souvenir, Production technology and marketing
critical factors for process design and effects on quality. of acid lime in India. Dr. PDKV, Akola.
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 57: 2970-2995.
Received on 21/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
Petruzzi L, Campaniello D, Speranza B, Corbo M R, Sinigaglia
M and Bevilacqua A (2017). Thermal treatments for fruit
and vegetable juices and beverages: a literature overview.
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Safety 124.

263 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 256-263

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 264-268 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00110.7

Stem Application Technology with Modified Tools for

Management of Sucking Pests in Cotton
(Gossypium herbaceum L.)
Venkanna Yasa, Bhaskar Rao B and Sreenivas A
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ramagirikhilla, Peddapalli-505 212 (Telangana)

ABSTRACT
Cotton is the most important commercial crop of Telangana State with an area of 1.41 M ha., covering
more than 95 per cent under Bt. Sucking pest infestation is the major biotic constraint responsible for
considerable yield loss and high consumption of insecticide in cotton. As an alternative to chemical spray,
stem application technology was assessed for the sucking pest management of cotton in the farmer’s
field of Karimnagar District for the five years starting from 2014-15. Imidacloprid (18.5 SL) solution @
1:20 dilution was applied for three times at 20, 40 and 60 DAS. It was effectively controlled the sucking
pests of cotton by reducing number of sprays and saved 74.95 per cent of insecticide (249.49 g.ai/ha).
Cost saving of Rs. 3,340/ha., coupled with 8.11 per cent increase in yield resulted in additional net
returns of Rs. 7,810/ha., over control. Obtained high B:C ratio of 1.86 compared to control (1.59). Over
all cumulative monitory benefit of Rs. 6,49,300/- was realised in an area of 20.0 ha., over five years.
Key Words: Karimnagar, Imidacloprid, Stem application bottle, Cost saving, B: C ratio.

INTRODUCTION with more than 95 per cent of area under Bt cotton.

In India, Telangana is one of the leading cotton Apart from the low and uncertain rain fall, sucking
growing states stood at third position in area and pest infestation is the major constraint towards
production after Maharashtra and Gujarat. In which farmers were investing more. Farmers used
Telangana, cotton is the most important commercial to spray for 6-8 times with different insecticides
crop covering of an area of 1.41 M ha., contributing and their mixes such as Acephate, Monocrotophos,
to 13.01 per cent of total cotton area in the country Imidacloprid, Thiamethoxam, Acetamiprid and
and with a production of 3.44 M bales which is others. Sprayings starts early right from 20-25 d
10.6 per cent to the total production of country. of crop that results in removal of beneficial insects
Even though the area and production is high, the drastically which lead to more and more sucking
yield levels are very low (416 kg/ha) compared to pest incidence further and hence increased number
Maharashtra (475 kg/ha), Gujarat (612.0 kg/ha) and of sprays.
other cotton growing states (NFSM, 2018). One of Stem application is an alternate method of
the major reasons for low yields is that, the cotton sucking pest control in cotton. Stem application of
is grown predominantly under rainfed (87.5%). Imidacloprid @ 1:20 dilution with water for three
Uncertain yields and high cost of cultivation is times at 20, 40 and 60 DAS is effective against
causing losses frequently to cotton farmers in the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Ramarao et al,
state. Every possibility of reduction in cost and 1998) and other sucking pests of cotton (Barkhade
improvement in yield will be very helpful to avoid and Nimbalkar, 2000). It was also found effective
or reduce the losses and add to the profits. against sucking pests of Okra (Satyaprasad,
Karimnagar is the leading cotton growing district 2000). Stem application of Monoocrotophos @
in Telangana with an area of 0.23 M.ha., occupying 1:4 or Imidacloprid @ 1:20 dilution with water is
Corresponding Author’s Email: yvkanna@gmail.com

264 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 264-268

 Yasa et al
recommended by the state agricultural university, to the farmers. Care was taken to avoid spraying
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agriculture particularly at early growth stage of crop up to 90
University (PJTSAU). It is recommended to DAS. However, need based sprays were given after
practice for three times at 20, 40 and 60 days after 90 DAS based on economic threshold level (ETL).
sowing. Chemical is smeared along any one side Stem application was practiced regularly for
of stem for about 6 to 10 cm long on green soft three times at 20, 40 and 60 days after sowing. As
stem leaving basal thickened hard portion of stem.
part of further improvement, sticks with rolling
Neem sticks or painting brush or tooth brushes were
applicator were used in place of stem application
used for the insecticide application purpose. Even
bottle to reduce drudgery further. This technology
though the stem application technology was proved
was assessed for five years starting from 2014-15
for its efficacy against sucking pests of cotton, it
to 2018-19. Initially, during 2014-15, selected 10.0
has not got much popularity due to the application
ha and increased the area in successive years up to
process involved is a labour intensive. To take this
20.0 ha. In case of control, chemical spray of neo-
technology to the farmer level it needs to introduce
nicotinoids and other systemic insecticides were
with necessary modifications to reduce drudgery used as per the farmer’s choice. Data on cost of
there by easy to adopt and more economic. sucking pest management, total cost of cultivation,
With this back ground, the stem application pesticide consumption, number of sprays, yield and
method of sucking pest management in cotton, gross returns were collected from each farmer of
Gossypium herbaceum L. was assessed in the assessment and control. Based on data collected,
farmer’s field with improved application tools. saving of insecticide, net returns, B:C ratio and total
monitory benefit were worked out.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A contiguous area of 10.0 ha was selected RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
for assessment by keeping equal area as control Sucking pests viz., thrips, aphids, leaf hoppers,
for the comparison. Pre-implementation training whiteflies and mealy bugs were effectively managed
on technology assessment was conducted to the up to 90 DAS in both assessment and control for
selected farmers before sowing of crop. After 15 all the five years of study. In the assessment, leaf
days of sowing, a sucking pest infested field was hoppers was increased after 90 DAS and crossed
selected and organised a method demonstration of ETL at 140 DAS in the year 2014-15, 2015-16 and
stem application. The tools used for stem application 2018-19 while whiteflies in the year 2016-17 and
such as neem stick, paint brush and tooth brush 2017-18. Similar trend was recorded in control
were replaced with plastic bottles with cotton swab with crossing ETLs about 20-25 d earlier than
at tip of bottle (stem application bottles). Usage assessment for both leaf hoppers and whiteflies in
of stem application bottle made easy and reduces the corresponding years mentioned as in case of
labour as there is no need of dipping in insecticide assessment.
solution every time of application as it required in
case of tooth brush or neem stick. The bottle filled Number of sprays and insecticide consumption
once with insecticide solution (200ml) covers an During the first year of assessment (2014-15),
area of 0.1 ha by continuous application. After three insecticidal sprays were reduced to 2.13±0.53 as
days of method demonstration, field was shown to against 6.56±0.63 sprays in control. As the assessed
the farmers to observe the efficacy of technology technology was shown positive results, the area
to control different sucking pests. Then stem was increased to 15.0 ha. in 2015-16 and to 20.0
application bottles and Imidacloprid were supplied ha., in the year 2016-17 onwards. In the successive

265 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 264-268

 Stem Application Technology with Modified Tools
Table 1. Details of insecticide consumption and number of sprays given in cotton field.
Year No. of Area Number of sprays Consumption of insecticide Reduction in
Farmers (ha) (g.ai/ha) insecticide over
Assessment Control Assessment Control control (%)
2018-19 47 20.0 0.48±0.09 8.22±0.75 45.8±2.39 357.8±21.3 87.20
2017-18 47 20.0 0.72±0.13 8.14±0.64 56.3±3.12 354.3±31.6 84.12
2016-17 47 20.0 1.13±0.35 7.73±0.72 74.1±4.22 336.5±25.1 77.98
2015-16 25 15.0 1.81±0.42 7.14±0.62 103.7±5.63 310.8±22.4 66.63
2014-15 14 10.0 2.13±0.53 6.56±0.63 117.6±4.72 285.6±19.6 58.80
Mean - - 1.25±0.38 7.56±0.69 79.5±9.6 329.0±26.4 74.95±11.64
Values shown with ± are mean±SEm.
years, the number of sprays had been reduced to the stem application efficacy against cotton sucking
2.13±0.53, 1.81±0.42, 1.13±0.35, 0.72±0.13 and pests viz., aphids, leaf hoppers, thrips and white
0.48±0.09 in the year 2014-15, 2015-16, 2016-17, flies up to 75 to 90 DAS. Similar findings were also
2017-18 and 2018-19, respectively. In contrast to reported by Prasad and Malathi (2016) and Yang et
the assessment, number of sprays was increased al (2005) for reduction of insecticidal spray when
from 6.56±0.63 (2014-15) to 8.22±0.75 (2018-19) stem application was used as a component of IPM
in control. in cotton. Detailed account of number of sprays and
The overall mean number of sprays for the insecticidal consumption were given (Table 1).
five years of assessment was 1.25±0.38 which was Yield and economics
six times lower than control (7.56±0.69 sprays). Considerable yield increase of 18.33 per cent
Insecticide consumption was reduced from 117.64 over control was recorded in the year 2014-15,
g.ai/ha (2014-15) to 45.81 gai/ha (2018-19). In case while a marginal increase was obtained in the
of control it has increased from 285.5 (2014-15) following years. Overall mean yield of 1552 kg/ha
to 357.82 gai/ha (2018-19). The five years mean was obtained in assessment as against 1442 kg/ha
for consumption of insecticide was shown four of control with increase of 8.11 per cent over five
times reduction by recording 79.51±9.62 g.ai/ha as years of assessment. Similar findings were reported
against control of 329.0±26.36 g.ai/ha. The per cent by Satyaprasad (2000) with stem application of
reduction of insecticide usage over control during Imidacloprid on Okra. Mean cost of cultivation
the year 2014-15, 2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18 and over five years was Rs. 37,420/ha as against Rs.
2018-19 was 58.8, 66.63, 77.98, 84.12 and 87.2, 40,760/ha., of control with a saving of Rs. 3,340/
respectively. ha contributing to 8.19 percent of cost saving. With
Overall mean reduction of insecticide was dual advantage of cost reduction and yield increase
249.49 g.ai/ha accounting for 74.95 percent was added to the net higher returns in treatment
reduction over control. Reduction in number of over control. The additional benefit over control
sprays and insecticide usage were achieved due to was achieved as Rs. 9520/ha., 7300, 7300, 5950
effective control of different sucking pests by stem and 8980 per hectare in the year 2014-15, 2015-16,
application particularly during early crop growth 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19, respectively. The
stage up to 90 DAS. The present results were in mean additional benefit over control for five years
agreement with earlier findings of research field was Rs. 7810/ha.
experiments of Mahale et al (2017) who reported

266 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 264-268

 Yasa et al

monitory benefit
Cumulative Benefit cost ratio
The benefit cost ratio obtained was higher in

649300

469700

350700

204700

95200
(Rs)

-
treatment with 1.80, 1.92, 2.24, 1.62 and 1.17 over
control of 1.44, 1.63, 1.99, 1.44 and 1.45 for the year
2014-15, 2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-
benefit (Rs)
monitory

179600

146000

109500
119000

95200
Total

19, respectively. The mean benefit cost ratio was

-
1.86 as against 1.59 of control over the five years.
With the obtained additional benefit of using stem

7,810±643
Additional

(Rs/ha)
benefit

8,980

5,950

7,300

7,300

9,520
application technology realised a total monitory
benefit of Rs. 95,200/-, 1,46,000/-, 1,19,000/- and
17,960/- for the year 2014-15, 2015-16, 2016-17,
1.45

1.44

1.99

1.63

1.44

1.59
2017-18 and 2018-19, respectively. The overall
23920±4514 cumulative benefit of Rs. 6,49,300/- was obtained
B:C ratio

23100

20850

40600

21850

13200

in an area of 20.0 ha over five years (Table 2).

Economics of check

However there is a shortage of reports on

(Rs./ha)

technology assessment of stem application taking

64680±6797
Net Return

74400

67950

81600

56250

43200

in a large scale at farmer’s field. The results of

present investigations were in agreement with
earlier research field studies as reported by Kumar
40760±3922
Return

51300

47100

41000

34400

30000
Gross

et al (2012) for the effective control of sucking

pests of cotton with neo-nicotinoids. The efficacy
of stem application also reported on other crops
Gross
Cost

1.71

1.62

2.24

1.92

1.80

1.86

such as beetelvine for the control of sesbania stem

borer, Azygophleps scalaris (Gangadar et al, 2002),
Economics of demonstration (Rs./ha)

31730±4323
B:C ratio

32080

26800

47900

29150

22720

in okra for sucking pest complex (Kiranmai et al,

2002), coffee for scale, Coccus viridis and on forest
Table 2. Details of cost-economics of the cotton field.

trees for borers.

69150±6166
Net Return

77280

70200

86400

60750

51120

CONCLUSION
The stem application of Imidacloprid with
37420±3261

improved application tools was proved to be

Return

45200

43400

38500

31600

28400
Gross

effective and economic when practiced in a larger

Values shown with ± are mean±SEm.

area in the farmer’s field. There is a scope to

Increase
in yield

further improve the efficacy of stem application by

Gross

18.33
Cost
3.87

3.31

7.06

8.00

8.11
%

investigating the technology with new chemicals

and also to make more economic by inventing new
1442±94
Control

1550

1510

1700

1250

1200

application tools. As this technology was reported

Yield (kg/ha)

for its efficacy in controlling sucking pests on other

Assessment

crops, it can be extended to such other crops with

1552±82
1610

1560

1820

1350

1420

necessary modifications.
Area

20.0

20.0

20.0

15.0

10.0
(ha)

-
2018-

2017-

2016-

2015-

2014-

Mean
Year

19

18

17

16

15

267 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 264-268

 Stem Application Technology with Modified Tools
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mahale A S, Suryawanshi D S, Khandare Shubhagi and
Financial help received from ICAR - ATARI , Ukey N S (2017). Efficacy of systemic insecticides as
stem application against sucking pests of cotton. J Ento
Zone X, Hyderabad Govt. of India is duly Zoology Studies 5(4): 1355-1360.
acknowledged.
Prasad and Malathi S (2016). Evaluation of integrated pest
management in bollgard cotton. Int J Plant Anim and
REFERENCES Environ Sci 6(1): 133-137.
Barkhade U P and Nimbalkar S A (2000). Stem smearing
Ramarao B, Rao N H P and Raghunanda Rao (1998). Stem
technique – A New approach in pest management.
application a new technique for controlling sucking pests.
Pestology 24(6):10-12.
J Cotton Res and Dev 12(1):127-129.
Gangadhar A, Subbarao D V and Rajasekhar P (2002).
Satyaprasad N (2000). Efficacy of certain readymix
Efficacy of certain insecticides as stem application and
formulations of insecticides against pests of Okra
foliar spray against Sesbania stem borer, Azygophleps
(Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench). M.Sc. (Ag)
scalaris (Fabricius) in betelvine gardens. Pest Managt
Thesis Acharya, N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
and Econ Zoo 10(2):165-172.
Hyderabad.
Kiranmai M L, Babu T R, Rao C S, Sriramulu M and Sultan
Yang P, Li K, Shangbai S, Jingyuan X, Rong G, Shaoshi L
M A (2002). Efficacy of monocrotophos stem application
and Libing W (2005). Impacts of transgenic Bt cotton and
against insect pests of okra. Int Pest Control 44(3):132-
integrated pest management education on smallholder
136.
cotton farmers. Int J Pest Manage 51(4): 231-244.
Kumar C M and Regupathy A (2006). Stem application of
neonicotinoides to suppress Coccus viridis (Green) Received on 18/08/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019
population in coffee. Annals Plant Prot Sc 14:1.

268 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 264-268

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 269-273 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00111.9

Study on Marketing Pattern of Chilli Cultivation in Wokha

District of Nagaland
Nchumthung Murry and James Tsopoe
Department of Agricultural Economics
Nagaland University, SASRD, Medziphema-797 106 (Nagaland )

ABSTRACT
The present research study was conducted in Wokha district of Nagaland during the year 2015-16 for
the assessment of economics and marketing of chilli. The study comprises of 60 sample farmers by
following a multi stage stratified random sampling technique. The selected farmers were stratified into
three groups viz., Group-I marginal (< 1 ha), Group-II small (1.01 to 2.00 ha) and Group-III medium (>
2.01 ha & above) based on the area under land holding of the respondents. Two marketing channels of
chilli marketing were identified viz., Producer - Consumer (Channel I), Producer - Retailer - Consumer
(Channel II). Producer share in consumer rupee was higher in channel - I (80.0%) as compared to
channel - II (57.14%). Marketing efficiency was estimated using Shepherd’s formula and it was found
that marketing efficiency was higher in channel - I (39.02%) as compared to channel - II (18.67%).
Keywords: Chilli, Efficiency, Marketing channels, Shepherd, Wokha.

INTRODUCTION Rajasthan in that order and account for more than

Chilli or hot pepper is a tropical vegetable cum 80.00 per cent of the total area and production.
spice crop commonly used throughout the world as Andhra Pradesh has been leading both in area and
spice for its pungency and red colour of ripe dried production contributing on an average of 25.00 per
fruits and also for its green fruits for pungency and cent of the total area and over 40.00-50.00 per cent
flavour. India is one of the leading chilli producing of the total production (Gaganjot and Chahal, 2009).
and exporting countries in the world. Other major Nagaland is predominantly an agrarian economy
chilli growing countries are Mexico, Japan, with agriculture and allied sector as one of the main
Ethiopia, Uganda, Nigeria, Thialand, Turkey, contributors to the State economy. Agriculture is also
Indonesia, China and Pakistan. Chilli (Capsicum the largest employer of the workforce in the state,
annum L.) is a crop of tropical and subtropical engaging more than 60.00 per cent of the working
regions and requires a warm humid climate. The population. In Nagaland about 14.00 per cent of the
quantity of chilli exports grew annually by 14.32 per operational holders fall in the large size category,
cent, export value by 23.16 per cent and unit value 11.00 per cent fall in the small size category and
by 8.41 per cent. Thus, country has a comparative only 4.00 per cent of the operational holders fall
advantage in the export of chilli and this can be in the marginal size category (Anonymous, 2015).
achieved with the concerted efforts of government Hence, a study was undertaken to know marketing
by developing transport facilities to export the chilli pattern of chilli cultivation in Wokha district of
(Babu et al, 2003). Nagaland.
In India, the major chilli growing states are MATERIALS AND METHODS
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, The present study was conducted in Wokha
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and district of Nagaland. In Wokha District out of total

Corresponding Author’s Email:nch.murry@gmail.com

269 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 269-273

 Murry and Tsopoe
five rural development blocks, two blocks viz; of marketing costs and margin the price spread
Wozhuro-Ralan and Wokha were selected due to analysis was carried out as follows:
good number of chilli growers. Two villages from Producer’s share in Producer’s price
each block were selected by random sampling = x 100
consumer’s rupee Consumer’s price
method and total respondents based on the size
group of land holding were classified as given in The efficiency of various identified marketing
Table 1. channels was calculated through the Shepherd’s
formula as under
Table 1.distribution of the total respondents
based on the size group of land holding. N=60 ME = CP / MC Where ME = Index of marketing
efficiency; CP = Consumer’s purchase price and
Group Land holding No. of selected MC = Total marketing cost.
size(ha) farmers
Marginal <1.00 11 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Small 1.01-2.00 14
Channels involved in marketing of chilli
Medium >2.01 34 Marketing channels are routes through
Collected data were scrutinized, tabulated and agricultural products move from producer to
processed systematically according to the objectives consumers. The length of the channels varies
laid down for the study. The marketing channels from commodity to commodity, depending on the
of chilli cultivation were identified based on the quantity to be moved, the form of consumer demand
intermediaries / middleman involved from the point and degree of regional specialization in production.
of production to the point of ultimate consumer. In the present study, two marketing channels of
Marketing cost was calculated by estimating the cost chilli were identified. The two marketing channels
incurred in the process of marketing of chilli. The cost were follows:
incurred after harvesting of the yield till it reached CHANNEL I : Produce – Consumer and CHANNEL
the final consumers hand generally constitutes the II: Produce – Retailer- Consumer
marketing cost. It included transportation cost,
handling cost, storage cost, market fees, weighing The data (Table 2) represent the quantity
charges and labour charges for packing, loading and of produce sold through different channels. It
unloading. The marketing cost at various stages of appeared that channel II was the most effective
chilli marketing was calculated and finally the totalchannel through where marginal, small and medium
cost was computed. farmers transacted 0.0, 45.46 and 65.22 per cent
of their marketed surplus. For all farmers group
Absolute marketing margin of its intermediaries 16.0q or 60.38 per cent was sold through channel
at any stages of marketing was calculated as II. In channel I marginal, small and medium farmer
MMi = SPi – (PPi – MCi) where MMi = transacted 100.0, 54.54 and 34.78 per cent of their
Marketing margin of the i-th middlemen; SPi = marketed surplus. For all groups of farmer 10.5q or
Selling price of the i- th middlemen; PPi = Purchase 39.62 per cent was sold through channel I. Rajur
price of the ith middlemen; MCi = Marketing cost (2013) also reported a similar finding.
incurred by the i-th middlemen. Pattern of disposal showed that channel II
After the calculation of the marketing margins at was the most effective for small and medium
different stages, finally the total marketing margins group of farmer where they transacted 45.46 and
was calculated. Price spread is the difference 65.22 per cent of their marketed surplus through
between the price paid by the consumer and the this channel. Channel I was the most effective for
net price received by the producer. It may consist marginal group of farmer where they transacted

270 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 269-273

 Study on Marketing Pattern of Chilli
Table 2. Effectiveness of various marketing channels of chilli according to different size groups.
Sr. Marginal Small Medium Total
Channel
No. Qty(q) % Qty(q) % Qty(q) % Qty(q) %
1 I 1.3 100.00 1.2 54.54 8.00 34.78 10.5 39.62
2 II 0.00 0.00 1.00 45.46 15.00 65.22 16.00 60.38
Table 3. Area, production, marketable surplus and marketed surplus of chilli for different size
groups.
S r. Farm Area Production Average Per Requirement Marketable Marketed Per ha
No. size under (q) area ha for family surplus (q) surplus marketed
group chilli under Yield consumption (q) (q) surplus (q)
(ha) chilli (ha) (q) + Non market
Transaction

1 Marginal 0.064 4.8 0.005 75.00 3.5 1.3 4.8 75.00

2 Small 0.107 8.00 0.007 74.76 5.8 2.2 7.9 73.83

3 Medium 0.569 43.00 0.017 75.57 17.2 23.2 40.4 71.00

4 Average 0.245 18.6 0.009 75.11 8.84 8.9 17.7 73.28

100.0 per cent of their marketed surplus through
this channel. Parthasarathi et al (2012) and Jagtap
et al (2014) also revealed similar finding in their
study on marketing of chilli. The marginal group
of farmers mostly preferred to sell their produce
through channel I which is due to the fact that their
volume for transaction is less and channel I is easier
for marketing. On the other hand, medium group of
farmers had comparatively larger marketed surplus
and preferred to sell through channel II.
Marketed and marketable surplus of chilli
Marketed surplus is that quantity of the produce
which the producer-farmer actually sells in the
market, irrespective of his requirement for family
consumption, farm needs and other payments. On
the other hand, marketable surplus is that quantity
of the produce which can be made available to
the non-farm population of the country or it is the
residual left with the producer-farmer after meeting
his requirement for family consumption, farm needs
for seeds and feed for cattle, payment to labour in
kind, payment to artisan, payment to landlord as rent,
and social and religious payment in kind (Acharya
and Agarwal, 2011). The data (Table 3) reveal
that the area, production, requirement for family
consumption, marketable surplus and marketed
surplus of chilli production. The values revealed
that the average size of operational holding under
chilli was 0.005, 0.007 and 0.017 for marginal, small
and medium group of farmers, respectively. The
average/ ha was highest in medium group of farmer
followed by small and marginal group of farmer,
the amount being 75.57 q, 75.00 q and 74.76 q,
respectively. Further, it was observed that marketed
surplus was higher than marketable surplus with all
groups of farmer. This finding was in conformity
with Thakur and Sharma (1994) due to the fact that
chilli is perishable in nature and the farmers need
hard cash for meeting their family consumption and
for other commodities.
Marketing cost
Table 4 represents the marketing cost incurred
by the different intermediaries in different marketing
channels. From the table, the highest marketing
cost was in channelII (Rs. 700/q). It was mainly
because of the presence of intermediaries involved

271 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 269-273

 Murry and Tsopoe
Table 4. Price spread analysis and marketing efficiency for different marketing channels.
Sr. No. Item Unit Channel I Channel II
1 Marketing cost
a Producer Rs / q 238.09 0.00
b Retailer Rs / q 0.00 0.00
c Total marketing cost Rs / q 238.09 700.00

2 Marketing Margin
a Producer Rs / q 0.00 0.00
b Retailer Rs / q 0.00 2300.00
c Total marketing margin Rs / q 0.00 2300.00
3 Consumer’s price Rs / q 4000.00 7000.00
4 Producer’s share in consumer’s price % 80.00 57.14
5 Marketing efficiency - 21.00 10.00
in the channel. The marketing cost for ChannelI CONCLUSION
(Rs. 238/q). The cost incurred by the intermediaries It was found out that two marketing channels
(Retailer) was 56.25 per cent of the total marketing of chilli were identified in Wokha District of
cost in channel II. Nagaland viz; Producer - Consumer (Channel I)
and Producer - retailer - Consumer (Channel II).
Marketing Margin Nature of marketing showed that channel II was the
The marketing margin earned by the most effective for medium group of farmer where
intermediaries in marketing of chilli in study area they marketed 65.22 per cent of their marketed
was Rs. 2300/ q. Price spread is difference between surplus through this channel. Channel I was the
price paid by the consumer and price received by most effective for marginal group and small group
the producer. The study of price spread involve of farmer where they marketed 100.0 per cent and
not only the ascertainment of the actual prices at 54.54 of their marketed surplus through this channel.
various stage of the marketing channel, but also The marketing margin earned by the intermediaries
the cost incurred in the process of movement of for the retailer was Rs. 2300/q. The price spread
the produce from the farm to the consumer and the analysis of different marketing channels in chilli
margin of various intermediaries ( Acharya and showed that producer share in consumer rupee was
Agarwal, 2011 and Ramachandra et al, 2012). higher in channelI (80.0% where no intermediaries
The data (Table 4) showed that producer share in was involved, as compared to channel II (57.14 %)
consumer rupee was higher in channel I (80.00%), where there was a presence of retailer in the channel.
where no intermediaries was involved, as compared Marketing efficiency was higher in channelI (21.0)
to channel II (57.14%) where there was a presence as compared to channelII (10.0) due to the fact that
of retailer in the channel. there was absence of intermediaries in the channel.
Marketing efficiency
REFERENCES
The values (Table 4) showed that the marketing Anonymous (2015). Nagaland Economic Survey 2014-15.
efficiency was higher in channelI (21.00) as Published by Directorate of Economics & Statistics.
compared to channel II (10.00) because there was Kohima, Nagaland.
no intermediaries involved in the channel.
272 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 269-273
 Study on Marketing Pattern of Chilli
Ramachandra V A, Choudhary K and Pavithra B S (2012).
Production and export of chillies from India. Int Res J
Agril Econ and Stat 3 (2): 353-358.
Babu G S K, Naidu S H and Prasad Y E (2003). Price spread
and marketing of green chillies - a case study in Andhra
Pradesh. Indian J Agril Market 46 (1): 21-23.
Gaganjot S and Chahal S S (2009). An economic analysis of
chilli cultivation in Punjab. Haryana J Hort Sci 38 (3/4):
366-371.
Jagtap P P, Shingane U S and Kulkarni K P (2014). Resource
use efficiency and economics of marketing of green chilli.
J Spices and Aromatic Crops 23 (1): 32-37.
Parthasarathi G, Senthilnathan S and Suresh L. (2014).
Marketing of chillies in Thoothukudi District of
Tamilnadu. Int J Sci and Tech 8 (1): 16-19.
Rajur B C and Patil B L (2013). Export performance of chilli -
an analysis. Karnataka J Agril Sci 26 (2): 233-237.
Thakur D S and Sharma K D (1994). Economics of off season
vegetable production and marketing in hills. Indian J
Agril Market 8 (1): 72-82.
Received on 27/09/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019

273 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 269-273

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 274-278 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00114.4

Training Needs of Tribal Farm Women in relation to

Improved Animal Husbandry Practices of
Chhotaudepur District of Gujarat
B L Dhayal1 and B M Mehta2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Vadodara - 391 125 (Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out in Chhotaudepur district located in the eastern part of the
Gujarat State to assess training needs of tribal farm women in relation to improved animal husbandry
practices because this district is an important tribal majority milk pocket. A total of 120 tribal women were
selected from twelve selected villages under study. The results revealed that animal health care practice
was the most important area and ranked first for the purpose of training (mean weighted score 2.25).
The second rank was assigned to the area of management practices with a mean weighted score of 2.13
followed by foundation practices (MWS 2.06), feeding practices (MWS 2.05), fodder production (MWS
2.04), breeding practices(MWS 2.03), marketing and Finance( MWS 2.02), clean milk production(MWS
2.01) and Value addition (MWS 1.84). From the study, it was concluded that it will help the extension
agencies to organize the suitable training programmes for the dairy farm women in improved animal
husbandry practices to improve their milk production and make the dairying a successful enterprise.
Key Words: Animal husbandry, Improved practices, Training needs, Tribal Farm Women.

INTRODUCTION milch animals is quite low but the demand of milk

Dairying is a secure path and future of our rural is increasing day by day and is expected to reach
development and it can contribute substantially to 180 MT by 2020. For this, annual growth rate of
farmer’s income (Gangasagare and Karanjkar, 2009) milk production needs to be increased from present
but in order to improve the economic condition of level of 2.5 per cent to 5.0 per cent (Bhattu et al,
dairy farmers, it is of utmost importance to know 2013). The low milk yield is mainly attributed to
their prevailing status which will help in identifying low genetic potential for milk production, poor
the major technological problems being faced by nutrition and poor management and care of the
them in dairy farming. Women in the present age are animals.On an average a cow in India produced
facing the most challenging situation of performing only 1500kg of milk per annum and buffalo yields
their roles in and outside the home for social and 1200kg annually against 4000kg. of milk produced
economic development of the nation. Tribal women by cow in some countries advanced in dairying.
play a great role in decision making process, Thus, there is a wide gap between the number of
perform farm operations and undertake many animals and milk production.
responsibilities concerning care and management The remarkable low productivity of animals in
of farm animals. India is largely due to traditional animal husbandry
According to Ingavale (2012) dairy sector in practices. During the last decade dairying and animal
India is characterized by large number of cattle and husbandry programmes have received considerable
low productivity. Though India has largest dairy attention in India’s planned development. Milk
animal population, the average productivity of production programmes not only ensure better

Corresponding Author’s Email:dhayalextn@yahoo.co.in

274 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 274-278

 Dhayal and Mehta
Table 1. Training needs of tribal women about different animal husbandry practices. n=120
Sr. Practice Most Somewhat Least Weighted Rank
No. needed needed needed score
A. Milking characteristics
Characters of milch breeds 58 36 23 2.24 I
Precaution during buying of the 52 37 23 2.11 II
milch animals
Characteristics of good milch 50 29 32 2.00 III
animal
Selection criteria of milch and 45 26 39 1.88 IV
dairy heifers
B. Reproductive parameters
5. Pregnancy diagnosis methods 50 51 19 2.26 I
6. Heat detection 48 50 22 2.22 II
7. Artificial insemination and its 45 49 26 2.16 III
benefits
8. Methods to reduce the dry period 41 52 27 2.12 IV
9. Reproductive efficiency of dairy 39 46 35 2.03 V
animals
10. Breeding Programmes 36 48 36 2.00 VI
11. Post partum coverage 37 42 41 1.97 VII
12. Training of the tribal farm women 05 21 94 1.26 VIII
about artificial insemination
C. Feeding practices
13. Importance of feeding mineral 46 54 20 2.21 I
mixture
14. Preparation of balanced ration 46 52 22 2.20 II
15. Time and frequency of feeding 42 53 25 2.14 III
16. Balance feeding for young heifers 39 57 24 2.12 IV
and calves
17. Balance feeding of pregnant 40 50 30 2.08 V
animals
18. Selection of feed according to 36 49 35 2.01 VI
season
19. Preservation of fodder crops 38 44 38 2.00 VII
20. Feeding of new born calves 31 51 38 1.94 VIII
21. Feeding for dry animals 29 39 52 1.80 IX

and balanced nutrition for the people, but also
offer opportunities to the tribal masses for gainful
employment. In many tribal areas, dairying assumes
a special significance as an effective instrument for
economic and social uplift of the weaker sections.
Sharma et al (2013) revealed that major problems of
the small dairy farmers were cow dung management
while for semi commercial and commercial farmers
mastitis was the major problem. Training in the
area of feed management was the top priority for

275 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 274-278

 Training Needs of Tribal Farm Women
Table 2. Training needs of tribal women on Fodder Production, management and health care
practices. n=120
Sr. Practice Most needed Somewhat Least Weighted Rank
No. needed needed score
A. Fodder production
Scientific cultivation of fodder crops 49 51 20 2.24 I
Selection of fodder crops 36 56 28 2.07 II
Cultivation of Kharif fodder crops 31 48 41 1.92 III
Methods of fodder preservation 33 43 44 1.91 IV
B. Management practices
Awareness about Zoonotic diseases 48 56 16 2.26 I
and its prevention
Weaning, care and disbudding of 45 55 20 2.21 II
calves
Awareness about no cost method in 41 54 25 2.13 III
dairy animals
Care of animal during calving 40 53 27 2.11 IV
Housing system for milch and dry 36 54 30 2.05 V
animals
General cleanliness of the cattle shed 37 48 35 2.02 VI
and maintenance of farm records
C. Animal health care practices
Causes of repeat breeding and its 55 60 5 2.41 I
control measures
Treatment against common diseases 53 60 7 2.38 II
Deworming schedule and procedures 50 59 11 2.33 III
Care and management of sick animals 48 55 17 2.26 IV
Fertilty problem and its treatments 44 62 14 2.25 V
Care and management of new born 41 59 20 2.18 VI
calves
Precautions and control measures of 41 56 23 2.15 VII
parasitic diseases
Precautions and treatment of 39 56 25 2.13 VIII
contagious diseases
Vaccination schedule and its advantages 39 52 29 2.10 IX

domestic and semi commercial farmers. Therefore, Chhotaudepur district of Gujarat located in the
present study was undertaken to assess training eastern part and is an important tribal majority milk
needs of tribal farm women in relation to improved pocket in the Gujarat state. Chhotaudepur district
animal husbandry practices. consist 6 talukas out of these 4 talukas i.e., Naswadi,
Kawant, Jetpur Pavi and Chhotaudepur having more
MATERIALS AND METHODS than 90 per cent tribal population were selected
The present investigation was carried out in purposively. The list of tribal women livestock

276 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 274-278

 Dhayal and Mehta
keeper was obtained from twelve selected villages popularized and for that it is must to know about
of Chhotaudepur district. Thereafter, random the training needs of the farmers or farm women.
sampling method with proportional allocation was Further, it was noticed that among the various sub-
followed to select the respondents and a total of areas of management practices, awareness about
120 tribal women were selected. The data were Zoonotic diseases and its preventions was the most
collected through personal interview method. The important area ranked first by the tribal farm women
participants were asked about various management with a weighted score 2.26. These Findings were
practices and classified into most needed, somewhat in conformity to the observations found by Gangil
needed and least needed. Accordingly marks were (2005).
allotted as 3, 2 and 1 for most needed, somewhat Causes of repeat breeding and its control
needed and least needed, respectively. Mean measures was perceived the most important area
weighted score was calculated and ranking was of training with a weighted score of 2.41 followed
calculated for different training needs of the tribal
by treatment against common diseases (weighted
dairy farm women. score 2.38), deworming schedule and procedures
(weighted score 2.33). Care and management of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION sick animals and ferility problem and its treatments
Training needs of the tribal farm women got the fourth and fifth ranks, respectively with
The training needs of tribal farm women in weighted score 2.26 and 2.25. These findings were
relation to improved animal husbandry practices in agreement with Patil et al ( 2009).
included the major practices of animal husbandry The data (Table 3) indicated that suitable time
viz., milch characteristics of animals, breeding, of milking (WS 2.08) got first rank followed by
feeding, fodder production, management and knowledge of zoonotic disease that spread through
animal health care, clean milk production, value infected milk, storage methods and clean milk
addition, marketing and finance etc. The results production. Further, among the various sub-areas
(Table 1) showed that farm women were not aware of marketing and finance practices, banking and
about various milk characteristics of the animals. insurance was the most important area ranked
Hence, this issue was ranked at the top priority. first by the tribal farm women with a weighted
Similarly, pregnancy diagnosis methods were not score 2.21. The second rank was given to the
known to the participants noted under reproductive sub area of marketing of livestock and livestock
parameters whereas importance of feeding mineral products with the weighted score of 1.83. Sharma
mixture was observed to be on the top of the list et al (2014) reported that systematically planned
under feeding practices. These Findings were in training programmes and proper follow up action
conformity to the observations made by Gangil et not only increased the knowledge and skill of the
al (2005); Patil et al (2009). beneficiaries, but their production and profit as
The data presented in Table 2 indicate that well. To be fruitful, the training programmes should
scientific cultivation of fodder crops (weighted be designed based on actual training needs and
score 2.24) was at first rank followed by selection socioeconomic profile of potential trainees.
of fodder crops (weighted score 2.07), cultivation
of Kharif fodder crops (weighted score 1.92) CONCLUSION
and methods of fodder preservation (weighted The aim of the study was to impact new
score 1.91) got the second third and fourth ranks, knowledge, teach better skills to bring about more
respectively. Thus, it can be said that for dairy efficient performance in the production of livestock.
farming, fodder production technology need to be Farmers have indicated areas of training need in their

277 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 274-278

 Training Needs of Tribal Farm Women
Table 3. Training needs of tribal women on clean milk production. n=120
Sr. Practice Most Somewhat Least Weighted Rank
No. needed needed needed score
A. Milk production
Type and suitable time of milking 40 50 30 2.08 I
Knowledge of zoonotic disease that spread 37 54 29 2.06 II
through infected milk
Storage methods of excess milk 35 51 34 2.00 III
clean milk production 32 46 42 1.92 IV
B. Value addition
Advantages of value addition in dairy 35 54 31 2.03 I
technology
Preparation of Dahi and Chhaas 32 52 36 1.96 II
Preparation of Butter and Ghee 30 48 42 1.90 III
Preparation of Khoa 20 38 62 1.66 IV
Preparation of Paneer 21 36 63 165 V
C. Marketing and finance
Banking and insurance 46 52 22 2.21 I
Marketing of livestock and livestock 29 41 50 1.83 II
products

activities. Adequate training in areas of management
is a necessary factor to sustainable rural livelihood
and consequently rural development. There is a need
for conducting more number of needs based and well
tailored training programmes suited to tribal farm
women which would in turn help them to have more
extension agency contacts. Farm operations related
to housing, disposal of animal carcass and waste,
knowledge about different breeds, preparation of
balanced ration using locally available feed items
and contagious diseases and its symptoms should
be given top priority in the curriculum of training
programmes. From the study it was observed that
it will help the extension agencies to organize the
suitable training programmes for the dairy farm
women in improved animal husbandry practices
to improve their milk production and make the
dairying a successful enterprise.
REFERENCES
Bhattu B S, Dhaliwal A S and Singh G (2013). Dairy farming
practices followed by different categories of dairy farmers
in south western Punjab. J Krishi Vigyan 1(2) :13-16.
278 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 274-278
Gangasagare P T and Karanjkar L M (2009). Status of milk
Production and economic profile of dairy farmers in the
marathwada region of Maharashtra. Vety World 2(8):317-
320.
Gangil D, Bardhan D, Dabas Y P S and Kumar A (2005).
Identification of training needs of dairy farmers in
improved animal husbandry practices in Tarai area of
Uttaranchal. Indian Dairyman 57(7) : 21-26.
Ingavale D (2012). A study of international trade of Indian
dairy industry. J App Res 1 (12): 127-28.
Patil AP, Gawande SH, Gobade M R and Nande MP(2009).
Training needs of dairy farmers in Nagpur district. Vety
World 2(5):187-190.
Sharma M , Singh G and Shelly M (2013). Technological
problems and training needs of dairy farmers. J Krishi
Vigyan 2(1) : 59-63.
Sharma M, Singh G and Keshava (2014). Impact evaluation
of training programmes on dairy farming in Punjab state.
Indian Res J Ext Edu 14 (1):105-108.
Received on Accepted on
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 279-283 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00113.2

Tool to Measure Attitude of Postgraduate Scholars towards

Extension Service
Naveenkumar G1 and Chauhan N B 2
Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication,
B A College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand ( Gujarat)

ABSTRACT
Extension is broadly divided into three major components namely extension education, extension work
and extension service. Therefore, persons who want to work in various line departments of government
extension agencies like Department of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Fishery etc. are expected
to build positive feeling towards extension service.It is therefore significant to know the attitude of
postgraduate scholars towards extension service. Keeping this in view a standardized scale has been
developed to measure the attitude of the postgraduate scholars towards extension service as one of the
important components of extension. A summated (Likert) rating scale was used to develop scale. The
process started with identifying the dimension, collection of items followed by relevancy and item
analysis and checking the reliability and validity for precision and consistency of the results. A total of
24 statements were framed in which 11 statements were finally retained which has practical applicability
in measuring the attitude towards extension service. The scale contains total eleven statements,
out of which five are positive and six are negative. The developed scale was found highly reliable.
Key Words: Attitude scale, Extension service, Likert scale, Summated rating scale, Postgraduate scholars.

INTRODUCTION of Agricultural Research etc. educate, train and

The activities of extension are broadly divided develop professionals to understand and apply
into three major components namely extension philosophy of extension, extension research and
education, extension work and extension service. extension activities.
It is essential to have positivism towards extension Thus, it is expected that persons who want to
education, extension work and extension service develop career in the field of extension should have
amongst those who want accept extension as encouraging feeling towards above mentioned three
profession. The extension service is dealing with components of extension. Keeping this in view a
location specific, input and intensive service standardized scale has been developed in the year
oriented field professional activities, concerned 2018-19 to measure the attitude of the postgraduate
with providing various kinds of input services to scholars towards extension service as one of the
the farmersto work as bridge by between farmers important components of extension.
and farm scientists. In short,the work done by line
departments of government extension agencies like MATERIALS AND METHODS
Department of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Among the techniques available for construction
Forestry, Fishery etc. are the examples of extension of scale, the methodology suggested by Likert
service. Under the function of extension education, (1932) and Edward (1957) was used in this study for
academic institutions and organizations like scale construction and for ascertaining the response
State Agricultural Universities, Indian Council of the scale. The technique chosen to construct
Corresponding Author’s Email: naveenkumargattupalli@gmail.com
1
Ph.D. Scholar, 2 Professor and Head

279 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 279-283

 Naveenkumar and Chauhan
the attitude scale was “Scale Product Method” for determination of ambiguity involved in the
which combines the technique of Equal Appearing statement. Following formulas were applied to
Interval Scale of Thurstone (1946) for selection work out S, Q3 and Q1values.
of the items and Likert’s techniques of summated
rating for ascertaining the response on the scale.
Similar procedure was also followed by Christian
and Chauhan (2008), Patel and Chauhan (2015) Where,
andVaidya and Chauhan (2008).The following S = Median or scale value of the statement
procedure was applied to develop scale.
L = Lower limit of the interval in which the
median falls
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
= The sum of proportion below interval in
Collection of Items
which median falls
The items making up attitude scale are known
as statements. A statement is anything said about = The proportion within the interval in which
psychological object. As a first step in developing median falls
scale a list of statements were prepared by reviewing i = The width of the interval and is assumed to
the available literature and consulting academicians be equal to 1.0
and researchers who are having expertise in
that particular field. A list of 40 statements were
prepared and these statements were edited to match Where,
the Edwards criteria in which finally 24 items were C25 = The 25thcentile value of the statement
retained and presented to judges for their rating.
L = Lower limit of the interval in which the
Judge’s rating of attitude statements 25thcentile falls
In order to judge the degree of = The sum of proportion below interval in which
“Unfavourableness” to “Favourableness’” of each 25thcentile falls
statement on the five point equal appearing interval
= The proportion within the interval in which
continuum a panel of 50 judges was selected. The
25thcentile falls
judges selected for the study comprised extension
educationists and statisticians with considerable i = Thewidth of the interval and is assumed to be
practical experience from the Anand Agricultural equal to 1.0
University. The judges were visited personally
along with letter of instructions to guide them for Where,
rating the statements in desired manner for each set
of the statements. C75 = The 75thcentile value of the statement
L = Lower limit of the interval in which the
Determination of scale and quartile value 75 centile falls
th
The five points of the rating scale were assigned,
ranging from 1 for most unfavourable and 5 for = The sum of proportion below interval in
most favourable. On the base of judgment, the which 75thcentile falls
median value or scale value (S value) and the Q = The proportion within the interval in which
value for the statement concerned was calculated, 75thcentile falls
the inter-quartile range [Q = (Q3 or C75 ) – (Q1 i = The width of the interval and is assumed to
or C25)] for each statement was also worked out be equal to 1.0

280 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 279-283

 Tool to Measure Attitude
Final statements for attitude scale
When there was a good agreement among
the judges, in judging the degree of agreement
or disagreement of a statement, Q was smaller
compared to the value obtained, when there was
relatively little agreement among the judges it was
reverse. Only those items were selected whose
median (scale) values were greater than Q values.
However, when a few items had the same scale
values, items having lowest Q value were selected.
Based on the median and Q values 11 statements
were finally selected to constitute attitude scale.
The scale values were ranging from 1.50to 3.86
Reliability of the scale
A scale is reliable when it consistently produces
the same results when applied to the same sample.
In the present study, split-half method of testing

Table 1. Calculation of S values and Q values to measure attitude of postgraduate scholars towards
extension service.
Sr. Statement S Value Q Value Decision
No.
1 I am confident to work in State Department of Agriculture (SDA) 1.65 1.25 Rejected
2 I feel motivated to be a part of SDA to serve farmers 1.65 1.14 Selected
3 I dislike working in rural area for farmers 3.86 3.09 Selected
4 I like to stay permanently in rural area to work for rural area 2.30 2.12 Rejected
5 I like to face any odd situation to work for farmers in rural area 1.90 0.92 Selected
6 Working as extension service provider in SDA has never excited me 3.50 2.13 Selected
7 I prefer academic extension job more than working directly with farmers 2.80 2.21 Rejected
8 I like to work as bridge between farmers and agricultural scientists 1.50 1.28 Rejected
9 I believe that job of extension service provider is dull 3.81 4.19 Rejected
10 Working with SDA is respectful job 1.83 1.23 Rejected
11 Working as extension service provider in SDA is thankless job 3.60 2.37 Selected
12 Organisational structure of SDA is not perfect to work 3.07 1.80 Selected
13 Working pattern of SDA is not inspiring 3.50 2.24 Rejected
14 Working with SDA provides opportunity to serve nation 1.90 1.12 Rejected
15 Working in rural areas through SDA provides more opportunity to serve 1.80 1.12 Rejected
country
16 SDA work culture does not encourage me to work 3.07 2.24 Rejected
17 I like cheering my family to reside with farmers in rural areas for extension 2.04 1.01 Selected
service
18 I visualize better potential in the job of extension service provider 1.90 1.16 Rejected
19 Limited socialize scopes prevents me to work in SDA 2.80 1.90 Selected
20 Working with SDA for farmers means service to humanity 1.80 1.03 Selected
21 Beauty of moral life lays in working with rural farmers 1.98 0.86 Rejected
22 Acceleration of Indian growth is possible if we love to stay with farmers 1.90 1.10 Rejected
in rural area
23 I believe that extension service has potential to develop farmers 1.50 1.00 Selected
24 Unwanted political interventions are more in extension service sector 2.31 1.73 Selected

281 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 279-283

 Naveenkumar and Chauhan
Table 2. Final attitude scale with 11 statements representing the attitude of postgraduate scholars
towards extension service.
No. Statements SA A UD DA SDA
1 I feel motivated to be a part of State Department of Agriculture
(SDA) to serve farmers. (+)
2 I dislike working in rural area for farmers. (-)
3 I like to face any odd situation to work for farmers in rural area.
(+)
4 Working as extension service provider in SDA has never excited
me. (-)
5 I like cheering my family to reside with farmers in rural areas for
extension service. (+)
6 Organisational structure of SDA is not perfect to work. (-)
7 Working with SDA for farmers means service to humanity. (+)
8 Limited socialize scopes prevents me to work in SDA. (-)
9 I believe that extension service has potential to develop farmers.
(+)
10 Unwanted political interventions are more in extension service
sector. (-)
11 Working as extension service provider in SDA is thankless job.
(-)
SA=Strongly Agree A=Agree UD=Undecided DA=Disagree SD=Strongly Disagree

reliability was used. The 11 statements were divided The coefficient of reliability was calculated by
into two halves with six odd numbered in one half the Spearman Brown formula which came to be 0.92
and other five even-numbered statements in the for Extension Service Thus, the scale developed
other. These were administered to 25 respondents. was found highly reliable.
Each of the two sets of statements was treated
as a separate scale and then these two sub-scales Content validity of the scale
were correlated. The co-efficient of reliability was The validity of the scale examined for content
calculated by the Rulon’s formula (Guilford, 1954), validity by determining how well content were
which came to 0.8594. selected by discussion with specialists, extension
academicians, etc. thus, the present scale satisfied
As reliability is directly related with the length the content validity.
of the scale when we split the scale on odd and even
number items. The reliability coefficient which Scoring system
has been calculated is the value of half size of the The final scale which measures the attitude of
original scale. Thus correction factor is calculated postgraduate scholars towards extension service
by using Spearman Brown formula (Kishan et al, consists of 11 statements. The responses of the
2016). selected 11 statements can be collected on five points
continuum viz. strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree and strongly disagree with respective
rtt = Coefficient of reliability of original test weights of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 for the favourable
roe = reliability of coefficient of odd and even score statements and with the respective weights of 1,

282 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 279-283

 Tool to Measure Attitude
2, 3, 4 and 5 for the unfavourable statements and REFERENCES
scores obtained for each item was summed up to Christian B M and Chauhan NB (2008). Scale to Measure
get the attitude score towards extension service. Attitude of Woman Research Scholars towards the Use
of Computer for Their Empowerment. Gujarat J Ext Edu
The maximum score was 55 and minimum score 18:18-20. http://www.gjoee.org/papers/365.pdf.
was 11.
Edward A L (1957). Techniques of attitude scale construction.
Vakils, Feffer and Simons Pvt. Ltd. Bombay.
CONCLUSION
Guilford J P (1954).Psychometric Methods. Tata McGraw-
The extension service is dealing with location HillPublication Co. Ltd., Bombay, pp: 378-382.
specific, input and intensive service oriented field
Kishan K, Chauhan N B and Patel J B (2016). Development
professional activities, concerned with providing of scale to measure attitude of the farmers towards neem
various kinds of input services to the farmersto work based biopesticides. Int J Agri Sci 8(21): 1394-95.
as bridge by between farmers and farm scientists. Likert R A (1932). A Technique for the Measurement of
The developed scale is scientific and standardized Attitude Scales. Arch. Psychol. New York, No. 140.
tool to measure the attitude of postgraduate scholars Patel MC and Chauhan N B (2015).Development of Scale to
towards extension service, which helps in analyzing Measure Attitude towards Farmer’s Training Programmes
the intensity of postgraduate scholars to accept Organized by SAUs of Gujarat State. Gujarat J Ext Edu
extension service as their profession to work in any 26(1): 1-3. http://gjoee.org/papers/67.pdf.
of the line departments of agricultural development Thurstone L L (1946). The Measurement of Attitude. American
for the benefit of farming community. This scale J Socio 52: 39-50.
also aids in enabling the universities and extension Vaidya A C and Chauhan N B (2008). Scale to Measure
departments in developing course curriculum in Attitude of Farmers towards Poultry Farming. Gujarat J
Ext Edu 19: 15-17. http://www.gjoee.org/papers/364.pdf.
making future decisions regarding the development
of extension service. Received on 19/08/2019 Accepted on 03/11/2019

283 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 279-283

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00115.6

Utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam

M Venkataramulu and P Punnarao
Agricultural Information and Communication Centre
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Guntur522 034 (Andhra Pradesh)

ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to investigate the utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam in Andhra Pradesh during
2016-17 to know the utility, problems and suggestions of readers of Vyavasaya Panchangam. 130 farmers in
13 districts of Andhra Pradesh were selected as respondents. Questionnaire was used to generate data, which
were descriptively analysed to answer the research questions. The results showed that majority of respondents
had medium perception towards utility (56.2%) and felt that information was need based and specific (66.20%)
and timely (54.20%). To include market rates (67.69%) and new chemicals (57.69%) were suggested.
Key Words: Agriculture, Dissemination, Farming community, Popularization, Scientific methods,
Technological information,.

INTRODUCTION of agriculture among the farming community. The

A breakthrough in any field of agriculture is
not possible without an effective communication
support to disseminate the research findings.
Speedy dissemination of agricultural information
and technological knowhow to the farmers
is essential for bridging the gap between the
agricultural scientists and farming community.
The existing extension services are too small to
perform their task, so the print media with their
tremendous speedy range and force of impact, offer
the greatest possibility for effective communication
of agricultural technology. Print media used for
farm communication include a variety of forms like
newspapers, farm magazines, books, etc. (Jambhale
et al, 2015). Farm people are more anxious about
the advancement in science and technology to
know what is happening in the field of agriculture
research (Manjula et al, 2015). In view of this, The
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University started
publishing the Vyavasaya Panchangam, an annual
publication consisting of technological information
on agriculture and allied sectors from the year
1969-70 in Telugu in Andhra Pradesh with an aim
to disseminate and popularize the scientific methods
printed information in Vyavasaya Panchangam
remains more permanent; ensure greater accuracy
and serves as ready reckoner for farmers further
and future reference. Desire to make best utilization
of Vyavasaya Panchangam in dissemination of
agriculture information to the farmers for better
understanding and to cater diversified information
needs ignited to conduct this study. Keeping in
view the importance of Vyavasaya Panchangam, the
present study was undertaken with the objectives to
study the agreement on the information provided
in Vyavasaya Panchangam, perception towards
its utility and elicit problems and suggestions
from readers towards improvement of Vyavasaya
Panchangam.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Expost facto research design was followed for
the study and Systematic sampling method was
used for selecting the respondents. The study was
conducted in 13 districts of state of Andhra Pradesh
during 2016-17. The Vyavasaya Panchangam books
published in 2016-17, 2015-16 and 2014-15 were
considered for the study. The readers of these three

Corresponding Author’s Email:mantivenkataramulu@gmail.com

284 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290

 Venkataramulu and Punnarao
Table 1. Agreement on the information provided in Vyavasaya Panchangam. (n=130)
Sr. Statement Agree Undecided Disagree
No.
1 Need based 94 66.2 31 21.8 5 3.5
2 Timely 77 54.2 45 31.7 8 5.6
3 Specific 94 66.2 34 23.9 2 1.4
4 Practicable 58 40.8 59 41.5 13 9.2
5 Suitable to local conditions 104 73.2 12 8.5 14 9.9
6 Complete and comprehensive 78 54.9 43 30.3 9 6.3
7 Font size is good for reading 109 76.8 15 10.6 6 4.2
8 Paper quality good for reading 119 83.8 6 4.2 5 3.5
9 Cost affordable for farmer 120 84.5 3 2.1 7 4.9
10 Book size is convenient 123 86.6 2 1.4 5 3.5

publications formed the population of the study. The
list of readers of this Vyavasaya Panchangam from
13 districts of Andhra Pradesh was obtained from
the District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of
Technology Centres and Krishi Vigyan Kendras
of concerned district. From these district lists of
readers, alphabetical list of readers was prepared for
each district and every 10th subscriber was selected
as sample for the study. Thus, primarily 10 readers
were selected from each of the district and in total
constituting 130 readers as sample size. Suitable
measurements were determined for quantification
of the variables. The questionnaire was formulated
and mailed to selected readers and collected the
filled in questionnaire and from those who were not
filled, collected data through telephonic interview.
The results were drawn after processing the data
by using mean, standard deviation, frequency,
percentage and Correlation coefficients.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Agreement on the information provided in
Vyavasaya Panchangam
The table 1 indicates that 86.6 per cent of
respondents agreed that Vyavasaya Panchangam
book size is convenient, followed by 84.5 per cent
of respondents opined that its cost is affordable for
farmer and 83.8 per cent of respondents told that
paper quality was good for reading. It also revealed
that, 76.8 per cent of respondents agreed that its
font size is good for reading.
Majority of the respondents (73.2%) agreed
that Vyavasaya Panchangam is suitable to local
conditions, as it included all field crops grown
in state of Andhra Pradesh and their package of
practices according to the different agro climatic
regions of the state. The respondents also opined
that Vyavasaya Panchangam is need based (66.2%)
specific (66.2%) and timely (54.2%). Regarding

Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to their perception towards Utility of Vyavasaya Pa

nchangam (n=130)
Sr. Category Class interval Frequency Percentage (%)
No.
1 Low perception towards utility 40-50 25 19.20
2 Medium perception towards utility 51-61 73 56.20
3 High perception towards utility 62-72 32 24.60

285 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290

 Utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam
practicability, results revealed that though 40.80 per
cent respondents, have agreed, 41.50 per cent have
replied undecided, which might be due to weather
aberrations and climate variability, the farmers
could have not used the content properly in their
farms.
Perception towards Utility / Usefulness of
Vyavasaya Panchangam
The respondents were classified into three
categories based on the perception towards
utility of the information provided in Vyavasaya
Panchangam, using class interval technique. It
could be observed from the table 2 that majority of
respondents had medium perception towards utility
(56.2%) followed by high (24.6%) and low (19.2%)
perception. In order to increase the perception
towards utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam, the
awareness of the farmers must be improved through
training programmes about the content and its
suitability and applicability.
The findings emanated about the topic wise
usefulness are presented in Table 3.The vast
majority (96.9%) of the respondents perceived that
information regarding introduction for each crop
and 88.7 per cent of respondents felt about varieties
and their description were useful to them, as seed
and crop introduction is important to them because
they are vital in crop selection and giving yields.
Majority (83.1%) of the respondents perceived
that information regarding addresses of extension
centres were useful to them, as it is useful for them
to clear their doubts regarding the information
provided and all most same (81.7%) was observed
in case of information on agro-climatic zones
and addresses of research stations. Regarding
micro nutrient recommendations, 81.7 per cent
of the respondents opined that these were useful.
This may be due to the fact that in recent times,
micronutrient deficiencies are occurring in various
crops and also due to these crop yields are reducing
drastically hence farmers are regularly utilizing the
information.
286 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290
It could be observed that 80.3 per cent of
respondents indicated that information provided
on description of symptoms of damage caused
by pests and diseases was useful to them, as they
found the identification of pests and diseases and
their control measures easily understood by the
information provided. Further 80.3 per cent of
the respondents perceived that contact addresses
for each crop and allied aspects to get additional
information was useful, as in this phone number of
concerned scientist also given to get more additional
information and farmers were feeling happy as
scientists are responding on time. These results
were in conformity with the findings of Shireesha
et al (2011). The results (Table 3) indicated that soil
and soil types (79.6%), seed rate, spacing and seed
treatment (71.1%), weed management (71.1%) and
Cropping seasons and time of sowing (61.3%) were
useful.
Majority of the respondents (62%) perceived
honey bees information was not useful. This may
be due to the fact that farmers lacking awareness
on benefits of low cost production technologies
and rearing of honey bees hence the extension
functionaries should organize training programmes
to increase the utilization of these technologies.
It could be inferred that 59.9 per cent of the
respondents opined that tradional panchangam
was not useful. This may be due to the fact that
generally farmers using general calendars and some
tines pundits for knowing tradional panchangam
instead of traditional panchangam in Vyavasaya
Panchangam.
The data also revealed that 51.4 per cent of the
respondents felt that home science information was
not useful as farmers had unaware of home and
family importance in development, hence extension
functionaries should increase the awareness on
importance of home science.
 Venkataramulu and Punnarao
Table 3. Usefulness of the topics covered in Vyavasaya Panchangam. (n=130)
Sr. Item Useful Moderately Not useful
No useful
1 Traditional Panchangam 12 8.5 33 23.2 85 59.9
2 Agriculture operations as per telugu calender 35 24.6 62 43.7 33 23.2
3 Information on agro-climatic zones and Postal 116 81.7 12 8.5 2 1.4
addresses of research stations
3 Addresses of Extension centres 118 83.1 9 6.3 3 2.1
4 Information on agro-climatic zones and addresses 116 81.7 12 8.5 2 1.4
of research stations
5 Climate – Crop production – Market rate analysis 32 22.5 30 21.1 68 47.9
6 Introduction for each crop 126 96.9 1 0.8 3 2.3
7 Soil & Soil types 113 79.6 16 11.3 1 0.7
8 Cropping seasons and time of sowing 87 61.3 40 28.2 3 2.1
9 Seed rate, Spacing and Seed treatment 101 71.1 27 19.0 2 1.4
10 Varieties & their description 126 88.7 2 1.4 2 1.4
11 Fertilizer recommendation 47 33.1 62 43.7 21 14.8
12 Weed management 101 71.1 27 19.0 2 1.4
13 Water management 39 27.5 54 38.0 37 26.1
14 Micro nutrient recommendations 116 81.7 10 7.0 4 2.8
15 Description of symptoms of damage caused by 114 80.3 14 9.9 2 1.4
pests and diseases
16 Control measures of pests & diseases 54 38.0 69 48.6 7 4.9
17 Post-harvest technology 49 34.5 33 23.2 48 33.8
18 Compatibility charts for fertilizers and pesticides 24 16.9 55 38.7 51 35.9
19 Agricultural implements 50 35.2 59 41.5 21 14.8
20 Honey bees 34 23.9 8 5.6 88 62.0
21 Micro irrigation methods 67 47.2 23 16.2 40 28.2
22 Home science 45 31.7 12 8.5 73 51.4
23 Contact addresses for each crop and allied as- 114 80.3 12 8.5 4 2.8
pects to get additional information
Table 4. Correlation coefficients (r-values) between independent variables with utility of Vyavasaya
Panchangam (n=130)
Sr.No. Independent Variable Correlation co-efficient of utility
1 Age 0.206*
2 Education 0.173*
3 Farming experience 0.106NS
4 Vyavasaya Panchangam Reading Experience 0.304**
* Significant at 5% level of significance * Significant at 1% level of significance

287 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290

 Utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam
Table 5. Problems while reading / utilizing the Vyavasaya Panchangam. (n = 130)
Sr. Problem Frequency Percentage (%)
No.
1 Giving old chemicals 75 57.69
2 Only technical names are given 52 40.00
3 Routine information 42 32.31
4 Only giving high cost farm machinery 41 31.54
5 Scientists not responding to phone calls 40 30.77
6 Fertilizer recommendations are not sufficient 38 29.23
7 Non availability of recommended crop varieties 28 21.54
8 Forecast prices are not prevailing in reality 24 18.46
9 Giving fertilizers recommendations in N, P & K 22 16.92
10 Pesticides recommendations are in ml or gr / litre of water 17 13.08
11 Sprayers information not given 15 11.54
12 Giving fertilizer recommendations per hectare 6 4.615
13 Not giving organic pesticides 4 3.077
14 Compatability of pesticides tables are non-understandable 3 2.308
15 Non availability of Biological control agents 3 2.308
16 Drip & Sprinkler maintenance information not given 3 2.308
17 Clarity of disease pictures not good 2 1.538
18 Giving recommendations in percentages (2% urea) 2 1.538

Relationship between personal characteristics
with utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam
Positive and significant correlation (Table 4)
was observed between age, education with utility
of Vyavasaya Panchangam by the respondents. The
variable education provides the respondent a broader
horizon on any innovation. More the education
more will be the farmer’s outlook towards various
sources of information. Because of education, the
farmers could perceive the content of Vyavasaya
Panchangam better, thereby increasing the utility
of the technical information given in Vyavasaya
Panchangam. This might be the reason for positive,
high significant relationship between education and
utility. Vyavasaya Panchangam reading experience
has positive and highly significant correlation with
utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam. This reveals the
fact that as number of years of study of Vyavasaya
Panchangam increseas the utility of Vyavasaya
Panchangam also increases. Hence, extension
functionaries should motivate the farmers to study
the Vyavasaya Panchangam. Farming experience
was positively and non significantly correlated with
utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam.
Problems while reading /utilizing the Vyavasaya
Panchangam
More than half of the respondents (57.69%)
opined that chemicals i.e. pesticides and insecticides
in Vyavasaya Panchangam were old, as new
chemicals available in the market were not given
in this book. 40 per cent of the respondents also
perceived technical names are given, not the brand
names in market, hence they are facing problem in
case of purchasing a particular chemical.
Routine content, high cost of machinery,
scientists not responding to phone calls, insufficient
fertilizer doses recommended etc. are the other
problems expressed by the readers (Table 5).

288 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290

 Venkataramulu and Punnarao
Table 6. Suggestions to overcome the above problems / to improve the Vyavasaya Panchangam
(n = 130)
Sr. Suggestion Frequency Percentage
No. (%)
1 Marketing Information should be provided 88 67.69
2 Include new chemicals 75 57.69
3 Chemicals brand names also to be included 61 46.92
4 Provide all scientists phone numbers 58 44.62
5 Make availability of Vyavasaya Panchangam 52 40.00
6 Include new technology information 49 37.69
7 Provide information about low cost farm machinery 48 36.92
8 Revise fertilizer recommendations 38 29.23
9 Crop varieties availability addresses 28 21.54
10 Provide fertilizer recommendations in Urea, SSP,DAP & MOP forms 22 16.92
11 Give pesticide recommendations like 10 L / 20 L / tank / acre etc. 17 13.08
12 Provide information about Sprayers 15 11.54
13 Provide information about All India released varieties which are 9 6.92
suitable to AP
14 Provide ICAR & ICRISAT scientists phone numbers 9 6.92
15 Provide more colour photos 9 6.92
16 Organic pesticides 9 7.69
17 Give Fertilizer recommendations per Acre 8 6.15
18 Improve quality of Disease and Nutrient deficiency photos 6 4.62
19 Farmer interest groups 3 2.31
20 Availability of Biological control agents addresses 3 2.31
21 Write compatibility tables in sentences 3 2.31
22 Fish culture in paddy fields 2 1.54
23 Maintenance of Drip & Sprinkler systems 2 1.54
24 Provide department numbers 2 1.54
25 Crop subsidies 2 1.54
26 Don’t write recommendations in Percentages (2% Urea) 2 1.54

Suggestions to overcome the above problems /
to improve the Vyavasaya Panchangam
Majority of the respondents (67.69%) suggested
including marketing information for selling of
commodities, market prices, contact numbers of
market personnel and they also requested to create
toll free number exclusively for knowing market
information. This may be due to the fact that in
recent times farmer’s profits majorly influenced
by prevailing market prices. Another important
suggestion is inclusion of new chemicals as felt
by 57.69 per cent of the respondents (Table 6). It
is also found from the table 6 that they suggested
to include chemical brand names as in Vyavasaya
Panchangam instead of technical names only,
because in pesticide market, mostly using only
brand names hence sometimes facing the problem
of purchasing quality chemical for spraying.

289 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290

 Utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam
From table 6, it could be found that 44.62
per cent suggested providing all scientists phone
numbers in Vyavasaya Panchangam as farmers
opined that getting suggestions from scientists
directly increases satisfaction as they have highest
credibility and reliability of sources of information.
40.00 per cent of the respondents suggested that
make availability of Vyavasaya Panchangam
books at village or mandal level with multipurpose
extension workers, agricultural extension officers
and mandal agricultural officers as they do not
have access to Vyavasaya Panchangam. Hence
extension functionaries should see that Vyavasaya
Panchangam is available to all the farmers and
37.69 per cent of respondents suggested including
new technology information.
It was found from table 6 that 36.92 per cent
of respondents suggested to include information
about low cost farm machinery. It is due to majority
of the respondents are small and marginal farmers
hence publishing high cost farm machinery is of
little use for them and they need low cost farm
machinery information as these machinery can
be purchased and they can utilize in their farms.
29.23 per cent of respondents felt there is need for
revising of fertilizer recommendations given in this
book. These may be due fertility decline in soils
year after year and less usage of farm yard manure
or compost, hence extension functionaries should
290 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 284-290
organize training programmes and demonstrations
on fertilizer management.
The other suggestions like inclusion of crop
varieties availability addresses (21.54%), fertilizer
recommendations in Urea, SSP, DAP & MOP forms
(16.92%), Give pesticide recommendations in 10
L / 20 L / tank / acre (13.08%), information about
Sprayers (11.54%) etc. were also reported.
CONCLUSION
Keeping in view, the utility of the Panchangam,
the publishers and extension functionaries should
see that it is more accessible to the farmers. The
problems and suggestions expressed by the
readers must be given due attention by the content
contributors, for further improving the quality as
well as utility of the Panchangam.
REFERENCES
Jambhale MG, Chikhale NJ and Deshmukh AN( 2015).
Correlates of utility perception of Krushi patrika by the
respondents. Adv Res J Soc Sci 6 (2): 149-154.
Manjula N, Keerthi S and Ambana Gouda D( 2015). Content
analysis of Krishi Munnade Kannada farm magazine.
Agri Update 10 (3): 237-240.
Shireesha D, Ananda Rao V and Jagan Mohan Reddy M (
2011). Farmers perception towards understandability and
utility of Vyavasaya Panchangam. J Res ANGRAU 39
(1&2): 53-57.
Received on 02/07/2019 Accepted on 06/10/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00116.8

Water Draft Exceeds the Quantity of

Groundwater Recharge: A Case of Yarehalli Micro-Watershed,
Davanagere District, Karnataka
Shivaraj S 1 and Naveena K P 2
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Karnataka Watershed Development Project (KWDP-II), Sujala-III
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru - 65 (Karnataka)

ABSTRACT
The groundwater is a dynamic and replenishable natural resource but in hard rock terrains its availability
is of limited extent and essentially confined to the fractured and weathered horizons, which points toward
efficient management of groundwater in these areas. The behaviour of groundwater in the Indian sub-
continent is highly complicated due to the occurrence of diversified geological formations. Hence, the
groundwater extraction and corresponding recharge studies were conducted at Yarehalli micro-watershed
during the year 2016-2017. The results indicated that the groundwater fluctuation and discharge was more
in the year 2017 as compared to 2016. The total draft of groundwater was found to be 27, 09, 619 m3, against
the total recharge of 1, 80, 462 m3 with the groundwater extractions being 15 times more than the recharge.
Key Words: Groundwater draft, Groundwater fluctuation, Groundwater recharge, Micro-watershed,
Natural resource.

INTRODUCTION increasing population of the country has resulted

In India, the water resource potential in terms
of natural runoff is about 1,869 billion Cubic Meter
(BCM)/yr, while, the usable water resources of
the country have been estimated as 1,123 BCM/
yr. This is mainly due to constraints of topography
and uneven distribution of the resource in various
river basins, which makes difficult to extract the full
potential of the natural runoff. Further, the share of
surface and groundwater resources extracted from
the natural flow was accounted to 690 BCM/yr and
433 BCM/yr, respectively. Therefore, the net annual
groundwater availability for the entire country
is only 398 BCM, excluding 35 BCM as natural
discharge. The overall contribution of rainfall to the
country’s annual groundwater resource is 68 per
cent and the share of other resources, such as canal
seepage, return flow from irrigation, recharge from
tanks, ponds and water conservation structures
accounted for 32 per cent. Meanwhile, the ever
Corresponding Author’s Email : naveenkeragodu@gmail.com
to 15 per cent reduction in the national per capita
annual availability of water i.e., from 1,816 m3 in
2001 to 1,544 m3 in 2011.
Groundwater is the purest form of water on the
earth and found to be unlimited natural resources
to mankind at the cheapest cost. It always flows
through the fractures of rock and pore spaces over
a long distance in the aquifers and to be available
to the vast number of people at their firm. The
configuration (shape or form of the surface) of the
water table is a function of the geometry of the land
surface, rate and location of ground-water recharge
and discharge, aquifer properties, and extent,
thickness, and shape of the aquifer and adjacent
confining units (Haitjema and Bruker, 2005). The
water table rises due to increased ground-water
storage when the rate of recharge exceeds the rate
of discharge and declines when these conditions are
reversed (Veeger and Johnston, 1996). Fluctuations

291 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296

 Shivaraj and Naveena
can be the result of any influence that can change therainfall of 612-1054 mm (Fig. 1). The main cropping
amount or location of recharge or discharge. These season is Kharif and the major crops grown in the
days the groundwater is being exploited, day by day study area are paddy, ragi, jowar, maize, groundnut
the number of bore wells and the boring depth also and sunflower. The bore well density was around
increasing as the depth to water table going down 11 bore wells per sq. km and they are depending
every year. on groundwater for irrigation and also for domestic
Groundwater is dynamic natural resources that purpose (Fig. 2).
can be recharge most during the rainy season by
rainwater for the rest of the year. Over withdrawal
of groundwater causes decline in the water table due
to the stress and distorting the aquifer and may also
lead adverse surface and subsurface environmental
effect. Groundwater recharge is usually influenced
by climate variability and human intervention such as
groundwater abstraction excessive or unsustainable
withdrawal and the rest (Abdullahi and Garba,
2015). Use of groundwater for irrigation is a global
inventory via a range of pumping technologies and
the studies from India and Bangladesh reported that
the groundwater level (0.1 - 0.5 m/yr) is drastically Fig 1. Rainfall pattern of Yarehalli micro-watershed
declined indicating reduction in aquifer storage
for unsustainable groundwater abstraction for
both irrigation and urban water supplies (Siebert
et al, 2010). Hence, the study was conducted
to assess the impact of rainfall on the yield and
depth of water table at Yarehalli micro-watershed,
Chennapura sub-watershed in Channagiri taluk,
Davanagere district under the Karnataka Watershed
Development Project (KWDP-II), Sujala-III by
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Location of the study area
The study was conducted in Yarehalli micro-
watershed (Code–4D4C4W1c) is a part of
Chennapura sub-watershed, Channagiri taluk,
Davanagere district covering an area of 761 ha is
located at North latitude 130 58’ 59.959’’ and 140
1’ 3.722’’ and East longitude 750 51’ 37.585’’ and
750 53’ 29.93’’ and spread across Dongraghatta,
Sunageri, Haronahalli and Yarehalli villages. The
predominant soils found in the region are red sandy
soil and red loamy soils with the average annual
Fig 2. Location of selected borewells in Yarehalli
micro-watershed
NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA
For the survey, 65 bore wells were randomly
selected and the water yield (litre/minute) was
recorded seasonally through volumetric basis by
the expertise field staff. Further, the depth of the
groundwater table (meters) was monitored in all
the selected bore wells of the micro-watershed at
monthly intervals for the academic year 2016 and

292 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296

 Water Draft Exceeds the Quantity of Groundwater Recharge
2017. Care was taken to obtain the groundwater Total Draft = Well draft for all seasons + draft for
levels by bore well accessories. Primary data domestic purpose
regarding number of bore wells, farm ponds, check Domestic Draft = Per capita water requirement/day
dams, irrigated lands etc within the watershed x 365 x Population
boundary was recorded personally by the field staff
through face to face interaction with the sample Recharge (m3)
households. The other necessary information like It is volume of water expressed in m3 that gets into
number of households in the village, area under dry the aquifer by artificial/natural method.
land, irrigated land were collected from the records Recharge = Monsoon Recharge + Non-monsoon
maintained at the Gram Panchayath. Recharge
Well Recharge and Draft Monsoon Recharge = (R) = Sy x (Dh) x A + P
The groundwater assessment is accomplished Non-monsoon Recharge* = Non-monsoon rainfall
by evaluation of change in annual depth to (m) x RIF x A
Groundwater level (m), fluctuations (m), well yield/
* Non-monsoon recharge is estimated only when
discharge (lpm), draft (m3) throughout the cropping
non monsoon rainfall is more than 10 per cent of
season and recharge (m3).
annual recharge.
Groundwater fluctuation (m) Where,
The average annual groundwater fluctuation (m)
Sy = Specific yield (as per Groundwater
was calculated by taking into the difference between
Estimation Committee
pre monsoon and post monsoon groundwater
level. The groundwater level data was used with (GEC-97) recommendations)
recurrence interval of one month throughout the Dh = Rise in groundwater table due to
year in the study area. rainy season (m)
Well discharge or well pumping rate (lpm) P = Groundwater draft during the monsoon
Water table fluctuation (WTF) method is most period (m3)
common method used to estimate the recharge A= (Geographical area of watershed) – (area of
of water in shallow unconfined aquifers where watershed having > 20 per cent slope) in m2
groundwater levels respond to precipitation. In the
RIF= Rainfall Infiltration Factor
present study, the WTF method was used because
it is not restricted by the mechanisms by which Specific Yield for Bore Well Zone
water flows through the unsaturated zone (Lutz et Specific yield values for fractured formation
al, 2015). Finally, season-wise draft was calculated
have not been recommended by GEC-97
by taking into consider the season-wise average methodology. However, as per field experience and
discharge values from the bore wells. discussions with the scientists of Central Ground
Water Board, it emerged that specific yield is
Draft (m3)
dependent on lineament and fracture intensity of
It is the water quantity being pumped from the
the aquifer material. If water level is within top
aquifer system throughout the Cropping season.
100 m in the bore well, a maximum specific yield
Draft (m3) = (Season-wise average discharge value of 0.1 % (0.001 as fraction) can be taken. If
(lpm) x No. of pumping wells x No. of pumping the water level is beyond 100 m this value has to be
hours/day x No. of pumping days in the season x further reduced.
60)/1000

293 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296

 Shivaraj and Naveena
Table 1. Specific yield values as per GEC-97
recommendation.
Formations GEC-97 As Fraction
Recommendation
(%)
Alluvium 4-8 0.04-0.08
Laterite 2-3 0.02-0.03
Basalt 1-3 0.01-0.03
Lime stone 1-3 0.01-0.03
Granites/ 1-2 0.01-0.02
Schists/ Fig 3. Groundwater level in different season
Gneisses
Source: Report of the ground water resource
estimation committee, ministry of water resources
government of India, New Delhi, 2009.
Table 2. Rainfall Infiltration Factor (RIF) as per
GEC-97 Recommendations.
Formation RIF (%)
Alluvium 10-12
Laterite 6-8
Basalt 6-8 Fig 4. Groundwater fluctuations during 2016-2017
Limestone 5-7
Granites/Schists/Gneisses 5-9

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results showed that the depth to groundwater
level was recorded to 22.10 m during pre-monsoon
and 32.80 m for post monsoon with the water table
fluctuation of about 10.60 m during 2016 as shown
in figure 3 and 4. Further, the discharge variations
were also observed in kharif, rabi and summer
seasons and the values were 2.52, 2.35 and 1.68 l/
sec, respectively (figure 5). Similarly, the average Fig 5. Discharge variations during 2016-2017
fluctuation of groundwater level in the year 2017 (46.77 %) and kharif (3.19 %). The annual water
was 22.4 m and the average fluctuation of discharge draft for domestic purpose (52, 468 m3) was
during kharif, rabi and summer were 2.36, 2.44 and calculated by taking into consider the per capita
2.28 l/sec, respectively. water requirement for domestic purpose (l/day) of
It was observed that the fluctuation in recharge the total household members present in the micro
were more in the year 2017. The annual draft of watershed. Therefore, the total annual draft was
groundwater for irrigation was found to be 26, arrived at 27, 09, 619 m3 by considering both annual
57, 150 m3 in which 50 per cent of the draft was draft for irrigation and domestic purpose. On the
observed during rabi season followed by summer other hand, the annual recharge of groundwater
294 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296
 Water Draft Exceeds the Quantity of Groundwater Recharge
Table 3. Annual draft of Groundwater in Yarehalli micro watershed
Particulars No. of Average Water Daily No. of Total
functioning discharge pumped (No. draft (m3) pumping draft (m3)
wells (l/hr) of hours /d) days in a
Water Draft season
Kharif 374 9078.22 1 3395.30 25 84881.40
Annual draft Rabi 374 8463.72 4 12661.70 105 1329482
for Irrigation Summer 372 6052.21 6 13509 92 1242787
Total 2657150
Annual draft for domestic purpose* 52468.75
Total Annual Draft (m3) 2709619
Note: *- Calculated by considering total population in the micro watershed multiplied with the per capita
water requirement for domestic purpose (lit/day).

was calculated in both mansoon and non-mansoon
season. During mansoon period, the net availability
of water recharge was highest (1,36,314 m3) when
compared to the non-mansoon period (44147
m3). Finally, the total availability of groundwater
recharge was found to be 1, 80, 462 m3 by taking
into consider five per cent sub surface discharge
at monsoon and 10 per cent sub surface discharge
at non-monsoon periods. By considering both the
annual draft and recharge of groundwater in the
micro watershed, it was shocking to note that the
groundwater extraction being 15 times more than
that of the annual recharge in the micro watershed.
The present study was in line with the study
conducted by Moran et al (2015) that the overdraft
is occurring in an increasing number of groundwater
basins throughout the California and is impacting
the State in many ways.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Groundwater overdraft occurs when the water
draft exceeds the amount of water recharge into an
aquifer leading to decline in the groundwater level
which puts extra burden for the farmers to drill
deeper bore wells and failure of bore wells. Hence,
the study indicated the vast scope and opportunity
of artificial groundwater recharge structures which
help in sustainable way of managing water resources

Table 4. Annual recharge of Groundwater in Yarehalli micro watershed

Watershed Rainfall Water draft for Water Sub surface Water
Particulars area suitable (mm) corresponding recharge discharge* Recharge
for recharge period of water (m3) available for
Water (ha)** level rise (m3) use (m3)
Recharge
Monsoon 761.94 419.72 89467 143488.55 7174.42* 136314.10

Non-monsoon ## 761.94 189.35 - 49052.93 4905.29# 44147.64

Annual recharge (m3) 192541.50
Annual Subsurface discharge (m3) 12079.72
Total annual Recharge available for use (m3) 180461.80
* Sub surface discharge at 5 per cent of monsoon and 10 per cent of non-monsoon recharge

295 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296

 Shivaraj and Naveena
in the micro watershed. Further, it is necessary to Haitjema and Mitchell Bruker (2005). Are water tables a
create awareness among farm households regarding subdued replica of the topography?, Ground Water 43(6):
781-786.
the judicious use of groundwater by appropriate
choice of low water intensive and high value crops Siebert S, Burke J, Faure J M, Frenken K and Hoogeveen
J (2010). Groundwater uses for irrigation- A global
through micro irrigation for the better future. inventory, Hydrology and Earth System Sci 14: 1863-
1880.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Tara Moran, Janny Choy and Carolina Sanchez (2015). The
The authors wish to thank the Project assistants Hidden Costs of Groundwater Overdraft - Understanding
and Field assistants at KWDP-II, Sujala-III project California’s Groundwater, Water in the West Series.
funded by World Bank in which the study was Veeger A I and Johnston H (1996). Hydrogeology and water
undertaken. resources of Block Island, Rhode Island, U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report.
REFERENCES Lutz A, Minyila S, Saga B, Diarra S, Apambire B and Thomas J
Abdullahi M G and Garba I (2015). Effect of rainfall on (2015). Fluctuation of Groundwater Levels and Recharge
groundwater level fluctuation in Terengganu, Malaysia, J Patterns in Northern Ghana, Climate 3: 1-15.
Remote Sensing & GIS, 4(2): 142. Received on 16/10/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

296 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 291-296

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 297-300 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00117.X

Water Management through Puddling Techniques

K Prasanthkumar, M Saravanakumar and J John Gunasekar
Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Kumulur, Trichy – 621 712 (Tamil Nadu)

ABSTRACT
Paddy is the major cereal crop grown in India under stagnated water condition in agricultural
fields. Puddling operation is carried out to create the stagnated water condition by creating
an impervious layer in the sub soil surface. Puddling is a land preparation practice and it will
decide the water usage in fields throughout the cropping period. To improve the puddling
quality and stagnation of water, the puddling techniques viz., T1 = cage wheel, T2 = rotavator,
T3 = cage wheel + rotavator and T4 = power tiller with rotary tool were taken for the study.
Since number of passes also influencing the puddling index, each treatment was analyzed for
P1 = single pass and P2 = double pass. The implements were tested in silty loam soil and the parameters
like puddling index and infiltration rate were measured using standard measurement procedures.
Infiltration rate of field was reduced by increasing the puddling index with stagnated water condition.
T4P2 technique had the highest puddling index of 70.91 per cent and lowest infiltration rate of 6.5 mm/d
whereas T1P1 had the lowest puddling index and highest infiltration rate. In upland area, the power tiller
attached with rotary tool was the most suitable method because infiltration rate observed minimum
among all the treatments. When the infiltration rate reduces, the frequency of irrigation can be reduced
resulting in saving of water during the crop period. In lowland paddy cultivation, usage of cage wheel
with two pass allows infiltration of water resulting in proper drainage and reduces water stagnation.
Key Words: Infiltration rate, Management, Puddling, Puddling index, Rotavator.

INTRODUCTION and the disturbed soil particles occupy the pore

Land preparation is an important activity for
providing favorable condition for crop cultivation.
Unlike the other crops, grows in a stagnated
water conditions and predominantly cultivated in
fields with higher clay content. The behavior of
clay soils is unpredictable as it becomes pasty in
presence of moisture and forms the huge cracks
when dry. Providing stagnated water condition for
paddy cultivation is challenging. Puddling is an
important operation that is carried out to create an
impervious layer in the subsurface of soil to provide
stagnated water condition then softens the soil for
transplanting the paddy seedlings. In puddling, the
soil is disturbed or churned in the presence of water
space and thus create an impervious layer which
reduces the percolation of water and facilitates the
stagnation of water for paddy cultivation.
Behera et al (2009) found that peg type puddler
with two passes produced highest puddling index
as 30.13 per cent and rotary puddler with one
pass produced 24.60 per cent. Singh et al (2012)
identified that the cumulative infiltration rate was
higher in bed and furrow transplanted rice (10.3-
10.8 cm/min) than puddled flat treatments (5.5-5.9
cm/min).
Pradhan et al (2015) evaluated the performance
of the power tiller with different cage wheel lug

Corresponding Author’s Email: prasanthkumar027@gmail.com

1
Ph.D scholar, Dept. of FM & PE, AEC & RI, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu.
2
Associate Professor (Farm Machinery), Dept. of FM & PE, AEC & RI, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu.
3
Professor and Head (Bio Energy), Dept. of REE, AEC & RI, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu.

297 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 297-300

 Prasanthkumar et al
angle and diameter of cage wheel in the inceptisol.
The cage wheel of 30o lug angle with 73 cm diameter Where,
given the maximum puddling index of 29.25 per
cent. Power tiller drawn rotavator produced highest PI = Puddling index (per cent)
puddling index and lower percolation rate in hilly Ps = Soil level in the measuring cylinder
areas compared to animal drawn traditional country after 48 h (ml),
plough, rectangular blade puddler and disc harrow Pt = Total sample level (ml)
(Kumar et al 2015). Saimbhi (2016) stated that the
rotavator operation was achieved the maximum Infiltration rate
puddling index of 84 per cent and the infiltration A graduated scale was fixed inside of PVC pipe,
rate of 0.11 cm/h. Infiltration rate was decreased like an infiltrometer (Fig. 2) at five locations of the
(0.85 mm/h) as the puddling index (71.5 per cent) puddle field. Pipes were filled with water then the
was increased for rotavator puddling operation. initial value was noted. The water level was noted
at every 3h then the infiltration rate for a day was
MATERIALS AND METHODS calculated by dividing the reduction in water level
Initially a soil sample was taken from the dry with duration of measurement (Chinna, 2015).
field and was analyzed using the Robinson pipette
method and found that it was silty loam in nature.
Different puddling techniques used by farmers
were taken as different treatments viz., T1 = cage
wheel, T2 = rotavator, T3 = cage wheel + rotavator
and T4 = power tiller with rotary tool. Since number
of passes also influencing the puddling index each
treatment was analyzed for P1 = single pass and P2 =
double pass (Behera et al 2009). All the evaluation
parameters were measured using the standard
procedures. Different puddling techniques are
shown in fig. 1. All the treatments were replicated
thrice to increase the accuracy of experiment.
For evaluation of treatments puddling index and
infiltration rate were taken as dependent variables.
Measurement procedures
Puddling index
Fig.1. Different puddling techniques
A sample of 200 ml puddle soil was collected at
five locations of puddled field using PVC pipe. PVC
pipe was first inserted in to the puddled soil after the
final lap of each implement passes. Inserted pipe
was clenched at the top, to hold the sample. Then
the sample was collected in the 250 ml measuring
cylinder. The sample was kept undisturbed for 48 h
in measuring cylinder. After 48 h the soil level and
total sample level was noted. Using the equation (1)
puddling index was calculated.
Fig. 2. Infiltration rate measurement
298 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 297-300
 Water Management through Puddling Techniques
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Infiltration rate and puddling index
Infiltration rate on a silty loam soil was higher
in cage wheel operation with single pass which
recorded lowest puddling index was occurred. In
cage wheel (T1) single pass (P1) operation puddling
index is 49.29 per cent and the infiltration rate is 19 Devangan (2006), Behera et al (2009). Power tiller
mm/d (Fig. 3). The infiltration rate decreased when
the puddling index was increased in cage wheel
(T1) double pass (P2) operation. In cage wheel with
double pass, operation the infiltration rate was
decreased to 17.5 mm/d and the puddling index is
increased by 52.50 per cent.
infiltration rate of 12.5 mm/d was measured in P1
and the minimum infiltration rate of 12 mm/d was
measured in P2. Puddling index was increased in
double pass for all the treatments, it might be due
to more soil manipulation by the implement. The
above results were in closely related to Verma and
with rotary tool (T4) operation was showing the
highest puddling index of 70.91 per cent in P2 and
the second highest puddling index of 69.61 per cent
in field in T4P1.
The infiltration rate was minimum in T4P2
treatment compared with other treatments. The
experiments showed a inverse relation between
puddling index and infiltration rate in all the
treatments (Fig. 4). This might be due to the reason
that higher degree of churning of soil with water
results in higher puddling index and more number
of layers of soil settlement like sand, silt and clay
creating effective impervious layer and reduction in
the infiltration rate.

Fig. 3. Influence of different puddling techniques on

infiltration rate and puddling index

In rotavator (T2) single pass (P1) operation

the puddling index was 60.80 per cent and the
infiltration rate was 13.5 mm/d. T2P2 operation
recorded higher puddling index of 61.54 per cent
and lowest infiltration rate of 13 mm/d compared
with T2P1, it might be due to the increased soil
Fig. 4. Relationship between infiltration rate and
disturbance. When the number of passes was puddling index
increased with rotavator operation, puddling index
was increased by 0.012 per cent only. Puddling Sand having more weight than silt and clay
index was increased by increasing the number of particles, hence sand will settle down in the churned
passes in the field. Infiltration rate was decreased soil. After that silt and clay layers will follow. More
by 0.5 mm/d from single pass to double pass in amount of churning of soil will take more time
rotavator operation. to settle down, so the impervious layer may be
effective in reducing infiltration rate.
The cage wheel and rotavator (T3) operation
had the lower puddling index of 62.86 per cent It was concluded that, in upland area the power
in single pass (P1) and the higher puddling index tiller attached with rotary tool is the most suitable
of 64.86 per cent in double pass (P2). Maximum method because infiltration rate was observed to
be minimum among all the treatments. When the

299 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 297-300

 Prasanthkumar et al
infiltration rate reduces, the frequency of water Behera B K, Varshney B P and Goel A K (2009). Effect of
application can be reduced resulting saving of puddling on puddled soil characteristics and performance
of self-propelled transplanter in rice crop. Agrl Engg Int
water. In lowland paddy cultivation, usage of cage the CIGR Ejournal 10: 1-18.
wheel with two passes allows infiltration of water
Chandra S, Kumar S and Kumar V (2013). Comparative
resulting in proper drainage and reduces water Performance Evaluation of Self Propelled Paddy
stagnation. Transplanters in Calcareous Soil. AMA, 44 (2): 33-38.
Chhina R S (2015). Comparative performance of different
CONCLUSION puddling equipments. Int J Agrl Engg 8 (2): 210-214.
In silty loam soil infiltration rate increased with Kumar A, Manda S, Singh R K and Tamhankar M B (2015).
decrease in puddling index for all the implements Comparative performance of puddlers in low lands of
used in puddling operation. Puddling index was hilly areas. Indian J Hill Farming 28 (1): 63-68.
higher in power tiller operated rotary tool for 10 Pradhan P, Ajay V, Kipoo K and Ragesh K (2015). Performance
cm depth, because the power tiller was not able of power tiller with different cage wheels in wet land. Int
to penetrate into the soil below 10 cm. In upland J Agrl Sci and Res 5(5): 23-32.
area the power tiller attached with rotary tool is Saimbhi V S (2016). Effect of puddling equipment on puddling
the most suitable method because infiltration rate characteristics under paddy cultivation in punjab. Int J
Agrl Sci and Res 2 (3): 332-338.
was observed minimum among all the treatments.
When the infiltration rate reduces, the frequency of Singh N, Vashist K K and Mahal S S (2012). Effect of furrow
and bed transplanted rice (Oryza Sativa L.) with varying
water application can be reduced resulting saving
irrigation management on soil bulk density and infiltration
of water. In lowland paddy cultivation, usage of rate on sandy loam soil. J Krishi Vigyan 1 (2): 25-28.
cage wheel with two passes allows infiltration of Verma A K and Dewangan M L (2006). Efficiency and energy
water resulting in proper drainage and reduces use in puddling of lowland rice grown on Vertisols in
water stagnation. Central India. Soil and Tillage Res 90 (1-2), 100-107.
Received on 17/10/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
REFERENCES
Anonymous (1985). Test code for puddler [FAD 21: Farm
Implements and Machinery]. IS:11531, 1-18.

300 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 297-300

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 301-305 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00118.1

Zero-Till Wheat Planting in Rice-Wheat Cropping System

Shailendra Singh Kushwah, B S Kasana and S S Bhadauria
Directorate of Extension Services
RajmataVijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Gwalior)-474 002(Madhya Pradesh

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during two consecutive Rabi seasons of 2015-16 and 2016-17 at farmer’s
fields in Badkisarari village on clay loam soils to validate zero till sowing of wheat crop in rice-wheat
cropping system for realizing higher yield. Zero till sown wheat had significantly lesser weed dry bio mass
per unit area as compared to wheat sown in conventional and reduced tillage beside advancement of sowing
by 20-25d over conventional and reduced tillage sowing of wheat crop. The population of Phalaris minor,
Avena ludoviciana, Avena fatua, Chenopodium album, Melilotus indica and Anagalis arvensis was reduced
significantly under zero tillage as compared to conventional tillage. Excellent suppression in weed density
and weed dry weight with higher levels of weed control efficiency and yield were obtained with zero till sown
wheat. Zero tillage was also found better in terms of lesser cost of cultivation, higher net returns and B:C ratio.
Key Words: Zero tillage, Rice-wheat cropping system ,Conventional tillage , On farm assessment,
Participatory rural appraisal.

INTRODUCTION and Avena fatua were also reported by the farmers

Wheat is grown in rotation with rice on forty
andsixty per cent area in the country and Gwalior
district respectively during the year 2015-16. It was
observed in the participatory rural appraisal survey
of the village Badkisarai in Harsicommand area of
the Gwalior district that very lessswitch over time is
left to the farmers for subsequent sowing of wheat
after rice harvest at the recommended time. Due
to this reason sowing of wheat crop was delayed
by at least 20-25 days. The delayed sowing was
observed as big stumbling block in realizing the
yield potential of newer varieties of wheat despite
a seed replacement rate of above 40% among the
farmers in the villages.
Farmers were realizing the consequences of
late planting of wheat in terms of less tillering and
forced maturity in crop due to increased terminal
atmospheric temperature.Delay in time of sowing
in Rice-wheat cropping system is perhaps the one
of the major factors responsible for low crop yield
(Kasana et al. 2015). Invasion of wheat crop with
weeds like Phalaris minor, Avena ludoviciana
during the pre adoption participatory survey of the
village beside increased cost of cultivation and
reduced yield of subsequent wheat crop in rice-
wheat system.When land is cultivated to raise crops,
weeds spring-up naturally along with the crop
plants. Weeds represent one of the greatest limiting
factors to efficient crop production (Kasana et al,
2018). Zero till seed drill machine is able to sow the
wheat crop after the harvest of transplanted rice in
standing rice stubbles.The reduction in wheat yield
due to delay in sowing has been recorded as one
per cent of total yield /ha/day (Hossain et al, 2011).
Zero tillage has an advantage of early planting,
reduced cost of production as well as chances of
greenhouse gas emission. It has been established
in various field experiments under climate resilient
technology development research projects in Indo-
Ganagetic plains (IGP) that zero tillage technique
not only overcomes the problem of delayed planting
of wheat but also reduced the infestation of weeds
like Phalaris minor, Avena ludoviciana and Avena
fatua. Keeping in view above eventualities of rice-

Corresponding Author’s Email: shailendrakushwal910@gmail.com

301 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 301-305

 Kushwah et al
wheat system the present investigation was planned
to assess the performance and profitability of zero
till wheat sowing technique in clay loam soils at
farmer’s fields in the adopted village Badkisarai
under Bhitarwar block of district Gwalior.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiments were conducted for two
consecutive years during Rabi seasons 2015-16
and 2016-17 at farmers’ fields to validate zero till
sowing of wheat crop in rice-wheat system for
timely sowing of wheat in realizing higher yield. Ten
farmers’ participatory field trials were conducted
during each season in Gwalior district of Madhya
Pradesh. The soil of the farmers’ fields was clay
loam in texture with low organic carbon (0.3-0.8%)
(Gupta et al, 1975) and available N (201-242 Kg/
ha) (Subbiah and Asiza, 1956), medium in available
P (15.5-18.6Kg/ha)(Olsen et al,1954) and available
K (180-240Kg/ha) (Muhur et al,1965) with pH 8.2-
8.6 (Piper, 1966).
The experiment was laid out in randomized block
design (RBD) comprising 03 planting methods of
wheat after rice harvest viz., conventional tillage,
reduced tillage and zero tillage on 10 farmers’
fields considering each field as separate replication.
Wheat variety MP4010 was sown during last week
of November and first week of December during the
year 2014-15 and 2016-17 in zero tillage and during
last week of December and first week of January in
conventional tillage practice encompasses burning
of rice residues followed by pre irrigation water
ponding in fields and 3-4 cultivations after getting
workable field conditions. The crop was sown in
rows, 20cm apart, while wheat crop was sownafter
one follow up cultivation after rice harvest followed
by pre irrigation and one cultivationunder reduced
tillage treatment.
The zero tillage (ZT) treatment (T1)consisted
of direct drilling of wheat seed (100kg/ha) with di-
ammonium phosphate (125kg/ha), Urea (80kg/ha)
and muriate of potash (66 kg/ha) by using zero till
seed –cum-fertilizer drill machine without any pre
302 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 301-305
sowing tillage operation in presence of sufficient
moisture condition after rice harvest in anchored
residues . Remaining dose of nitrogen was applied
through two equal doses of urea (65kg/ha each) in
split application after first and second irrigation
at the appropriate moisture level in fields. The
conventional tillage (CT); the farmers practice (FP)
(T3) consisted of burning of crop residues followed
by one pre sowing irrigation followed by 3-4
ploughings with planking for getting suitable tilth
and finally sowing with conventional seed cum ferti
drill machine with the same dose of nutrients. The
wheat crop sown in reduced tillage (T2) was also
given same dose of nutrients as that applied in zero
and conventional tillage. The zero till and reduced
till sowing were carried out in advance by 25-30
and 2-5 d, respectively as compare to CT/FP on the
farmer’s fields. The crop was grown with all other
similar package of practices under all the planting
methods.
The population and above ground weed bio
mass was also recorded at 60 DAS by using a
quadrant of 0.5 X 0.5 m for major grassy weeds
and broad leaved weeds. Standard methods were
followed for weed, crop and economical analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect on weed
The farmers’ fields in Harsi canal command area
under rice-wheat cropping system were profoundly
infested with grassy weeds viz., Phalaris minor,
Avena ludoviciana and Avena fatua beside broad
leaved weeds mainly Chenopodium album ,
Chenopodium murale, Anagalis arvensis, Melilotus
alba and Rumex dentotous under wheat crop sown
in conventional tillage (FP) and reduced tillage .On
the other hand, zero till sowing resulted in very
effective suppression of narrow leaved weeds with
fewer number of BLWs viz.Chenopodium album ,
Chenopodium murale, Anagalis arvensis, Melilotus
alba and Rumex dentotous. Zero till planting (T1)
of wheat gave significantly lower weed density
and weed dry weight for narrow leaved weeds
 Zero-Till Wheat Planting in Rice-Wheat
during both the years over farmers practice (T3)

NLWs- Narrow leaved weeds; BLWs- Broad leaved weeds, DAS- Days after sowing,T1-zero tillage (ZT) ,T2-reduced tillage (RT),T3-
2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17
Weed Dry Weight Efficiency- BLWs
(CT) which gave 85.80 and 89.17 per cent control

(%) at 60 DAS
Weed Control

6.93
2.33
0.00
- 
- 
efficiencies for narrow leaved weeds (NLWs) in the
year 2015-16 and 2016-17, respectively at 60 DAS
(Table. 1). The similar trends were also observed by

-0.75
1.65

0.00
- 
- 
Radhey Shyam et al (2014). The control efficiencies
for NLWs under zero till planting method were
statistically superior to rest of the two planting

28.43
29.90
30.14
0.53
NS
methods used for wheat in rice-wheat system.

BLWs(g/m2)
Singh (2014) also reported better control of narrow
leaved weeds in ZT planting (T1) of wheat crop in
rice-wheat cropping system. The poor performance

29.22
29.94
29.72
0.22
NS
of CT in managing the narrow leaved weeds in
rice –wheat system was might be due to brought
up seeds of narrow leaved weeds from lower layers

2015-16 2016-17

19.633
19.04

19.07
BLWs (no/m2)

0.20
0.58
Weed Density
to upper layer (0-5 cm) of the soil by excessive
tillage operations. These seeds got the opportunity
to germinate under favorable micro ecological

17.65

21.85
conditions under CT planting (T3) of wheat crop.

19.6

0.19
0.55
Table 1. Effect of tillage practices on weeds in wheat crop at farmers, field.
The planting methods could not produceany
significant difference with respect to dry weight

2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17

Weed Dry Weight Efficiency -NLWs

90.30
21.00
of broad leaved weeds however these were
(%) at 60 DAS

0.00
0.52
1.51
Weed Control

observed in fewer numbers at different locations.

Statistically significant difference was observed for
density of BLWs under different planting methods. 86.18
25.64
0.00
0.80
2.33
Significantly lower broad leaved weeds density was
recorded under T1 and T2as compared to T3during
both the years of investigation. 33.15
97.04
112.6
20.6
96.5
NLWs (g/m2)

Effect on crop
Wheat crop sown under zero tillage recorded
significantly higher number of effective tillers/m2and
108.14
102.6

36.94
116.4
22.6

test weightover reduced and conventional tillage

during both the years (Table 2). The significantly
higher values for the test weight of wheat crop
120.5
152.6
NLWs (no/m2),

14.8

0.85
2.48
Weed Density

seed under zero till planting could be ascribed to

higher accumulation of photosynthates in seed due
to congenial ambient temperature the crop received
farmers practice (CT)
132.6
178.6
24.6

1.86
5.45

during maturity under ZT due to advanced planting.

Further lesser competition received by the crop from
NLWs for growth resources under zero till planting
 Treatment

of wheat over rest of the two planting methods

CD@5%

hadan added advantage for enhanced growth and

SEM

development of crop. The higher values for the

T1
T2
T3
 

303 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 301-305

 Kushwah et al
Table 2. Effect of tillage practices on yield attributes and yields of wheat crop.
 Treatment Effective Tillers (no./m2) Test Weight (g) Yield (q/ha)
  2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17
T1 408 395 42.2 40.8 57.45 48.14
T2 390 382 41.5 38.6 51.51 44.5
T3 326 308 38.5 37.4 48.65 42.43
SEM 2.024 1.392 0.295 0.415 0.566 0.537
CD@5% 5.925 4.074 0.864 1.215 1.657 1.573
T1-zero tillage (ZT) ,T2-reduced tillage (RT),T3-farmers practice (CT)

Table 3.Economics of different tillage practices in wheat crop.

Treatment Gross cost (Rs/ha) Gross returns (Rs/ha) Net returns (Rs/ha) B:C

2015-16 2016-17 205-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17

T1 18350 19650 87812 79996 69462 60346 4.79 4.07
T2 19950 20530 79042 74041 59092 53511 3.96 3.61
T3 22350 23650 74799 71027 52449 47377 3.35 3.00
T1-zero tillage (ZT) ,T2-reduced tillage (RT),T3-farmers practice (CT)
Note :- Sale price of wheat during 2015-16 (1350 Rs/q)and 2016-17 (1450 Rs/q) and for Straw 2015-16 (150 Rs/q) and 2016-17
(175 Rs/q). Gross cost of experiment was calculated on the basis of prevailing prices of Inputs used.

yield attributes viz., effective tillers and test weight,
might be transformed in to significantly higher grain
yield under T1 over T2and T3.The zero tillage gave
57.45 and 48.14 q/ha grain yield of wheat in 2015-
16 and 2016-17, respectively which was 15.31 and
11.86 per cent higher over conventional planting
of wheat crop in rice-wheat system.The present
findings corroborated the results obtained by Singh
(2014) and Radhey Shyam et al (2014) for zero
tillage planting in wheat.
Economics
The net returns and benefit: cost ratio was
observed maximum for zero tillage (T1) during
both the years followed by the reduced tillage (T2)
(Table 3). The lowest net returns (Rs.52,449/- and
Rs. 47,377/-) and B: C (3.35 and 3), during 2015-
16 and 2016-17, respectively were recorded under
conventional tillage (T3). The highest values of
economical parameter could be attributed by higher
grain yield and reduced cost of cultivation under
T1 and T2 as compared to T3. Similar findings
were reported by Bhatt et al (2016) in conservation
agricultural practices under RWCS.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of two year farmers led field
experimentation, it was concluded that zero till
wheat sowing in wheat was found much effective in
suppression of weed density and weed dry weight
of narrow leaved weeds viz., Phalaris minor,
Avena ludoviciana and Avena fatuain comparison
to conventional tillage which was also observed
significantly lower over reduced till sowing of wheat
crop. However differences among planting methods
with respect to weed density of broad leaved
weeds were not observed statistically significant.
The significantly higher grain yield of wheat and
higher monitory returns were also achieved under
zero tillage sowingduring both the year over rest of
planting method.

304 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 301-305

 Zero-Till Wheat Planting in Rice-Wheat
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Anonymous (2015-16). mpkrishi.mp.gov.in.District wise
area-production and yield of crops in Madhya Pradesh
(2011-12 -2015-16).
Bhatt Rajan, Kukal S S, Busari Mutiu A, Arora and Yadav
Sanjay (2016).ustainability issues on rice-wheat cropping
system. Int Soil and Water Conserv Res J 4 : 64-74
Hossain A, Sarker M A Z , Hakim M A, Lozovskaya MV
and Zvolinsky VP (2011). Effect of temperature on yield
and some agronomic characters of spring wheat (Triticum
aestivum l.) Genotypes. Int J Agril Res Innov & Tech 1
(1&2): 44-54.
Kasana B S, Singh A K, Tomar R K S and Rikhari Y C (2015).
Evaluating the performance of wheat varieties under late
sown irrigated condition in Bundelkhand zone.Inter J
App Pure SciAgric1: 118-22.
Kasana B S, Gupta M, Gupta Sourav, Yadav Sushil and
Sharma R N (2018). Prominent weed flora of Chambal
ravine. J Pharma and Phytochem. SP 2: 169-175
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Muhur R N, Datta N P, Sankarsubramoney H, Leley V K
and L Vey Do naline (1965). Soil Testing in India. U.S.
Agency for International Development Mission to India,
pp.39,40,45.
Olsen S R, Cole C V, Watnbe F S and Dean L A (1954).
Estimation of available phosphorous in soil by extraction
with sodium bicarbonate USDA Circular 939,1-9.
Piper C S (1950). Soil and plant analysis. Indian reprint, Hans
Publishers, Bombay.
Radhey Shyam, Singh Rohitasshav and Singh V K (2014).
Effect of tillage and weed management practices on weed
dynamics, weed seed bank and grain yield of wheat in
rice-wheat system. Indian J Weed Sci 46 (4):322-325.
Singh R K (2014). Yield performance of zero-till wheat with
herbicides in rice-wheat system. Indian J Weed Sci .46
(2):174-175.
Subbiah and Assija A S . (1956). A rapid procedure for the
estimation of available nitrogen in soil. Current Sci 259-
261.
Received on 05/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00095.3

Knowledge Gain through Bee Keeping Training Programme

Bhupender Singh1*and Surender Singh2
Saina Nehwal Institute of Agricultural Technology, Training & Education
Directorate of Extension Education
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar–125 004 (Haryana)

ABSTRACT
Saina Nehwal Institute of Agricultural Technology, Training &Education, Chaudhary Charan Singh
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar organized eight training courses on bee keeping during the year
2017-18. In order to assess the impact of these courses on knowledge gain of trainees, pre and post
training evaluation were conducted by developing a questionnaire comprising of general information
and background of the participants and information related to various aspects of bee keeping. It was
observed that mostly male candidates belonging to younger age group and who dropped their
education at secondary or senior secondary level come forward to adopt beekeeping as an
enterprise. More than half of the respondents were from farming background including nearly
2/3rdof marginal to small and about 1/5thof landless farmers. Majority of the respondents used
to contact extension experts and also used mass media regarding information. The training
programmes proved very effective and resulted in remarkable increase in knowledge of trainees in all
aspects of beekeeping. It was concluded that school dropouts, landless, marginal to small farmers can be
promoted for adopting beekeeping as an enterprise through organizing various training programmes as
these proved very effective in increasing the knowledge which is helpful to start and flourish beekeeping.
Key Words: Assessment, Beekeeping, Knowledge gain, Training programme.

INTRODUCTION During the last years, adoption of beekeeping

Beekeeping offers an immense potential for
providing employment to rural masses in India, the
unemployed youth in particular. It produces honey,
beeswax, pollen, propolis from the flowers which
otherwise dry up in nature and go waste. Itdoes
not bring any pressure on agricultural land rather
it increases the yield of various cross pollinated
crops. Singh (2000) and Monga and Manocha
(2011) reported that the honey bees increased
the agricultural productivity to the tune of 30-
80 per cent annually through cross pollination.
The distinctive feature of beekeeping is the small
capital investment required as compared to other
industries. Furthermore, beekeeping does not need
raw material in usual sense as nature provides the
same in the form of nectar and pollen (Sharma and
Dhaliwal, 2014).
Corresponding Author’s Email: bhupi_hau@yahoo.com
1
Asst. Director (Entomology), 2Asst. Director (Horticulture)
as an enterprise increased substantially due to
increased awareness among the people about the
benefits of beekeeping. Although, a large number of
people are performing this activity as a main or allied
occupation, but most of them have started without
going through any training programme. Due to
lower or incomplete knowledge about beekeeping,
they are unable to give their best in earning the
maximum from this occupation. To start any
activity, complete knowledge about its all aspects
is utmost important. In this regard, training is major
catalytic force for augmenting human productively
in all spheres of development. Training plays an
important role in providing necessary technical
knowledge, attitude and skill required for taking up
self-employment ventures. An evaluation study of
such self-employment oriented training programme

306 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311

 Singh and Singh
Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of trainees. (n= 272)
Sr. No. Particular Frequency Percentage
1. Gender
Male 256 94.12
Female 16 5.88
2. Age
Young (18-35 yr) 220 80.88
Middle (36-50 yr) 44 16.18
Old age (>50 yr) 8 2.94
3. Caste
Scheduled caste 48 17.65
Backward Caste 36 13.24
General 188 69.11
4. Education
Illiterate 4 1.47
Primary 12 4.41
Middle level 12 4.41
Matriculate 60 22.06
Senior Secondary 104 38.24
Diploma holder 16 5.88
Graduation 48 17.65
Post Graduate 16 5.88
5. Social participation
Yes 48 10.29
No 244 89.71
6. Occupation
Farming 160 58.83
Labor 12 4.41
Business 12 4.41
Service 4 1.47
Housewife 16 5.88
Others (Retiree, student) 68 25.00
7. Land holding
Landless 52 19.12
Marginal (<1 ha) 68 25.00
Small (1-2 ha) 116 42.65
Semi medium (2-4 ha) 28 10.29
Medium (4-10 ha) 4 1.47
Large (>10 ha) 4 1.47
8. Annual Income
Low (< 1 lakh) 88 29.41
Medium (1-2 lakh) 148 54.41
High (> 2 lakh) 44 16.18

307 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311

 Knowledge Gain through Bee Keeping Training Programme
would help to throw more light on the possibility inferred from the data that the participation of
of improving the programme in future. In view of person who dropped their education at secondary
this, the present study was undertaken to assess the or senior secondary level was more (60.30%)
impact of the beekeeping training programmes on in the training programmes as compared to the
knowledge gain of the trainees. others. These results were in accordance with the
study conducted by Mujuni et al (2012) and Lal
MATERIALS AND METHODS et al (2012). It indicated that this type of vocation
The present study was carried out at Saina is best suited to the persons who could not keep
Nehwal Institute of Agricultural Technology, their education continue after secondary or senior
Training & Education, Directorate of Extension secondary level due to one or the other reason.
Education, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, It was evident from the data that only 10 per cent
Hisar (Haryana). During the year 2017-18, this of the respondents were involved in social activities.
institute organized eight training programmes (3-5d More than half (58.83%) of the respondents were
duration) on bee keeping for farmers, women and from farming background indicating the interest
unemployed youth in which a total of 272 trainees of farmers in adopting beekeeping as an allied
participated from different districts of Haryana and activity to supplement their family income. Singh
adjoining states. To assess the impact of training et al (2018) also reported that the farmers showed
on knowledge gain of the trainees, pre and post more interest in beekeeping than the person from
training evaluation were conducted. For this, a other occupations. Possession of land is a precious
questionnaire was developed comprising of general and secure resource and property which influence
information and background of the participants the social and economic status of a person. Nearly
such as sex, age, education level, occupation, 2/3rdof the respondents were having marginal to
landholding etc., and information related to various small land holding and about 1/5thwere from landless
aspects of beekeeping. The gain in knowledge was category. It showed that beekeeping enterprise does
calculated from difference of scores obtained by the not require much land and even landless farmers
participants in pre and post training evaluation test. can adopt this activity as an occupation. It was also
The data were tabulated and analyzed in terms of inferred from the study that more than 3/4th of the
frequency and percentage. respondents were having low to medium annual
income.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Reason of participation
Socio-economic characteristics of trainees
The data regarding the factors which motivated
The data regarding socio-economic
the respondents to join the training programme
characteristics of the trainees revealed that mostly
indicated that more than eighty per cent of the
male candidates come forward to adopt beekeeping
as an entrepreneurship as compared to the females respondents joined to adopt beekeeping as an
occupation, 6.25 per cent to improve the knowledge
(Table 1.). More than 3/4thof the trainees belonged
to younger age group (18-35 yr) indicating that and 4.41 per cent just to know about beekeeping
youth is more innovative and responsive to new (Table 2.). Only 3.68 per cent of respondents joined
vocation. These results were in line with the the training just to get the certificate of training. A
findings of Verma et al (2018) and Moniruzzaman few of participants were interested in establishing
and Rahman (2009).Information with respect to linkage with the university and teaching the fellow
caste showed that participants irrespective of caste beekeepers.
system were involved in the training. It was also

308 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311

 Singh and Singh
Table 2. Reasons of participation in training programme on beekeeping . (n= 272)
Sr. No. Reason Frequency Percentage
1. To adopt beekeeping as an enterprise 223 81.98
2. Just to know about beekeeping 12 4.41
3. To get certificate of training course 10 3.68
4. Establish linkage with university 6 2.21
5. To teach fellow beekeepers 4 1.47
6. To improve the knowledge 17 6.25

Contact to extension experts Mass media exposure

The extension system of any state/country is
an important medium for dissemination of various
technologies among the people. Multiple responses
were received from the respondents regarding
contact with various extension agencies (Table
3.). About 3/4thof the respondents used to contact
agricultural experts for information regarding
agriculture and allied activities. Similarly, more
than 3/4thof the respondents used to contact the
Department of Health (80.88%), and Department
of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences
(79.41%) for various purposes.
Mass media also plays an important role in
dissemination of innovation and technologies
among people. It was evident from the data that
all the respondents used to watch on T.V. and
majority (64.71%) used to hear on radio for
various programmes which might include some
educational programmes also (Table 3.). Majority
of the respondents also accessed print media like
newspaper (91.18%) and magazines (79.41%), and
also used to visit exhibitions (61.76%). Monga
and Manocha (2011) also reported that multiple
responses were received regarding access to various
audio-visual aids, print media and other means of
mass media.

Table 3. Contact to extension experts and exposure to mass media. (n= 272)
Particular Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Contact to extension experts Contact No contact
Agriculture experts 196.00 72.06 76 27.94
Deptt. of Public Relation 88.00 32.35 184 67.65
Child Dev. and Family Welfare 112.00 41.18 160 58.82
Deptt. of Health 220.00 80.88 52 19.12
Deptt. of Animal Husbandry & 216.00 79.41 56 20.59
Veterinary Sciences
Exposure to Mass media Exposure No exposure
Radio 176.00 64.71 96 35.29
TV 272.00 100.00 0 0.00
News paper 248.00 91.18 24 8.82
Magazines 216.00 79.41 56 20.59
Exhibitions 168.00 61.76 104 38.23

309 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311

 Knowledge Gain through Bee Keeping Training Programme
Table 4.Knowledge gain after acquiring training with respect to various aspects of beekeeping.
(n= 272)
Sr. Particular Pre-evaluation Post-evaluation Gain in knowledge
No. (%) (%)
1. General information about beekeeping 28.24 91.47 63.23
2. Different species of honey bee 20.88 84.41 63.53
3. Bee flora 19.12 86.76 67.64
4. Family organization of honey bees 17.35 89.41 72.06
5. Working of honeybees 16.18 84.71 68.53
6. Seasonal management of honeybees 17.94 86.76 68.82
7. Insect pest management 11.47 85.00 73.53
8. Disease management 10.00 86.18 76.18
9. Honey extraction and processing 11.18 87.94 76.76
10. Economic aspect of beekeeping 14.71 89.12 74.41

Increase in knowledge after acquiring training CONCLUSION

The training programmes proved very effective It may be concluded that male belonging to
in increasing the knowledge of trainees. The study younger age group were more interested in adopting
revealed that in pre-evaluation test the knowledge beekeeping as an enterprise which is a good sign
range of different participants was 10.0 per cent for generating self-employment for rural youth. It
in case of disease management to 28.24 per cent can also be concluded from the study that school or
regarding general information about beekeeping college dropouts can be successfully motivated for
(Table 4.). adopting this activity for creating self-employment.
However, in post training evaluation there was a Keeping in view the more interest of marginal to
significant increase in the knowledge of participants small farmers in this activity, this group can also be
regarding various aspects of beekeeping ranging a target for promoting the beekeeping as no much
from 63.23 per cent in case of general information land is required for this activity and even landless
about beekeeping to 76.76 per cent in honey farmers can do this. It can be further concluded that
extraction and processing. Similar results were well-organized training programme with needful
observed in the study conducted by Kaur (2016) information can result in remarkable increase in
and Dalmia and Kumar (2018). knowledge of the trainees which may be very useful
for them to start and flourish any enterprise.
It was observed that prior to attend the training,
the trainees had some knowledge about beekeeping
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but it was not up to the satisfactory level. However, Dalmia K and Kumar R (2018). Impact assessment of
knowledge score gained by the participants after vocational mushroom cultivation training programme
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satisfactory in all aspects of beekeeping. This BioSci 6 (3): 265-270.
notable increase in knowledge might be due to Kaur K (2016). Impact of training course on knowledge gain
the educational background of participants, keen of mushroom trainees. J Krishi Vigyan 4(2): 54-57.
interest taken by them and well organization of the Lal R, Sharma S D, Sharma J K, Sharma V and Singh D (2012).
training programmes with sufficient information. Impact of beekeeping training on socio-economic status

310 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311

 Singh and Singh
of farmers and rural youth in Kullu and Mandi district of Sharma K and Dhaliwal N S (2014). Socio economic profile
Himachal Pradesh. J Human Eco 39(3): 205-208. of successful beekeepers and profitability of bee keeping
MongaK and Manocha A (2011).Adoption and constraints of in Muktsar District of Punjab. J Krishi Vigyan 2 (2): 69-
beekeeping in district Panchkula (Haryana). Livestock 73.
Resfor Rural Dev 23 (5), Article #103. Singh B, Singh S and BatraA (2018).Socio-economic status of
Moniruzzaman M and Rahman M S (2009).Prospects of the people adopting beekeeping as an entrepreneurship.
beekeeping in Bangladesh. J Bangladesh Agril Univ 7(1): Int J Curr Microbio and Appl Sci 7(07): 143-149
109-116. Singh D (2000). A focus on honey bees in the tropics.Current
Mujuni A, Natukunda K and Kugonza D R (2012).  Factors Sci 79:155–157.
affecting the adoption of beekeeping and associated Verma T C, Meena K C, Aswal S and Singh D K (2018).
technologies in Bushenyi District, Western Uganda. Socio-personal and economic analysis of apiculture
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63(1): 261-268.
Received on 18/10/2019 Accepted on 5/12/2019

311 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 306-311

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 312-315 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00119.3

Short Communication

Anionic Mishran Supplementation in Pleuriparous Animals

Rakesh Thakur# and Vishal Dogra
Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar HPKV’s Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kangra,176 001 (Himachal Pradesh

ABSTRACT
Milk fever, also known as periparturient paresis affects high yielding pleuriparous milch cattle and
buffaloes, usually within one or two days after calving, resulting in considerable reduction in milk
production. In the present study, effect of Anionic Mishran supplementation to advance pregnant
pleuriparous cattle/buffalo on incidence of milk fever in district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh was assessed.
A total of 100 advance pregnant pleuriparous animal were selected. Fifty animals were supplemented
Anionic Mishran @ 100g /day while 50 animals were kept as control. Information was collected through
personnel interview technique about the previous lactation yield of the selected animals, awareness of
farmer about Anionic Mishran. After calving, information was also collected about parturition related
complications and milk yield. Results indicated that parturition related complications are fairly common
in milch animals in the area and none of the farmers was aware about Anionic Mishran and its utility.
Upon supplementation no issue of palatability was faced either in cattle or buffaloes. Only two incidences
of retained placenta and one milk fever was observed in supplemented group while the number was 5
and 4, respectively in control group. It may be concluded that Anionic Mishran supplementation
reduce the incidence of milk fever in high yielding pleuriparous animals and more demonstration of
the technology may be conducted for it’s up scaling and optimal utilization by the farming community.
Key Words: Anionic mishran, Milk fever, Pleuriparous animals.

INTRODUCTION problems persist (Sharma et al, 2013). Likewise,

Milk fever is a metabolic disorder which affects Soni and Patel (2015) reported that the use of
high yielding pleuriparous cattle and buffaloes, mineral mixture and hormonal catalyst in recently
usually within few days post parturition. Milk calved buffaloes shortened the calving interval.
fever not only reduces the milk production but also In hilly areas it is difficult for the farmer to take
compromise animals’ welfare and dairy economy sick animal to nearby veterinary institution and also
(Thilsing et al, 2002). If the affected animal is not for veterinary staff to reach the recumbent animal
provided veterinary care in time, the condition in remote places on time, making the things even
may progress to downer syndrome and death. It more difficult. To prevent this health issue and its
has been reported that about one in 20 affected possible impact on milk production and animal
cows, dies due to milk fever (Srivastava, 2014). welfare a new technology in the form of a feed
The major technical problems in cross bred cows supplement named Anionic Mishran developed by
reported were of mastitis followed by anoestrous NDRI, Karnal, a leading institution of ICAR, Govt.
and repeat breeding. Since, farmers were having of India.In the present study, Anionic Mishran
large number of cows and thus due to deficiency in supplementation to advance pregnant pleuriparous
proper management and feeding of cross bred cows cattle and buffaloes was evaluated on 100 animals.

Corresponding Author’s Email:drthpau@gmail.com

312 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 312-315

 Thakur and Dogra
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Progressive dairy farmers,each possessing a
minimum of one advance pregnant pleuriparous
milch cattle or buffalo were selected. Farmers
(50) were provided a packet of Anionic Mishran
(Kamdhenu Feeds) and were advised to feed 50 g
Anionic Mishran per day and gradually increase up
to 100g per day to animals who’s calving was due
in next few weeks. The net anionic value of Anionic
Mishran was 11380 meq (Anionic value of Sulphur
and Chloride was 7640 and 5080 meq, respectively
and cationic value of Potassium was 1340 meq)
and it also contained Vitamin-E @ of 10,000 IU/
kg. The Anionic Mishran feeding was ensured
till the day of calving and all the supplemented
animals consumed Anionic Mishran for at least
10d immediately before calving. Similarly, another
fifty advance pregnant pleuriparous animals
were kept as control. Information was collected
through personnel interview technique from the
owner about the previous history of milk fever,
lactation yield of the selected animals, length of
dry period and awareness about Anionic Mishran
and palatability of Anionic Mishran. After calving,
information was also collected about parturition
related complications like incidence of dystocia,
retained placenta and milk fever.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Parturition related complications
A total of 44 farmers among the 100
selected farmers had observed parturition related
complications like dystocia, milk fever, retained
placenta, metritis etc. in their own or neighboring
herds; suggesting that these complications are fairly
common in milch animals in the area. Farmers also
revealed that incidence of milk fever are observed
more during winter months. All the selected farmers
readily agreed to supplement Anionic Mishran
supplied to their advance pregnant animals to
overcome such complications.
Palatability of Anionic Mishran
Awareness about Anionic Mishran The anionic mishran was fed mixed with
Anionic Mishran was not available in the concentrate feed so no issue of palatability was
private medical/ veterinary chemist shops in the
region and almost all selected farmers were not
aware about Anionic Mishran. Two dairy farmers
were using a product Balanion and Vitamix gold
from Zydus Animal Health, a private company
during last month of pregnancy to avoid milk fever.
It indicated that the product Anionic Mishran was
new to the farming community in the region and
more demonstrations need to be conducted to show
its utility and effectiveness among its potential
users.
Lactation yield
All the selected animals were pleuriparous and
had completed two or more lactations. The lactation
yield ranged from 1900 to 3300 L for cattle (Jersey/
Crossbred) and 1600 to 2500 L for buffaloes. The
lactation yield indicated that all the animals were
high yielders making them susceptible to various
metabolic disorders like milk fever. Gupta et al (
2017) observed that average daily milk yield, peak
yield and total 180d milk production were found
significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher by 13.4, 16.17
and 13.07 per cent in mineral mixture fed group
than control group, however milk composition
parameter were differed non-significantly between
treatment and control group.
Duration of dry period
The duration of dry period ranged from 24 to
60d in cattle and 95 to 142d in buffaloes. Cows
with long non-lactating periods are predisposed to
become excessively fat, and a long non-lactating
period may result in a more quiescent calcium
homeostasis. In the present study, five case of milk
fever were observed (04 in cattle and 01 in buffalo)
all of which had a dry period of more than 24d. So
duration of dry period has no bearing on incidence
of milk fever or Anionic Mishran supplementation
was effective to check milk fever notwithstanding
the length of dry period.

313 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 312-315

 Anionic Mishran Supplementation in Pleuriparous Animals
Table 1. Effect of Anionic Mishran supplementation on incidence of milk fever and other attributes
in high yielding pleuriparous dairy animals.
Particular Anionic Mishran Control
Total animals 50 50
Cattle (Jersey and Crossbred) 36 32
Buffalo (Graded Murrah) 14 18
Parturition related complications milk fever, retained placenta, dystocia, 44 per cent
metritis etc observed by farmers in own/neighboring herds.
Awareness about Anionic Mishran/substitutes 3 per cent
Anionic Mishran feeding acceptability among selected farmers 50/50 N.A.
Milk yield Cattle 1900 –3300 L
Buffalo 1600-2500 L
Ensuing Lactation 3rd 22 26
4th 19 18
5th or above 9 8
Duration of dry period Cattle 24 to 60 days
Buffalo 95 to 142 days
Anionic Mishran palatability No issue N.A.
Incidence of dystocia Nil 1/50
Incidence of retained placenta 2/50 5/50
Incidence of milk fever 1/50 4/50

observed either in cattle or buffaloes. Moore et
al (2000) has reported that the unnatural acidosis
induced by the Anionic Mishran could possibly
lead to a reduced feed intake but apparently no
reduction in feed and fodder intake was observed in
the present study.
Post calving parameters:
Incidence of dystocia and retained placenta
Incidence of dystocia or difficult calving was
not observed in the Anionic Mishran supplemented
group while only one dystocia was observed in the
control group. Two animals in the Anionic Mishran
supplemented group and 4 animals in control
group suffered from retained placenta. Anionic
Mishran sometimes reduce the overall dry matter
intake, decreased feed intake and a negative energy
balance before calving increase plasma NEFA and
concentration of liver triglyceride at calving. This in
turn may increase the risk of displaced abomasums,
mastitis, and retained placenta post partum. As feed
intake of the above animal was not affected upon
Anionic Mishran supplementation so the possibility
of negative energy balance and consequent retained
placenta due to Anionic Mishran supplementation
do not hold in the present case.
Milk fever
One incidence (Cattle) of milk fever was
observed in the Anionic Mishran supplemented
group while in the control group 5 animals (3 Cattle
+ 2 Buffalo) displayed clinical signs of milk fever.
The affected animals recovered after intra venous
infusion of Calcium borogluconate and adjunct
treatment. Thirunavukkarasu et al (2010) reported
that in Tamil Nadu about 14 per cent cow and 12
per cent buffaloes suffer from milk fever. In the
present study, incidence of milk fever in control
group was about 10 per cent while in supplemented
group, only 2.0 per cent. The present observations

314 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 312-315

 Thakur and Dogra
were in harmony with those reported by Thakur
et al ( 2017). Anionic salts prevent milk fever by
acidifying the blood to restore tissue responsiveness
to the parathyroid hormone (Patel et al, 2011). But
the technique is not 100 percent effective as one
case of milk fever was still reported among the
supplemented animals. Although the time period
of feeding the anionic salts has been suggested
to be 3-4wk but Oetzel (1996) suggested that a
feeding period of 10 days prepartum is sufficient.
The present study supports the view that it may be
possible to reduce the time period without loosing
the effect.
In hilly areas, foliage from species like Grewia
optiva, Quercus spp and Prunus puddum is an
important source of fodder for livestock especially
during winter months. Such fodder is rich in calcium
content often meeting the calcium requirement
of dry and low yielding animals. When calcium
intake extensively exceeds the requirements, the
calcium demand can be met almost entirely by
passive diffusion from the intestinal tract, rendering
the calcium homeostatic mechanisms relatively
inactive. This sudden and extensive draw on blood
calcium need to be replaced via increased intestinal
calcium absorption and increased resorption of
calcium from the bones. The reactivation of the
calcium homeostatic mechanisms is, however,
time-consuming. By feeding low calcium (<20 g/d)
diets in the dry period, the calcium homeostatic
mechanisms are activated before calving, and the
cow is thus capable of absorbing calcium more
efficiently from the intestinal tract as well as
drawing calcium from the bone around the time
of calving. In hilly areas, where calcium rich tree
foliage is available in plenty for livestock feeding;
such strategy will not be effective unless calcium
binder is added in the ration to reduce calcium
availability (Wilson, 2001). So the dairy farmers
need to opt for Anionic Mishran supplementation to
check incidence of milk fever.
CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that Anionic Mishran
315 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 312-315
supplementation reduce the incidence of milk fever
in high yielding pleuriparous animals.
REFERENCES
Gupta R, Singh K, Sharma M and Kumar M (2017). Effect
of mineral mixture feeding on the productive and
reproductive performance of crossbred cattle. Int J
Livestock Res 7 (12):231-236
Moore S J, Vande Haar M J, Sharma B K, Pilbeam T E, Beede
D K, Bucholtz H F, Liesman J S, Horst R L and Goff J P
(2000). Effects of altering dietary cation-anion difference
on calcium and energy metabolism in periparturient
cows. J Dairy Sci 83: 2095- 2104.
Oetzel G R (1996). Improving reproductive performance
in dairy cattle via milk fever prevention. The Bovine
Proceedings 28:52-59.
Patel V R, Kansara J D, Patel B B, Patel P B and Patel S B
(2011). Prevention of Milk fever: Nutritional Approach.
Vety World 4(6): 278-280.
Radostits O M, Gay C C, Hinchcliff K W and Constable P D
(2006). Veterinary Medicine. 10th edn. Saunders Elsevier,
London.
Sharma M, Singh G and Shelly M (2013). Technological
problems and training needs of dairy farmers. J Krishi
Vigyan 2(1) : 59-63
Soni S M and Patel M V (2015). On farm testing on effect of
feeding mineral mixture
and hormonal catalyst in reduction of calving interval in
buffaloes. J Krishi Vigyan 3 (2):105-106
Srivastava A K (2014). From the director’s desk in NDRI News
A quarterly newspaper of dairy science and technology,
NDRI, Karnal 19(2):1.
Thakur Rakesh, Dogra P K, Sankhyan Varun and Sood Pankaj
(2017). Anionic Mishran supplementation to check
incidence of milk fever. J Ani Res 7 (2) 405-408.
Thilsing T H, Jørgensen R J and Østergaard S (2002). Milk
Fever Control Principles: A Review. Acta Vet Scand 43:1-
19.
Thirunavukkarasu M, Kathiravan G, Kalaikannan A and
Jebarani W (2010). Quantifying Economic Losses due
to Milk Fever in Dairy Farms. Agril Econ Res Rev 23 :
77-81.
Wilson G F (2001). A novel nutritional strategy to prevent
milk fever and stimulate milk production in dairy cows.
New Zealand Vet J 49: 78-80.
Received on 30/5/2019 Accepted on
 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 316-319 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00120.X

Short Communication

Evaluation of Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea) Varieties suited for

Off Season Cultivation in Rain Shelters of Kerala
Bindu B
Farming Systems Research Station, Sadanandapuram
Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur 680 656 (Kerala)

ABSTRACT
Cabbage is one of the most important of the green leafy vegetables grown under temperate to tropical
climate conditions.It is a cool season crop which grows best under cool, moist weather conditions. There
is much variation exists among different cabbage types. In this experiment the cabbage is tried to cultivate
before their normal season i.e. off-season cultivation is aimed so that, the supply of produce is less and
prices are high. For this the performance of five improved cabbage varieties during off season was assessed
in rain shelters. The selected cabbage varieties were NS183, NS43, Kalyani, Green Challenger and Green
Voyager. Number of replications was ten. Various biometric, yield characters, pest incidence, BC ratio were
noted during the study. The trial revealed that cabbage variety Green Voyager performs better under rain
shelters and is the best variety for off season cultivation in Kerala.The variety Green Voyager recorded
highest plant height and leaf number at all stages of growth. The highest leaf length and leaf girth was
reported by variety Green Voyager.Highest B:C ratio was obtained from Green Voyager and lowest from
NS-43 . Highest pestincidence was reported from NS43 and lowest from Green Voyager. Head length
and width was highest in Green Voyager followed by variety Kalyani. Crop duration was lowest in
Green Challenger and highest in Kalyani. Days to heading were lowest in Green Voyager and highest in
Green Challenger. Highest yield per plant was noticed in Green Voyager and lowest from variety NS43.
Key Words : Cabbage, Off season , Rain shelter, Performance.

INTRODUCTION varieties during off season need to be assessed. This

Cabbages are one of the preferred vegetables
of the Keralites. The crop requires cool moist
weather for the production of best quality heads
and therefore its cultivation in Kerala is limited
by climate. Here its cultivation is restricted in the
months starting from November to January. During
this season the crop fetches only less price in the
market. Usually in Kerala farmers get high price for
their produce during “Onam” festival season which
is in the first week of September. In this experiment
the cabbage is tried to cultivate before their normal
season i.e. off season cultivation is aimed so that,
the supply of produce is less and prices are high.
For this the performance of improved cabbage
Corresponding Author’s Email:drbindusanthosh @gmail.com
is one of the practice which can give farmer higher
profit and satisfy the requirement of consumers at
anytime anywhere with more choices by availing
and using different agro climatic conditions. This
is a bit new to the growers and they don’t have
complete knowledge regarding it. They need to be
trained about this.
Adjustment of planting time is also required
in this case. For off season cultivation, planting of
cabbage seedlings should be done in the first week of
June, so that cabbage heads can be harvested during
the end of August or in the first week of September.
Usually there is heavy rain in Kerala during this
time. So it is better to cultivate cabbage in rain

316 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 316-319

 Bindu B
shelters during this time than in open conditions,
so that unfavorable environmental conditions can
be avoided. Keeping this in mind, the experiment
was conducted to assess the performance of five
improved cabbage varieties in rain shelters during
off season i.e. in the month of June in Kerala with
a view of fetching maximum price to the farmers
for their produce during Onam festival season,
which is the peak marketing period for vegetables
in Kerala.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted during 2017-
18, in Kollam district of Kerala. The maximum
temperature during the crop period was 34.70C and
minimum 23.0 0C with average relative humidity of
76.2 per cent. The total rainfall received was 40.13
cm .
The trial was proposed with the objective
ofassessing the performance of five improved
cabbage varieties in rain shelters during off season
i.e. month of June in Kerala with a view of fetching
maximum price to the farmers for their produce
during Onam festival season. The experiment also
aimed to popularize the best performing cabbage
variety for large scale cultivation in Kollam district
.The experiment was conducted during May-
September, 2017. Five different cabbage varieties
NS183, NS43, Kalyani, Green Challenger and
Green Voyager were used for the experimental
purpose.Seeds were sown in the first week of May.
One month old seedlings were planted in the rain
shelters during first week of June. The experiment
was laid out in Completely Randomized Design
with 6 replications. Various biometric observations,

Table 1. Growth attributes of different cabbage varieties suited for off season cultivation in rain
shelters of Kerala.
Treatment Plant height (cm) Leaf number
20DAP 40DAP 60DAP 20DAP 40DAP 60DAP
NS183 12.8 18.0 19.8 12.4 15.6 17.8
Green Voyager 17.5 21.2 24.8 18.8 23.8 27.4
Green Challenger 8.8 15.0 17.2 15.4 18.0 20.2
Kalyani 13.2 17.0 21.0 13.2 21.2 24.6
NS43 15.4 19.5 21.5 15.6 18.4 22.7
CD (0.05) 7.64 8.99 10.46 7.31 9.97 11.85
DAP- Days after planting

Table 2. Leaf charactersof different cabbage varieties suited for off season cultivation in rain shelters
of Kerala.
Treatment Leaf length (cm) Leaf width (cm)
20DAP 40DAP 60DAP 20DAP 40DAP 60DAP
NS183 18.7 22.6 24.6 12.2 14.3 17.2
Green Voyager 21.4 26.1 28.4 15.5 21.0 24.8
Green Challenger 15.2 17.5 20.9 16.2 18.4 20.7
Kalyani 13.5 20.2 22.4 12.6 17.6 19.5
NS-43 18.5 20.6 23.2 14.8 19.3 21.3
CD (0.05) 0.184 5.20 11.4 6.72 9.118 10.096

317 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 316-319

 Evaluation of Cabbage Varieties
Table3. Head characters, crop duration and days to heading of different cabbage varieties.
Treatment Head length Head width Days to heading Crop duration (days)
(cm) (cm)
NS-183 5.6 8.6 50 110
Green Voyager 11.5 12.5 45 93
Green Challenger 6.6 7.9 62 90
Kalyani 7.5 10.2 60 128
NS-43 6.0 9.4 40 115
CD (0.05) 4.126 5.036 25.85 57.98

Table4. Yield attributes and pest incidence of different cabbage.

Treatment Pest incidence BC ratio Yield/plant Yield (t/ha)
(%) (g)
NS183 6.5 1.44 605.4 22.7
Green Voyager 4.2 1.86 795.2 29.3
Green Challenger 7.6 1.73 700.6 27.2
Kalyani 11.4 1.52 650.8 25.6
NS43 15.3 1.22 545.2 20.4
CD (0.05) 6.620 0.678 294.45 11.345

yield parameters, BC ratio, crop duration pest and followed by variety Kalyani. Crop duration was
disease incidence were noted during the study lowest in Green Challenger (90 days) and highest in
period. Kalyani (128d). Days to heading was lowest (45 d)
in Green Voyager and highest in Green Challenger
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (62d). Highest yield per plant (795.2g) was noticed
The data of the trial of off season cultivation in Green Voyager and lowest from variety NS43
of cabbage varieties suited to rain shelters in (545.2 g).
Kerala are presented in Tables 1 to 4. The results
revealed that cabbage variety Green Voyager CONCLUSION
recorded highestplant height and leaf number at It was concluded from the study that cabbage
all stages of growth followed by variety Kalyani. variety Green Voyager performs better under
The highest leaf length and leaf girth was reported rain shelters and is the best variety for off season
by variety Green Voyager, followed by NS43 at cultivation in Kerala.The variety Green Voyager
all stages of growth. Highest B:C ratio (1.86) was recorded highest plant height and leaf number at all
obtained from Green Voyager followed by Green stages of growth. The highest leaf length and leaf girth
Challenger (1.73) and Kalyani (1.52) and lowest ( was reported by variety Green Voyager Highest B:C
1.22) from NS43 . Highest pest incidence (15.3 %) ratio was obtained from Green Voyager and lowest
was reported from NS43 followed by Kalyani (11.4 from NS43. Highest pestincidence was reported
%) and lowest from Green Voyager (4.2%). Head from NS43 and lowest from Green Voyager. Head
length and width was highest in Green Voyager length and width was highest in Green Voyager

318 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 316-319

 Bindu B
followed by variety Kalyani. Crop duration was Moniruzzaman M (2011). Effect of plant spacing on the
lowest in Green Challenger and highest in Kalyani performance of hybrid cabbage (Brassica oleracea var.
capitate ) varieties. Bangladesh J Agril Res 36(3): 495-
. Days to heading was lowest in Green Voyager 506.
and highest in Green Challenger. Highest yield per
RamRB, Lata Rand Sharma SR (2010). Determining yield
plant was noticed in Green Voyager and lowest components in cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata
from variety NS43. L.) through correlation and path analysis. Int J Sci and
Nature 1 (1): 27-30.
REFERENCES SaleeemT, Mehdi M, Hakeem A H and GanaiN A (2014).
Adeniji O T, Swai I, Oluoch M O, Tanyongana R and Aloyce Comparative study on cultivation of cabbage under low
A (2010). Evaluation of head yield and participatory tunnel and open field conditiond in cold arid Ladakh
selection of horticultural characters in cabbage (Brassica region. J Krishi Vigyan 2(2): 19-21.
oleraceae var. Capitata L.). J Pl Breeding and Crop
Sci2(8): 243-250. Singh B K, Sharma, S R, Kalia P and Singh B (2010).
Character association and path analysis of morphology
Cervenski J, Varga J and Glogovac S (2012). Variance and economic traits in cabbage (Brassica oleracea var.
components and correlations of agronomic traits among capitata L.). Indian J Agril Sci 80 (2): 116-118.
cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) maturity
groups. Genetika 44(1): 55-68. Thompson J K (2002). Yield evaluation of cabbage varieties.
J Agril Tech 5(2): 112-117.
Received on 25/09/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019

319 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 316-319

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 320-322 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00121.1

Short Communication

Impact of KVK Training Programme on Knowledge Level of

Moong Bean Growers
B L Asiwal* and L R Balai
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Fatehpur-Shekhawati, Sikar, 332301
Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner-Jaipur (Rajasthan)

ABSTRACT
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) being an educational institution of the farmers, organized two institutional
training programmes on integrated crop management in moong bean and provided information to 48 farmers
of 6 adopted villages of 3 blocks of district Sikar. It was found that after receiving training on moong bean
cultivation, the knowledge level of trainees were significantly increased from 8.33 to18.92 per cent in
different practices. The maximum change in knowledge level was recorded in use of high yielding varieties
18.92 per cent followed by plant protection measures (18.11%), grain storage (14.58%), field preparation
(14.24 %) and 13.54 per cent in seed treatment which show positive impact of trainings. While after imparting
the training there was a large knowledge gap was recorded among trainees in practice like plant protection
measures (48.40%), seed treatment (40.97%), fertilizer management (40.77%), weed management (40.28%)
and 36.98 per cent gap about use of high yielding varieties were remained stable. This large knowledge gap
may due to high cost, complexity and some other constraints responsible for non-adoption of new practices.
Thus, it was finally concluded that the imparting of trainings is an important tool for enhancing the awareness,
knowledge level and motivate the farmers for adoption of new package of practices of different crops.
Key Words: Knowledge, On-campus training, Moong bean.

INTRODUCTION (FLDs) at farmer’s field. Realizing the importance

The KVK being an educational institution
of the farmers, offers a very real opportunity by
organizing training to work closely with trainees
in developing more skilled and educated work
force. Presently there are 714 KVKs functioning
in the country and organize need based training
programmes to farmers, farm women and rural
youth for upliftment of their poor socio-economic
condition by raising the level of knowledge, level of
adoption of proven technologies, farm productivity,
income and employment with application of new
proven technologies of agricultural. As per KVK
mandate this institute organized two on-campus
trainings on Kharif Moong bean cultivation before
conducting and laid out front line demonstrations
of trainings to increase knowledge and attitude of
the farmers in semi arid region of Rajasthan, the
present study was undertaken to identify the level
of knowledge and its gap among the trainees about
moong bean cultivation practices before and after
acquired the training.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted kharif 2016
from 6 adopted villages, 48 selected moong bean
grower farmers were invited to participate in the
on-campus training. They were from 3 blocks of
Sikar district namely, Fatehpur, Laxmangarh and
Dantaramgarh where maximum area was under
rainfed moong been cultivation. To measure the

*Corresponding Author’s Email: asiwalbl@gmail.com

320 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 320-322

 Asiwal and Balai
Table 1. Change in knowledge level of famers about package of practices of moong bean before and
after training. (N = 48)
Category Before training After training
( %) ( %)
Low Knowledge level 25.00 10.42
Medium Knowledge level 66.66 62.50
High Knowledge level 8.33 27.08
Mean: 25.46 ±5.43 Mean: 34.00± 3.79
knowledge level of the trainees, a questioner was medium and only 8.33 per high level of knowledge
made available before and after training programme whereas, after acquiring training the values were
to farmers. One score is given to each right answer 10.42 for low, 62.50 for medium and 27.08 per cent
and zero to wrong answer. The data were collected trainees possessed high knowledge level. Thus,
and entire data were transformed into normal indicating that there was a considerable increase in
score and calculation. The level of knowledge was the knowledge level of the farmers who attended
categorized in to low, medium and high on the basis the KVK training programme organized both on-
of score obtained by the each trainee before and campus and off-campus trainings. Same findings
after training and change in knowledge. were also reported by Tendel et al (2014).
The data (Table 2) showed that maximum 79.17
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION per cent of the trainee had knowledge about sowing
In order to assess the impact of training time followed by seed rate & spacing (68.75%),
programme on the knowledge level of farmers grain storage (57.64%), weed management (47.92
regarding moong bean cultivation practices, the %) and about 45.50% trainees possessed knowledge
data were classified in to before and after training. of seed treatment, fertilizer management and high
It was revealed that initially 25.0 per cent trainee yielding varieties, while, after receiving training
farmers possessed low knowledge, 66.66 per about package of practices of Kharif pulses

Table 2. Change and gap in knowledge level of famers after training.

Sr.No Particular Knowledge level in % Change in (%) Gap in
Before training After Knowledge after knowledge
training training (%) after training
1 Knowledge of HYVs 44.10 63.02 18.92 36.98
2 Field preparation 51.39 65.63 14.24 34.37
3 Seed rate and spacing 68.75 79.86 11.11 20.14
4 Seed treatment 45.49 59.03 13.54 40.97
5 Sowing time 79.17 87.50 8.33 12.50
6 Fertilizer management 45.54 59.23 13.69 40.77
7 Weed management 47.92 59.72 11.80 40.28
8 Plant protection measures 33.49 51.60 18.11 48.40
9 Grain Storage 57.64 72.22 14.58 27.78
Overall 48.96 65.38 16.42 34.62

321 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 320-322

 Impact of Training Programme
Table 3. Practice wise comparison in knowledge level of moong bean growers.
Sr.No Particular Before training After training
Mean ± SD Mean ±SD Z value
1 Knowledge of HYVs 5.29 1.25 7.56 1.33 6.095*
2 Field preparation 3.08 0.62 3.94 0.43 5.674*
3 Seed rate & spacing 2.06 1.22 2.4 1.62 0.829NS
4 Seed treatment 2.73 0.91 3.54 0.41 4.251*
5 Sowing time 1.58 0.24 1.75 0.19 2.739NS
6 Fertilizer management 3.19 0.64 4.15 0.62 5.279*
7 Weed management 1.44 0.54 1.79 0.29 2.922*
8 Plant protection measures 4.35 1.77 6.71 1.75 4.645*
9 Grain Storage 1.73 0.36 2.17 0.35 4.293*
Overall 25.46 5.43 34.00 3.79 6.417
* significant at 5 per cent level, NS=Non-significant

cultivation , the knowledge level of trainees was CONCLUSION

increased from 8.33 to18.92 per cent in different It was concluded that knowledge level of the
practices. The maximum change in knowledge trainees were enhanced after acquiring training.
was recorded in practice like high yielding varieties After receiving training of pulses cultivation the
(18.92%) followed by plant protection measures knowledge level of trainees were increased from
(18.11%), grain storage (14.58%), field preparation 8.33 to18.92 per cent in different practices. The
(14.24 %) and 13.54% in seed treatment which maximum change in knowledge was recorded in
showed positive impact of trainings. practice like HYVs followed by plant protection
Further, it was also observed that after imparting measures, grain storage, field preparation and
the training a large knowledge gap was recorded seed treatment which showed positive impact of
among trainees in practice like plant protection trainings. While after imparting the training there
measures (48.40%), seed treatment (40.97%), was a large knowledge gap was recorded among
fertilizer management (40.77%), weed management trainees in practice like plant protection measures,
(40.28%) and (36.98%) gap about high yielding seed treatment, fertilizer management, weed
varieties remained stable. This more knowledge management and gap about HYVs remained stable.
gap may due to high cost, complexity and some
other constraints responsible for non-adoption of REFERENCES
Ajrawat B and Kumar A (2012). Impact of KVK training
new practices. programme on socio-economic status and knowledge of
The practice wise comparison in knowledge trainees in Kathua district. J Krishi Vigyan 1(1): 31-34.
level of moong bean growers before and after Chauhan N (2012). Knowledge level of farmers regarding package
training showed that calculated Z values was of practices for gram crop. J Krishi Vigyan 1(1): 46-48.
greater than the tabulated value at 5 per cent level of Dubey A K, Srivastva J P, Singh R P and Sharma V K (2008).
significance for all the package of practices except Impact of KVK training programme on socio-economic
seed rate, spacing and sowing time of moong bean. status and knowledge of trainees in Allahabad district.
Indian Res J ExtEdu 8 (2&3): 60-61.
Received on 01/08/2019 Accepted on 10/11/2019

322 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 320-322

 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 323-325 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2019.00122.3

Short Communication

Performance of Red Gram(Cajanus cajan) under Rain fed

Situation in district Mahabubnagar
P S John daniel, V Rajendra Kumar and Bhupender Singh
YFA-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Madanapuram ( Telangana)

ABSTRACT
The cluster frontline demonstration on red gram was conducted in five villages namely Kasimnagar,
Mettupally, Dataipally, Anjanagiri and Mallaipalle of Wanaparty and Pangal districts during kharif
season of 2013-14 to 2016-17. The pooled results of 3 yr revealed that a short duration variety of red
gram PRG 176 + seed treatment (Trichoderma virdi 8g/kg seed + Rhizobium sp. 1kg/ha seed ) + plant
protection (Pheromone trap 8 no./ha + insecticide: Acephate@1.5g/l + DDVP@1ml/lt) recorded
average highest yield 1299 kg/ha compared to 839 kg/ha in control plot. The same trend was in case
of gross and net monetary returns, which was Rs. 57,060/- and Rs. 35,890/-ha and for control Rs.
39,624/- and Rs. 20,305/-ha, respectively. Benefit cost ratio for demonstration and control was 2.79 and
2.02, respectively. It can be concluded that the red gram production could be enhanced by encouraging
the farmers through adoption of recommended technologies which were followed in the CFLDs.
Key Words: Demonstration, Red gram, Grain yield, Integrated pest management.

INTRODUCTION Farmers Welfare had sanctioned the project

India is the largest producer, consumer of Pigeon Cluster Frontline Demonstrations on Pulses to
pea (Cajanus cajan) and this is second most popular ICAR-ATARI, Hyderabad through National Food
pulse crop after chick pea cultivated throughout Security Mission. This project was implemented by
India. It has multiple uses and occupies an important Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Madanapuram of Zone-X
place in the prevailing farming systems in the with main objective to boost the production and
country. It plays an important role in sustainable productivity of pulses through CFLDs with latest
agriculture by enriching the soil nutrients through and specific technologies.
biological nitrogen fixation. In addition, because of Red gram is cultivated under rainfed
its deep root system it is a boon for the farmers to condition in kharif season and the predominant
grow under rainfed condition. pulse crop normally grown in the Mahabubnagar
Telangana is one of the major pigeon pea district in 1,13,735 ha. Farmers of this region are
growing state in the country with 2.8 lakh ha with cultivating Pinky, a predominant local traditional
1.29 lakh tonnes with average productivity of 419 variety grown on large area which is susceptible to
kg/ha (Anonymous, 2015). Indian government wilt. Hence, a short duration variety of Red gram
imports large quantity of pulses to fulfil domestic PRG176 having crop duration of 150-165d has
requirement of pulses. In this regard, to sustain introduced to withstand prolonged dry spells and
this production and consumption system, the drought and to test the performance of this variety
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and compared to local traditional variety pinky.

Corresponding Author’s Email: penumaka.johndaniel@gmail.com

323 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 323-325

 John daniel et al
Table 1. Economic analysis
Year PRG-176 PINKY
Gross Gross Net B: C Gross Gross Net B: C
Cost Returns Returns Ratio Cost Returns Returns Ratio
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
2013-14 19, 770 57,280 37,510 2.89:1 18, 570 42,616 24045 2.29:1
2014-15 18, 985 51, 920 32,275 2.73:1 16, 230 37,625 21,395 2.31:1
2015-16* 22, 550 69,200 46,825 3.06:1 25,580 56,880 31,300 2.22:1
2016-17 17,150 44,700 26,950 2.5:1 16,895 21,375 4480 1.26:1
* With two protected irrigations

MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A short duration pigeon pea variety PRG176 was
evaluated tested during 2013-14 to 2016-17 with an
objective to know its performance in comparison
to the local traditional variety Pinky under rainfed
situations of Mahabubnagar. Based on the outcome
of the farm trails, pigeon pea variety PRG176 was
adopted in selected cluster adopted villages with
the objective to demonstrate and create awareness
about pigeon pea variety PRG176.
Improved agronomic practices viz., recommended
dosage of fertilizers application (20:50 kg NP/ha),
seed treatment with Rhizobium and phosphate
solubilising bacteria (1kg/ha seeds), Trichoderma
viridae (8g/kg of seeds) were demonstrated.
At flowering stage, erection of 8 Pheromone
traps per ha + insecticide: Acephate@1.5g/l +
DDVP@1ml/l) were demonstrated. Based on the
pheromone traps catches, farmers were advised
to take up the management practices. The growth
and yield parameters were recorded but only yield
data were collected from the demonstrated trials
by random cutting method. Qualitative data were
converted into quantitative data form by using
following formulae and expressed in terms of per
cent increase in yield.
Seed yield under demo
Plot percent plot - Seed yield under
increase in farmers’ practice
× 100
yield= Seed yield under farmers’
practice
PRG176 found superior over local Pinky variety
during the yr 2013-14 to 2016-17. The average yields
during the year 2013-14 and 2014-15 were 1360
kg/ha and 1293 kg/ha in comparative to farmers’
practice 445kg/ha and 782 kg/ha and observed
an increase in 32.7 and 65.7 per cent, respectively.
During the year 2015-16, average yields 1650 kg/
ha with an increase in 39.2 per cent over the pinky
variety (1185 kg/ha) with two protected irrigations
at the flowering and pod development stage were
obtained. During 2016-17, the average yields 894
kg/ha with an increase in 88.7 per cent compared
to local pinky variety (475 kg/ha). Inspite of good
cultivation with PRG176, heavy rains during the
crop period caused incidence of wilt disease results
in reduction of the yield. These results were in
corroboration with the findings of Keshav reddy et
al (2018)
Economics
Economic analysis showed that the maximum
gross returns (Rs. 57,280/-; 51,920/-; 69,200/-
and 44,700/ha, respectively) and net returns (Rs.
42,616/-; 37,626/-; 56,880/- and 21,375/ ha,
respectively) were noticed highest with PRG176
compared to local pinky variety during the years
2013-14 to 2016-17 (Table 1). The highest B: C ratio
was registered with PRG176 (2.89, 2.73, 3.06 and
2.50, respectively) when compared to local pinky
variety (2.29, 2.31, 2.22 and 1.26, respectively).

324 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 323-325

 Performance of Red Gram
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing results, it is concluded that
PRG176 was found superior to the local pinky
variety and suitable to the rainfed conditions of
the Mahabubnagar. Further, timely sowing and
by adopting good agronomic practices along with
integrated pest and disease management practices,
farmers get higher yields in pigeon variety
PRG176 by minimizing the cost of cultivation and
maximizing the total returns.
REFERENCES:
Anonymoous (2015).Department of Agriculture
and cooperation, www.dacnet.nic.in
Keshavreddy G, Kamala S, Nagaraj K H and
Ranganath, S C (2018). Impact of frontline
demonstration on yield and economics of pigeon
pea (Cajanus cajan) in the district of Ramanagara,
Karnataka, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci
7(01): 472-478.
Received on 19/11/2019 Accepted on 08/12/2019

325 J Krishi Vigyan 2019, 8 (1) : 323-325

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