CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

Concrete Carbonation in Ibero-American Countries

DURACON Project: Six-Year Evaluation

O. Troconis de Rincón,‡ ,*,V J.C. Montenegro,B R. Vera,CH A.M. Carvajal,CH R. Mejía de Gutierrez,CO S. Del Vasto,CO E.
Saborio,CR A. Torres-Acosta,M J. Pérez-Quiroz,M M. Martínez-Madrid,M W. Martinez-Molina,M E. Alonso-Guzmán,M P. Castro-
Borges,M E.I. Moreno,M F. Almeraya-Calderón,M C. Gaona-Tiburcio,M T. Pérez-López,M M. Salta,P A.P. de Melo,P I. Martínez,S
N. Rebolledo,S G. Rodríguez,U M. Pedrón,U V. Millano,V M. Sánchez,V E. de PartidasV

ABSTRACT size). After six years of exposure, corrosion potentiality and

Concrete carbonation data from 16 test sites in 9 countries
(Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Spain, Uruguay,
Portugal, and Venezuela) were compared to identify concrete
performance due to carbonation at natural exposure condi-
tions after almost six years of exposure. This research is
part of the DURACON project (“Effect of the environment on
reinforcement durability”), a long-term Ibero-American project
intended to correlate the influence of urban and marine mete-
orochemical parameters on the performance of reinforced con-
crete structures. Environmental parameters were measured
following the ISO 9223 standard. Concrete was physically
characterized by the results of compressive strength, elastic
modulus, total and effective porosity, and water absorption
resistance (Fagerlund method) laboratory tests. Concrete
specimens (with and without steel reinforcement bars—rebars)
were prepared for electrochemical and physical/mechani-
cal/chemical tests using materials available in each country.
Concrete composition was kept similar between specimens by
following strict preparation protocols. Two water/cement (w/c)
ratios were used: 0.45 w/c ratio concrete had a minimum
cement content of 400 kg/m3; and 0.65 w/c ratio concrete
had a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 210 kg/cm2.
Materials were type I Portland cement, siliceous sand, and
crushed rock as coarse aggregates (13-mm maximum nominal
Submitted for publication: June 17, 2014. Revised and accepted:
August 11, 2014. Preprint available online: September 3, 2014,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5006/1385.
‡
Corresponding author. E-mail: oladis1@yahoo.com.
* Centro de Estudios de Corrosión, Universidad del Zulia, Mara-
caibo, Venezuela.
B
Bolivia; CH Chile; CO Colombia; CR Costa Rica; M Mexico; P Portugal;
S 
Spain; U Uruguay; V Venezuela.
NOTE: Complete names, e-mail contact information, and affilia-
tions for all authors are provided in Appendix A.
ISSN 0010-9312 (print), 1938-159X (online)
546 15/000089/$5.00+$0.50/0  © 2015, NACE International
probability analysis of the reinforcement at the different sites
indicated the concrete prepared in Venezuela to have the high-
est probability of experiencing carbonation-induced reinforce-
ment corrosion. The concrete prepared at the Cali, Colombia,
site had the lowest probability. Carbonation aggressiveness
was found to be highest at tropical sites, with the Venezuela
sites exhibiting the most aggressive conditions among the par-
ticipating countries.
KEY WORDS: carbonation, corrosion, reinforced concrete,
tropical environment
INTRODUCTION
Several cases of carbonation-induced corrosion in re-
inforced concrete structures have been reported1-4 for
rural and urban environments. Carbonation is a pro-
cess, in which atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) re-
acts with alkaline substances present in concrete pore
solution, and with different hydrated cement paste
phases (silicates, aluminates, and ferroaluminates);
it results in material neutralization reactions.5 Car-
bonation in the concrete surrounding rebar, causes a
drop in aqueous solution pH, leading to uniform rebar
corrosion and production of corrosion products at the
rebar surface. These can crack and spall the concrete
cover because of expansive actions of such corrosion
products. A sudden drop in pH inside concrete con-
stitutes what is called a carbonation front. Phenol-
phthalein, a pH-indicator, effectively identifies a front
by reacting with concrete pore water to cause color
changes: from colorless (pH ≈ 9 or less) to purple
(pH > 9).
CORROSION—APRIL 2015

How carbonation fronts advance is vitally impor-
tant for forecasting reinforced concrete service life.
Based on Tuutti’s diagram, in structures unaffected
by the presence of chloride ions, the time required
for the carbonation front to reach the rebar surface
is considered to be equivalent to the initiation period.
This rate is primarily a function of: a) concrete mois-
ture content; b) concrete porosity (water/cement ra-
tio); and c) amount of carbonatable material.5
Concrete carbonation mechanism follows a dif-
fusional phenomenon (e.g., chloride penetration), and
therefore, can be modeled using the square root of the
time expression:5-6
 XCO2 = KCO2 t1/2 (1)
where XCO2 = carbonation depth (in millimeters, mm)
reached at time t = exposure time (years), and KCO2 =
carbonation coefficient (mm/years1/2).
Actual carbonation behavior does not always
fit this general trend because it is not a purely dif-
fusional process (as it is with chloride penetration in
concrete).7 Diffusion through cement paste is prob-
ably better understood using a Knudsen diffusional
model,8 implying the introduction of at least two con-
crete porosity levels.
In the literature, there are many models (Tuutti,9
Ho and Lewis,10 Parrot,11 Comite Euro-International
Du Beton (CEB),12 DURACRETE,13 Jiang,14 Papada-
kis,15 Shiessl,16 Instrucción Española del Hormigón
(EHE),17 among others), to predict concrete carbon-
ation depth; some are more straightforward than
others, but most are based on the dependence of
Equation (1).
Concrete carbonation by itself, without the si-
multaneous presence of water, cannot promote active
corrosion of reinforcing steel.18 If the external relative
humidity (RH) is ≤50%, steel corrosion rates in car-
bonated concrete, in the absence of internal water,
are minimal (on the order of 0.02 µA/cm2). High cor-
rosion rates in carbonated concrete (e.g., 0.5 µA/cm2)
require relative humidity >50%.19 Concrete ohmic
resistance (i.e., sensitivity to RH) is independent of
mortar type and additive content and is reported to be
a controlling factor for corrosion rate in the presence
of concrete carbonation.20 This is further supported by
a previous study in which low corrosion rates (icorr ≈
0.03 µA/cm2) were found in concrete kept at 55% RH,
severe rates (icorr ≈ 1 µA/cm2) at 75% RH, and very
severe rates at 95% RH (icorr ≈ 3 µA/cm2).21
The earliest research performed with partially
carbonated concrete, which was also chloride-con-
taminated, revealed that chloride ion concentration is
not homogeneous in the cement paste, and it depends
on the carbonation front progress. This probably oc-
curs because of the reactions of free bound chlorides.9
Later studies found that chloride concentration in the
pore solution of the concrete increased after carbon-
CORROSION—Vol. 71, No. 4
CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION
ation.22 Combined with reduced pH, this effect may
cause more severe corrosion problems than each
effect separately.
Extreme cases of carbonation causing concrete
structure failure have been reported in the Ibero-
American region, some involving loss of human life
due to structural collapse, corroborating that this
problem is particularly severe in tropical areas.3
Broader study of this phenomenon in Ibero-America
has been promoted by CYTED (translated as the Sci-
ence and Technology Development Program) through
the DURACON project (“Influence of the environment
in the durability of reinforced concrete structures”).
CYTED, one of the most successful programs of sci-
entific and technological cooperation in the world,
was founded in 1984 through an interagency frame-
work agreement between 21 countries of Spanish
and Portuguese speaking languages on either side
of the Atlantic. This was created in order to com-
memorate the 500th anniversary of the discovery of
America by Christopher Columbus. CYTED has been
a tool that has facilitated technological development
and innovation by coordinating existing resources
and cooperation between universities, research cen-
ters, and innovative business Development from the
Ibero-American region. It has been a means to pro-
mote the production modernization and improving
the quality of life of this region. It also acts as a co-
operation bridge between Latin America and Europe.
The objectives of this program include promoting
cooperation in the field of applied research and tech-
nological development, for producing scientific and
technological results, which are transferable to pro-
ductive systems and social policies in Latin American
countries. Approved in 2000, the DURACON project
itself involves 10 countries: Argentina (not included
in this work), Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Costa Rica,
Mexico, Spain, Portugal, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Data were collected from a total of 46 natural ex-
posure sites, 21 of which are located in urban and
rural environments, and the others in marine envi-
ronments. The present study objective was to analyze
data collected during almost six years of natural
exposure of concrete specimens at urban sites in the
9 of the 10 participating countries and compare car-
bonation front behavior at the different natural expo-
sure sites evaluated.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Concrete Mix Preparation and Characterization
Concrete mixes with 0.45 and 0.65 w/c ratios
were prepared for each testing site, and the mixes
were characterized physically and mechanically:
Compressive Strength (where compressive strength is
denoted as fck, ASTM Standard C 39);23 Indirect Ten-
sile Strength (ASTM Standard C 496);24 Elastic Mod-
ulus (ASTM Standard C 469);25 Electrical Resistivity;5
547
CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION
Total Absorption and Porosity (ASTM Standard C
642);26 Water Capillary Absorption (Fagerlund Tech-
nique: m/resistance to water penetration, k/capil-
lary absorption coefficient, ε/effective porosity);27
and Rapid Chloride Permeability (ASTM Standard C
1202).28 All tests were performed after 28 days cur-
ing. Compressive strength was also evaluated after
90 days curing, using 15 by 30 cm cylinders cast at
the same time the prisms were fabricated.
Six prisms (15 by 15 by 30 cm) of each concrete
mixture were placed at each exposure site (i.e., 12
prisms per site). Of each six-prism set, three were
plain (nonreinforced) concrete and three were rein-
forced with six steel rebars (9.5 mm diameter) each.
Six steel rebars were cast in each prism and placed
to produce three concrete cover depths: 15, 20, and
30 mm (two rebar per cover depth). Prisms were ori-
ented with one 15 by 30 cm surface facing the pre-
vailing winds at each site (windward), and the other
facing in the opposite direction (leeward). Nonrein-
forced prisms were used for physicochemical tests,
such as carbonation front and electrical resistivity
underwater-saturated conditions. Reinforced prisms
were used for electrochemical tests such as half-cell
potentials, corrosion rate, and concrete electrical re-
sistivity.
Environmental Parameter Tests
Climate and environmental parameters were
recorded at each exposure site during the experi-
mental period based on the ISO 9223 Standard29 for
classifying atmospheric aggressiveness. The primary
parameters used to classify the environment at the
exposure sites were RH, time of wetness (TOW or t),
carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, wind speed and
direction, rainfall, and temperature variations.
Corrosion Parameter Tests
Corrosion potentials (Ecorr), icorr, and concrete
electrical resistivity (ρ) were measured monthly, us-
ing the rebar in the reinforced prisms. Corrosion rate
was measured by the linear polarization resistance
technique.30 Electrochemical measurements were
taken on top of both prism faces (windward and lee-
ward). The prism cast face, which has higher pore
content, was placed downwards to prevent prefer-
ential ingress of aggressive agents from the environ-
ment.
Chemical Tests on Non-Reinforced Prisms
Chemical alteration of the concrete due to en-
vironmental exposure was measured from the non-
reinforced prisms on a yearly basis. Measurements
were taken earlier if rebar activation was detected
on at least two of the reinforced prisms in the same
group. A 5-cm thick section was cut from each non-
reinforced prism with a specially designed and built
device (known as a guillotine) at the times stated
548
previously.31-32 The freshly cut face of each prism was
then protected with epoxy paint. The carbonation
front was measured on the surface of the fresh sec-
tion (15 by 15 cm) using a wet pH indicator (phenol-
phthalein).5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Concrete’s Physical-Mechanical
Characterization in Each Country
An effort was made to use the same Portland
cement and aggregate type in each country. None-
theless, final concrete properties varied between
countries (see Tables 1 and 2). This may have af-
fected concrete quality from both the mechanical and
durability standpoints.33
Concrete mixtures from Venezuela (Table 2),
are among those showing the highest risk of rebar
corrosion, because of their low quality (capillary ab-
sorption of 0.025 kg/m2 s1/2 and effective porosity
15.4%), as well as those from Uruguay, Costa Rica,
and Chile. On the contrary, concrete mixtures from
Portugal show the best quality, and even though
they do not have the highest compression strength,
they do show the lowest capillary absorption. The
data demonstrates that the quality of concrete for a
specific environment should not be assessed only on
the basis of its compressive strength, but also other
variables that should be considered such as capil-
lary absorption and effective porosity, which were the
more important ones, based on the present results.
Environmental Exposure
Meteorochemical data from the first year of ex-
posure (longer in some cases) at the 16 tested sites
was averaged (Table 3). A preliminary estimation of
reinforcement corrosion potentiality and probability
was done based on concrete properties and environ-
ment aggressiveness data (Tables 1 through 3). The
results were presented elsewhere.33 The data shown
here are the most relevant for the present discussion
and indicate the analysis was adequate for the study
aims. The probability of corrosion by carbonation
was analyzed using only the data for 0.65 w/c ratio
concrete (Table 2) because the lower w/c ratio (w/c =
0.45), with lower porosity (Table 1) has a much lower
potentiality and probability of carbonation.
Based on atmospheric CO2 content (determined
at 11 sites, Table 3), the most aggressive environ-
ment would be that of Chihuahua, Mexico, followed
closely by those of Santiago, Chile, and La Paz, Bo-
livia. It should also be considered, however, that CO2
ingress into concrete requires a RH < 80%. All the
sites had an average RH < 80%, the lowest, and most
propitious for carbonation, being that at Santiago
(RH ≈ 60%). When concrete cement content and ef-
fective porosity (Table 2) were evaluated together
with CO2 content and RH (Table 3), Santiago again
CORROSION—APRIL 2015
 CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

TABLE 1
Concrete Properties for w/c = 0.45 Mixtures
fck (MPa)/ Cement Content
Country 28 days m (s/m2) k (kg/m2 s½) ε (%) (kg/m3)
Bolivia 26.63 3.21×107 0.0054 3.05 400
Chile 43.6 2.50×107 0.0027 1.4 387
Colombia 52.3/62.0 15.26/10.70×107 0.0060/0.0066 7.4/6.8 400
Costa Rica 39.1 3.25×107 0.021 11.97 400
Mexico 51.5 3.48×107 0.0147 8.7 411
Portugal 63.9 — 0.0020 — 400
Spain 43.2 10.5×107 0.0054 5.5 400
Uruguay 44.3 3.3×107 0.0196 11.2 400
Venezuela 33.8 8.68×107 0.0082 7.6 414

TABLE 2
Concrete Properties for w/c = 0.65 Mixtures
fck (MPa)/ Cement Content
Country 28 days m (s/m2) k (kg/m2 s½) ε (%) (kg/m3)
Bolivia 16.81 2.12×107 0.0202 9.3 320
Chile 19.8 2.25× 07 0.0341 16.1 323
Colombia 28.0/36.1 7.28/4.50×107 0.0122/0.0085 10.4/5.7 306/335
Costa Rica 20.1 3.73×107 0.026 15.88 350
Mexico 40.0 3.60×107 0.0199 11.9 285
Portugal 35.4 — 0.0069 — 260
Spain 27.0 6.1×107 0.0091 7.1 300
Uruguay 28.4 3.2×107 0.0267 15.0 323
Venezuela 26.8 3.71×107 0.0250 15.2 355

TABLE 3
Meteorochemical Parameters and Carbonation Depth at One Year Exposure
Carbonation
Environment (Yearly Average) Depth
Country RH TOW Temp CO2 Rain WF LF
(Site) (%) (f(T)) (°C) (mg/L) (mm/year) (mm) (mm)
Bolivia–La Paz(A) 49.46 0.20 12.08 1.09 505.30 12.49 11.39
Chile–Santiago 61.20 0.11 16.80 1.40 992.00 11.5 10.5
Colombia–Cali 69.30 0.10 25.20 0.60 1,222.00 2.50 0.70
Costa Rica–San José 74.50 0.66 21.40 0.71 1,796.00 4.00 4.00
Mexico
  Merida 72.80 0.44 25.10 0.90 896.00 4.60 3.40
  Chihuahua 32.90 0.05 19.90 1.48 272.00 3.86 1.53
  Oaxaca 66.20 ND 21.75 ND 2.02 1.80 2.17
  Morelia 71.47 0.43 17.87 ND 1,203.81 5.33 5.33
  Mexico City(B) 56.31 0.21 16.80 ND 1,107.22 5.44 4.96
  Queretaro 63.81 0.34 15.27 ND 836.79 6.88 6.11
  Toluca(B) 76.87 0.56 6.43 ND 1,605.84 5.80 5.47
  Mexicali(B) 39.07 0.08 24.12 ND 49.18 9.74 9.99
Portugal–Lisbon 74.50 0.43 16.10 0.71 936.00 3.32 3.53
Spain–Madrid 62.80 0.20 14.60 0.91 362.00 1.17 1.17
Uruguay–Prado 72.70 ND 16.30 0.80 1,771.70 2.67 1.67
Venezuela
  Maracaibo 72.50 0.28 28.60 0.78 347.00 6.43 6.23
  Tarabana(C) 81.40 0.59 24.10 0.91 796.00 6.78 7.44
(A)
After 21 months exposure
(B)
After 20 months exposure
(C)
After 18 months exposure
ND: Not determined
WF: Windward face (face toward the prevailing winds)
LF: Leeward face (opposite face to WF)

CORROSION—Vol. 71, No. 4 549

CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION
appears to have the most potentially aggressive com-
bination of environmental factors (1.4 mg/L CO2;
61.2% RH), and concrete properties (16.1% effective
porosity; 0.0341 kg/ m2s½ water absorption). How-
ever, once concrete is carbonated, RH must be >80%
to promote active rebar corrosion.
Given these requirements, the TOW fraction f(τ)
(i.e., the percentage of time which an exposed plate
would remain wet during one year at >0ºC and >80%
RH) may be a more adequate measure of carbon-
ation-induced corrosion. This parameter is very low
(11%) in Santiago, Chile, indicating that even though
concrete is most easily carbonated in this environ-
ment, it does not have a high enough moisture con-
tent to induce initial rebar corrosion. In contrast,
Tarabana, Venezuela, had one of the highest TOW
fractions, followed by Merida, Mexico, and Lisbon,
Portugal. If concrete is too wet, it becomes difficult
for CO2 to further diffuse into its pore network. In a
more integrated analysis including concrete proper-
ties (effective porosity; Table 2) as well as environ-
mental parameters (T, rain, RH and TOW, Table 3),
the most potentially aggressive combination of con-
crete properties and environmental parameters for
higher corrosion rates on carbonated concrete would
be that at Maracaibo, Venezuela.
Carbonation Depth
Carbonation depth varied between the exposure
sites in tropical and nontropical countries (Figures
1 and 2). Ten of the exposure sites are in the trop-
ics (Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, southeast Mexico,
and Venezuela) and the remaining six are nontropi-
cal (Chile, northern Mexico, Portugal, Spain, and
Uruguay). Carbonation depth was generally greater
at the tropical exposure sites, especially during the
first year of exposure. This was probably because
temperatures were higher overall at these sites than
at the nontropical sites. Maracaibo, Venezuela, had
the highest average temperature and the greatest
carbonation depth (Table 3).
High temperatures may reduce the moisture in-
side concrete and favor CO2 ingress. If this were the
only phenomenon to affect carbonation, the Merida,
Mexico, exposure site would have shown the high-
est carbonation depth values from all the sites in
Mexico, but it did not present the highest carbon-
ation depth (Figure 1). Apparently, average annual
temperature needs to be higher than 25°C to attain
carbonation depths comparable to those observed at
the Maracaibo site. This is supported by a reported
decrease in the electrolyte layer on a metallic surface
at RH >80% when temperatures exceed 25°C.34-36 Un-
der these conditions, TOW is lower than that estab-
lished in the ISO 9223 standard.
This means that even at high RH values, if tem-
peratures are higher than 25°C, concrete may remain
dry enough to allow easy CO2 ingress. The effect of
550
temperature is highlighted by the lower carbonation
depth at the Tarabana, Venezuela, exposure site. RH
at this exposure site is higher than at Maracaibo,
Venezuela, but temperatures are lower, which is
probably why carbonation depth is also less. Aver-
age annual rainfall is higher at Tarabana than at
Maracaibo, and further analyses are needed to de-
termine if this parameter has a substantial effect on
carbonation depth. At exposure sites with an aver-
age temperature below 25°C, RH had a greater effect
on concrete carbonation (Figure 3), a trend reported
for exposure sites in Mexico (12 sites) and Spain;37
where it is observed that there is a decrease in car-
bonation depth with the increase in relative humid-
ity. This figure also shows the effect of a very good
quality concrete (w/c = 0.45), which produced a 2.5
times decrease in carbonation depth compared to the
concrete with w/c = 0,65. Another interesting trend
is observed from Figure 3 data, and it is related to
the fact that the correlation slopes between both w/c
ratios are parallel.
Three unexpected exceptions to the above trends
were observed:
——At the Mexicali, Mexico, exposure site (semi-
arid environment; 49 mm/year rainfall) car-
bonation depth was very high during the first
year of exposure, but decreased notably there-
after. This exposure site is located near the
largest thermal power plant in the city, which
uses fossil fuels to produce electricity for the
city of Mexicali, and even reaches the city of
Tijuana and the famous port of Rosarito. The
contamination produced at this power plant
increased CO2 and sulfur dioxide (SO2) con-
centrations at Mexicali station, and thus, the
carbonation depths measured increased dur-
ing this six-year period of exposure.
——Cali, Colombia, exposure site has a tropi-
cal atmosphere, but a very low carbonation
depth, probably because it has high rainfall
precipitations during the entire year.
——Mexico City was expected to have the high-
est carbonation depth of the exposure sites
in Mexico, because it has the world’s third
largest population and commensurately high
levels of industrialization and pollution. How-
ever, carbonation depth at this exposure site
was less than those recorded in other cities
with similar environments. One possible ex-
planation is that the exposure site is located
at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
Mexico (UNAM), in a very humid area within a
forest near some mountains, isolating the site
from the metropolitan area, which also pre-
vents dispersion of aerial pollution.
It is important to indicate that these experimen-
tal results, from natural exposure, showed that the
environmental conditions in a specific microclimate,
CORROSION—APRIL 2015
 CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

14

12

Carbonation Depth (mm)

10

0
0 1 2 3
Square Root of Time (year 0.5)

Costa Rica-San José MX-Mérida MX-Oaxaca MX-Morelia

MX-Cdad Mexico MX-Queretaro MX-Toluca VZLA-Mcbo
VZLA-Tarabana BV-La Paz

FIGURE 1. Tropical exposure sites, carbonation depth at different exposure times, w/c = 0.65, windward face.

25

20
Carbonation Depth (mm)

15

10

0
0 1 2 3
Square Root of Time (year ) 0.5

España MX-Chihuahua MX-Mexicali Portugal-LM1

Portugal-LM2 Uruguay Chile

FIGURE 2. Nontropical exposure sites, carbonation depth at different exposure times, w/c = 0.65, windward face.

are more important than the concrete quality, and tributed to the similarity in carbonation rate trends
not just in urban environment,s but also in marine in the tropical exposure sites. For instance, the Ma-
environments.38 As an example, note that in Table racaibo, Venezuela, exposure site generally experi-
2, Uruguay and Chile (nontropical countries) have ences only two distinguishable seasons: rainy and
similar concrete quality as Venezuela and Costa Rica dry. The carbonation rate slope for this exposure site
(tropical countries). But in Costa Rica, the carbon- had the highest values and a quite interesting trend
ation depth is very low compared with the concrete (Figure 1): a steady increase over two years followed
exposed to Venezuela, Uruguay, and Chile, but it is by a gradual leveling out. After analyzing several
similar to the values obtained from Spain where the models,9-16 it was found39 that the Maracaibo slope
concrete has a much better quality. follows a model (Equation [6]) similar to the one de-
Carbonation rates (curve slopes from Figures 1 scribed by the CEB (Equation [7]):12
and 2) followed the same general trend among the
tropical exposure sites during the first two years of   log e = 0.842 log t + log 8.7526 (R2= 0,972)  (6)
the project (Figure 1), but differed notably among the
n
nontropical exposure sites (Figure 2). Prevailing en-
vironmental conditions in the tropics may have con-  
e = K CO2 ⋅ ( tt ) ⋅
o
t
 
(7)

CORROSION—Vol. 71, No. 4 551

CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION
FIGURE 3. Relationship between average carbonation depth and
average relative humidity (%) for the two types of concretes (w/c
ratios of 0.45 and 0.65) at Mexico’s and Madrid’s exposure sites
after six years of testing.
Or log e = (log KCO2 + n log to) + (0.5 – n) log t, where
e = carbonation depth and to = cure time.
With n (age factor) different than 0.4 (exposure
type: exterior nonprotected). In this particular case,
n = –0.35 for the windward face and –0.23 for the
leeward face.
Not all of the tropical exposure sites closely fol-
lowed the Maracaibo slope trend (Figure 1). Mexico’s
exposure sites of Morelia, Querétaro, and Oaxaca are
located in high altitude, semi-arid mountain zones,
with greater exposure to solar radiation. Thus, these
exposure sites must be treated with important ad-
ditional environmental factors affecting carbonation
rate. In summary, no models have been developed to
predict carbonation under vastly different exposure
environments, because there are far too many envi-
ronmental factors and combinations of these factors
to consider at this moment.
Electrochemical Evaluation
Electrochemical evaluation after six years of
exposure showed that rebars with 15 mm of con-
crete cover have active corrosion at the Maracaibo
exposure site (Figure 4), but are still passive at the
Santiago exposure site (Figure 5), even though the
carbonation front has already reached the rebar lo-
cated at 15 mm deep (Figure 1). This is due to the
low relative humidity prevailing in Santiago, which
promoted the carbonation of concrete, but not rebar
corrosion. The La Paz, Bolivia, exposure site exhib-
ited very similar performance to that of Santiago’s
exposure site based on rebar corrosion potentiality
and probability. These results agreed partially with
a prediction based on the potentiality/probability
552
concrete carbonation analysis. Complete agreement
was not expected because the prediction was based
on environmental aggressiveness data from only one
year, and this data tends to vary from year to year.
After six years of exposure in this project, however,
the trends maintained unchanged.
CONCLUSIONS
v  The present results cannot be extrapolated to
other sites because no model has yet been generated
to do this. They are representative of different cli-
mates, but generalizations on carbonation behavior
will have to wait until more data is available for lon-
ger exposure periods.
v  After six years of exposure, clear performance dif-
ferences of concrete mixtures were apparent between
the 16 tested urban exposure sites, and their specific
microclimates. This was the case even though nomi-
nal concrete formulation was supposedly the same at
all sites.
v  Overall, rebar corrosion aggressiveness was high-
est in the tested tropical environments, with Venezu-
ela having one of the most aggressive environments
for steel reinforcement bar corrosion by carbonation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The data reported here are part of a project partially
financed by the authors’ respective National Councils
for Science and Technology. The CYTED Program pro-
moted and financed idea and knowledge exchange. The
authors’ institutions partially supported the research
and provided facilities for analysis: Argentina (UN-
CPBA); Bolivia (IIMETMAT-UMSA); Chile (PUCV, PUC);
Colombia (Univalle); Costa Rica (ICE); México (IMT,
UADY, UANL, UMSNH, CINVESTAV-Mérida, UACam,
ITO); Spain (IETCC); Uruguay (Univ. de la Rep.); Portu-
gal (LNEC); and Venezuela (CEC-LUZ, UCLA).
REFERENCES
1. S.K. Roy, P. Kong Beng, D.O. Northwood, Mag. Concr. Res. 48,
177 (1996): p. 293-300.
2. E.I. Moreno, R.G. Solis, E. Cob, “Reinforcing Steel Corrosion in
Houses Due to Concrete Carbonation in Urban Tropical Environ-
ments,” CORROSION/2003, paper no. 03280 (Houston, TX:
NACE International, 2003).
3. O. Trocónis de Rincón, et al., “La Carbonatación en el Trópico
Caso Típico: Estadio Pachencho Romero,” Memorias Simposio
Fib “El Hormigón Estructural y el Transcurso del Tiempo” held
October 28-30, 2005 (La Plata, Argentina).
4. F.G. Da Silva, P. Helene, P. Castro-Borges, J.B. Liborio, J. Mater.
Civ. Eng. 21, 7 (2009): p. 333-342.
5. O. Trocónis de Rincón and DURAR Network Members, Manual for
Inspecting, Evaluating and Diagnosing Corrosion in Reinforced
Concrete Structures, ISBN 980-296-541-3 (Maracaibo, Venezuela:
CYTED 2000/1st. Edition in English).
6. Y.H. Loo, M.S. Chin, C.T. Tam, K.C. Ong, Mag. Concr. Res. 46,
168 (1994): p. 121-200.
7. C.D. Lawrence, “Durability of Concrete: Molecular Transport Pro-
cess and Test Methods,” Cement and Concrete Association, Tech-
nical Report 544 (Wexham Spring, 1981).
8. Y.F. Houst, F.H. Wittmann, Cem. Concr. Res. 24, 6 (1994): p.
1165-1176.
CORROSION—APRIL 2015
 CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

FIGURE 4. Electrochemical measurements at the Maracaibo, Venezuela, site during the experimental period: (a) potential,
and (b) current density. Windward face.

FIGURE 5. Electrochemical measurements at the Santiago, Chile, site during the experimental period: potential.

CORROSION—Vol. 71, No. 4 553

CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION
9. K. Tuutti, “Corrosion on Steel in Concrete,” CBI Forskning Re-
search, Swedish Cement and Concrete Research, Stockholm,
Resol. 4 (1982): p. 486.
10. D.W.S. Ho, R.K. Lewis, Cem. Conc. Res. 17 (1987): p. 489-504.
11. P.J. Parrott, “Design for Avoiding Damage Due to Carbonation—
Induced Corrosion,” Concrete Durability SP (ACI), 145, Special
Publication (1994): p. 283-298.
12. Comite Euro-International Du Beton, CEB 238, “New Approach
to Durability Design: An Example for Carbonation Induced Cor-
rosion,” Bulletin d’ Information (Switzerland N. 328, May 1997),
p. 138.
13. DURACRETE, “General Guidelines for Durability Design and
Redesign,” The European Union-Brite-EuRan III, Project No. BE
95-1347: Probabilistic Performance Based Durability Design of
Concrete Structures, Report No. T7-01-1 (1999).
14. L. Jiang, B. Lin, Y. Cai, Cem. Concr. Res., 30 (2000): p. 699-702.
15. V.G. Papadakis, C.G. Vayenas, M.N. Fardis, ACI Mater. J. 88, 4
(1991): p. 363-373.
16. P. Shiessl, “New Approach to Service Life Design of Concrete
Structures,” Asian J.f Civ. Eng. (Building and Housing) 6, 5
(2005): p. 393-407.
17. Comisión Permanente del Hormigón. EHE-08 Instrucción de Hor-
migón Estructural, Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Urbanismo
(Madrid, España, 2008).
18. J.A. González, C. Andrade, Corros. Prot. 11 (1980): p. 15-24.
19. C. Alonso, C. Andrade, Mater. Constr. (Madrid, Spain) 37, 206
(1987): p. 5-16.
20. C. Alonso, C. Andrade, “Life Time of Rebars in Carbonated Con-
crete,” 10th European Corrosion Congress, No. 165 (Barcelona,
España, 1993).
21. R.K. Dhir, M.R. Jones, M.J. McCarthy, “Pulverized-Fuel Ash Con-
crete: Carbonation-Induced Reinforcement Corrosion Rates,” ICE
Proceedings, Structures and Buildings 94, 3 (1992): p. 335-342.
22. L. De Ceukelaire, D. Van Nieuwenburg, Cem. Concr. Res. 23, 2
(1993): p. 442-452.
23. ASTM Standard C39/C39M-14, “Standard Test Method for Com-
pressive Strength of Cylindrical Test Specimens” (West Con-
shohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2014).
24. ASTM Standard C496/C496M-11, “Standard Test Method for
Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens”
(West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2011).
25. ASTM Standard C469/C469M-10, “Standard Test Method for
Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in
Compression” (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International,
2010).
26. ASTM Standard C642-13, “Standard Test Method for Density,
Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete” (West Con-
shohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2010).
27. G. Fagerlund, Nordic Concrete Research 1 (1986): p. 6.
28. ASTM Standard “Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication
of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration” (West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2012).
29. ISO 9223:2012, “Corrosion of Metals and Alloys—Corrosivity of
Atmospheres—Classification, Determination and Estimation”
(Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standariza-
tion [ISO], 2012).
30. J. Feliu, V.S. González, Feliu, Jr., M. Escudero, C. Andrade,
“Corrosion Detecting Probes for Use with a Corrosion-Rate Meter
for Electrochemically Determining the Corrosion Rate of Rein-
forced Structures,” U.S. Patent No. 5.259.944 (1993).
31. G. Rodríguez, S. Caro, M. Pedrón, “Proyecto DURACON: Maquina
para Obtener Secciones Rectas de Prismas de Hormigón de Sec-
ción Cuadrada,” COLLOQUIA 2002 (Maracaibo, Venezuela,
2002).
32. P. Maldonado, N. González, “Rediseño y Construcción de una
Máquina Cortadora de Probetas de Hormigón de Sección
Cuadrada” (Tesis para optar al título de Ingeniero Mecánico,
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Ven-
ezuela, 2004).
33. O. Troconis de Rincón and coauthors, DURACON Collaboration,
“Durability of Concrete Structures: DURACON, an Iberoamerican
Project, Preliminary Results,” Building & Environment, Elsevier
Science LTD Publication 41, 7 (2006): p. 952-962.
34. R. Pascual, F. Corvo, Revista Iberoamericana de Corrosión y Pro-
tección (Mayo-Junio, 1980).
35. L. Veleva, M.A. Alpuches-Aviles, “Outdoor Atmospheric Corrosion,”
ed. H.E. Townsend, ASTM, STP 1421 (West Conshochoken, PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials International, 2002).
36. F. Corvo, T. Pérez, Y. Matin, J. Reyes, L.R. Dzib, J. González-
Sánchez, A. Castañeda, Corros. Sci. 50, 1 (2008): p. 206-219.
554
37. A. Torres Acosta, et al., “Durabilidad del Concreto en Ambientes
Urbanos y Urbano/Marinos de México y España,” Memorias. 3er.
Congreso Nacional ALCONPAT 2008 held Nov. 12-14, 2008
(Chihuahua, México).
38. O. Troconis de Rincón and Co-authors, “DURACON Collabora-
tion, “Reinforced Concrete Durability in Iberoamerican Environ-
ments: DURACON Project: Ten-Year Evaluation,”
CORROSION/2013, paper no. 2404 (Houston, TX: NACE, 2013).
39. I. Morles, D. Rosillón, “Modelos de Predicción de Corrosión del
Acero en Concreto Expuesto a Ambientes Marinos y Urbanos,”
Tesis para optar al título de Ingeniero Químico (Centro de Estu-
dios de Corrosión, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Zulia,
Maracaibo, Venezuela, 2007).
APPENDIX A
Following are the author’s complete names,
e-mail addresses, and affiliations organized alpha-
betically by country and then in order of authorship
(except for the prime author, who is listed last).
Bolivia
——Juán Carlos Montenegro (jcmontenegrob@
yahoo.es), Instituto de Investigaciones Metalúr-
gicas y de Materiales, Universidad Mayor de
San Andrés (UMSA).
Chile
——Rosa Vera (rvera@ucv.cl), Laboratorio de Cor-
rosión, Instituto de Química, Pontificia Univer-
sidad Católica de Valparaíso (PUCV).
——Ana María Carvajal (acarvajg@puc.cl). Facultad
de Ingeniería, Pontificia Universidad Católica de
Chile (PUC).
Colombia
——Ruby Mejía de Gutierrez (ruby.mejia@corre-
ounivalle.edu.co), Departamento de Materiales
de Ingeniería, Universidad del Valle (Univalle).
——Silvio Del Vasto (silvio.delvasto@correounivalle.
edu.co), Departamento de Materiales de Ingeni-
ería, Universidad del Valle (Univalle).
Costa Rica
——Ericka Saborio (esaborio@ice.go.cl), Instituto
Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE).
Mexico
——Andres A. Torres-Acosta (atorres@imt.mx),
Instituto Mexicano del Transporte (IMT).
——Jose T. Perez-Quiroz (jtperez@imt.mx), Insti-
tuto Mexicano del Transporte (IMT).
——Miguel Martinez-Madrid (miguel.martinez@imt.
mx), Instituto Mexicano del Transporte (IMT).
——Wilfrido Martinez-Molina (wilfrido martinezmo-
lina@gmail.com), Facultad de Ingeniería Civil,
Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hi-
dalgo (UMSNH).
——Elia Alonso-Guzman (eliaalonsoguzman@gmail.
com), Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Universidad
Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo (UMSNH).
——Pedro Castro-Borges (pcb63@gmail.com), CIN-
VESTAV-IPN, Unidad Mérida.
——Eric I. Moreno (emoreno@uady.mx), Facultad
de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Yuca-
tán (UADY).
CORROSION—APRIL 2015

——Facundo Almeraya-Calderon (facundo.almer-
aya@uanl.edu.mx), Universidad Autónoma de
Nuevo León (UANL).
——Citlalli Gaona-Tiburcio (citlalli.gaonat@uanl.
edu.mx), Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo
León (UANL).
——Tezozomoc Perez-Lopez (tezperez@uacam.mx),
Centro de Investigación en Corrosión, Universi-
dad Autónoma de Campeche (UAC).
Portugal
——Manuela Salta (msalta@lnec.pt), Grupo de
Durabilidade de Materiais Inorgânicos, Depar-
tamento de Materiais, Laboratorio Nacional de
Engenharia Civil (LNEC).
——Ana Paula de Melo (apmelo@lnec.pt), Grupo de
Durabilidade de Materiais Inorgânicos, Depar-
tamento de Materiais, Laboratorio Nacional de
Engenharia Civil (LNEC).
Spain
——Isabel Martínez (isabelms@ietcc.csic.es), N.
Rebolledo: NuriaRebolledo (nuriare@ietcc.csic.
es), Instituto de Ciencias de la Construcción
Eduardo Torroja (IETCC).
CORROSION—Vol. 71, No. 4
CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION
Uruguay
——Gerardo Rodriguez (grodrig@fing.edu.uy), In-
stituto de Estructuras y Transporte, Profesor
Julio Ricaldoni Facultad de Ingeniería, Univer-
sidad de la República (UdelaR).
——Miguel Pedrón (amiguel@fing.edu.uy). Instituto
de Estructuras y Transporte, Profesor Julio
Ricaldoni, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad
de la República (UdelaR).
Venezuela
——Valentina Millano (vmillano@gmail.com), Cen-
tro de Estudios de Corrosión, Universidaddel
Zulia (LUZ).
——Miguel Sánchez (miguelcvc@gmail.com), Centro
de Estudios de Corrosión, Universidaddel Zulia
(LUZ).
——Emilia Anzola de Partidas (emilianzola@yahoo.
com). Universidad Centro Occidental Lisandro
Alvarado (UCLA).
——Oladis Troconis de Rincón (oladis1@yahoo.
com), International Coordinator DURACON,
Centro de Estudios de Corrosión, Universidad
del Zulia.
555