Abstract

This examines the critical design factors and strategies that warrant consideration to
accomplish sustainable or high-performance tall buildings applying innovative technologies.
It shows how ―technology transfers‖ in the aerospace industry have been applied to tall
building systems to achieve high-performance. Because the design of tall buildings warrants a
multi-disciplinary approach and requires the integration of architectural components,
structure, HVAC, and communication systems, an analog)' exists between tall building and
aircraft, which also comprises complex integrated systems. A few case study building
examples are presented which represent the new generation of sustainable tall buildings that
are setting trends for future projects incorporating innovations in materials and building
systems.
It is concluded that since tall buildings consume massive energy, designers of the next
generation of tall buildings will incrementally aim for ―zero energy" design. In this approach
climate is used to advantage and the building becomes a source of power. It is possible that
tall buildings will someday even produce excess energy and transfer the excess to the city's
power grid for use in other ways.
Integrating wind energy systems into building design is a small but growing trend, and high
rises with their elevated wind speeds seem particularly suited to the technology. Designs that
incorporate wind turbines are increasingly being seen on the drawing boards for skyscrapers
across the globe.
Nowadays energy usage in buildings became critical due to limited energy sources. Energy
efficient building designers started to develop themselves in this manner. In addition to these,
renovation of existing buildings started to be re-used in this manner also. Building techniques
and construction materials should be selected accordingly. Constructions of photovoltaic (PV)
systems are the part of the new design of architecture and they have affected the silhouette of
the cities to use them on building facades. Today it is mostly used by the developed countries,
but it is still an emerging technology. In this context many countries around the world are
working to increase the use of renewable energy sources with the improving technology. In
addition to this, architects who design energy consuming projects are responsible for the
future of the world. For this reason less energy consuming projects with their design concepts
by utilization of renewable energy sources are increasing day by day. Today using
photovoltaic (PV) systems in architecture is an attractive solution to solve energy problem.

Technology use for PV is developing. PV as cladding wall material is different for each
building enveloper systems. There are different construction systems and different PV panel
systems.These construction strategies and their construction details will be examined and
evaluated in this research. The advantages and disadvantages of using PV on building facades,
type of climate, orientation of PV panels on facades, integration of PV panels for different
building envelope (on curtain wall, on double skin façade and
on rainscreen cladding system), design feature and classification of PV‘s will be part of this
research. Moreover the factors which affected to the PV module efficiency (overheating,
overshadowing, etc.) will be evaluated too. Result of this work will be useful for designers
while using PV in their projects.
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

Renewable energy is any form of energy from solar, geophysical or biological sources which
is replenished by natural processes at a rate that equals or exceeds its rate of use. RE is
obtained from the continuing or repetitive flows of energy occurring in the natural
environment and includes resources such as biomass, solar energy, geothermal heat,
hydropower, tide and waves, ocean thermal energy and wind energy.

However, it is possible to utilize biomass at a greater rate than it can grow or to draw heat
from a geothermal field at a faster rate than heat flows can replenish it. On the other hand, the
rate of utilization of direct solar energy has no bearing on the rate at which it reaches the
Earth. Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) do not fall under this definition, as they are not
replenished within a time frame that is short relative to their rate of utilization.

Renewable energy sources are often considered alternative sources because, in general, most
industrialized countries do not rely on them as their main energy source. Instead, they tend to
rely on non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels or nuclear power. Because the energy crisis
in India during the 1990s, dwindling supplies of fossil fuels and hazards associated with
nuclear power, usage of renewable energy sources such as solar energy, hydroelectric, wind,
biomass, and geothermal has grown.

Renewable energy comes from the sun (considered an ―unlimited‖ supply) or other sources
that can theoretically be renewed at least as quickly as they are consumed. If used at a
sustainable rate, these sources will be available for consumption for thousands of years or
longer. Unfortunately, some potentially renewable energy sources, such as biomass and
geothermal, are actually being depleted in some areas because the usage rate exceeds the
renewal rate.The future of the built environment depends on the methods and techniques used
by architects and engineers to design sustainable, intelligent buildings. Although application
of new technologies to tall buildings will improve our living conditions incrementally,
humanism will define our future.

The initial cost of the building is 5 to 10 percent higher than the conventional cost but the
long term operational cost makes it justifiable. By reducing both embodied and operational
energy demands of tall buildings and the infrastructure, the life cycle energy consumption can
be reduced. Sustainability of tall building must be viewed as an integral part of city‘s
sustainable growth. A zero energy building may be achieved through high performance
design, integrated physical system in building within its context and an interactive power grid
with the buildings energy generation system.

Market forces have begun to propel the governments and the private sector towards renewable
energy in most industrialized countries with a few exceptions. Whatever the future holds for
the environment tall building must become sustainable considering the environment long term
economic growth and human needs.

2
Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars. It‘s
convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a
limited supply of these fuels on the Earth. We‘re using them much more rapidly than they are
being created. Eventually, they will run out. And because of safety concerns and waste
disposal problems, India will retire much of its nuclear capacity in near future.

In the meantime, the nation‘s energy needs are expected to grow by 33 percent during the next
20 years. Renewable energy can help fill the gap. Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil
fuels, using renewable energy is better for the environment. We often call renewable energy
technologies clean or green because they produce few of any pollutants.

Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping the sun‘s
heat and contributing to global warming. Climate scientists generally agree that the Earth‘s
average temperature has risen in the past century. If this trend continues, sea levels will rise,
and scientists predict that floods, heat waves, droughts, and other extreme weather conditions
could occur more often. Other pollutants are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil
fuels are burned. These pollutants take a dramatic toll on the environment and on humans. Air
pollution contributes to diseases like asthma. Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides harms plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.

Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security. Replacing
some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money and
strengthen our energy security.

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 1.1 OVERVIEW

1.1.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

1.1.1.1 SOLAR ENERGY
It is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. Energy from the Sun is
referred to as solar energy. Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this
abundant resource. It is considered a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse
gases. Solar energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long both as electricity
and as a source of heat.

1.1.1.2 HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

It is generated by using the energy of flowing water to power generating turbines for
producing electricity. Most hydroelectric power is generated by dams across large-flow rivers.
A dam built across river creates a reservoir behind it. The height of the water behind the dam
is greater than that below the dam, representing stored potential energy. When water flows
down through the penstock of the dam, driving the turbines, some of this potential energy is
converted into electricity. Hydroelectric power, like other alternative sources, is clean and
relatively cheap over the long term even with initial construction costs and upkeep. But
because the river‘s normal flow rate is reduced by the dam, sediments normally carried
downstream by the water are instead deposited in the reservoir. Eventually, the sediment can
clog the penstocks and render the dam useless for power generation.

Large-scale dams can have a significant impact on the regional environment. When the river
is initially dammed, farmlands are sometimes flooded and entire populations of people and
wildlife are displaced by the rising waters behind the dam. In some cases, the reservoir can
flood hundreds or thousands of square kilometres. The decreased flow downstream from the
dam can also negatively impact human and wildlife populations living downstream. In
addition, the dam can act as a barrier to fish that must travel upstream to spawn. Aquatic
organisms are frequently caught and killed in the penstock and the out-take pipes. Because of
the large surface area of the reservoir, the local climate can change due to the large amount of
evaporation occurring

1.1.1.3 WIND POWER

Wind is the result of the sun‘s uneven heating of the atmosphere. Warm air expands and rises,
and cool air contracts and sinks. This movement of the air is called wind. Wind has been used
as an energy source for millennia. It has been used to pump water, to power ships, and to mill
grains. Areas with constant and strong winds can be used by wind turbines to generate
electricity. Wind energy does not produce air pollution, can be virtually limitless, and is
relatively inexpensive to produce. There is an initial cost of manufacturing the wind turbine

4
and the costs associated with upkeep and repairs, but the wind itself is free. The major
drawbacks of wind-powered generators are they require lots of open land and a fairly constant
wind supply. Windmills are also noisy, and some people consider them aesthetically
unappealing and label them as visual pollution. Migrating birds and insects can become
entangled and killed by the turning blades.

1.1.1.4 BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass is the term used for all organic material originating from plants including algae, trees
and crops and is essentially the collection and storage of the sun‘s energy through
photosynthesis. Biomass energy, or bioenergy is the conversion of biomass into useful forms
of energy such as heat, electricity and liquid fuels. Biomass for bioenergy comes either
directly from the land, as dedicated energy crops, or from residues generated in the processing
of crops for food or other products such as pulp and paper from the wood industry.

The biomass to bioenergy system can be considered as the management of flow of solar
generated materials, food, and fibre in our society. These which presents the various resource
types and applications, showing the flow of their harvest and residues to bioenergy
applications. Not all biomass is directly used to produce energy but rather it can be converted
into intermediate energy carriers called biofuels. This includes charcoal (higher energy
density solid fuel), ethanol (liquid fuel), or producer gas (from gasification of biomass)

1.1.1.5 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

It uses heat from the earth‘s internal geologic processes in order to produce electricity
or provide heating. One source of geothermal energy is steam. Groundwater percolates
down through cracks in the subsurface rocks until it reaches rocks heated by
underlying magma, and the heat converts the water to steam. Sometimes this steam
makes its way back to the surface in the form of a geyser or hot spring. Wells can be
dug to tap the steam reservoir and bring it to the surface, to drive generating turbines
and produce electricity.
Hot water can be circulated to heat buildings. Regions near tectonic plate boundaries
have the best potential for geothermal activity. The north east portion of the India is
the most conducive for geothermal energy sources. Entire cities in Iceland, which is
located in a volcanically active region near a mid ocean ridge, are heated by
geothermal energy. The Rift Valley region of East Africa also has geothermal power
plants.
Geothermal energy may not always be renewable in a particular region if the steam is
withdrawn at a rate faster than it can be replenished, or if the heating source cools off.
The energy produced by the Geysers region of California is already in decline because
the heavy use is causing the underground heat source to cool. Geothermal energy
recovery can be less environmentally invasive than engaging in recovery methods for
non-renewable energy sources. Although it is relatively environmentally friendly, it is
not practical for all situations. Only limited geographic regions are capable of
producing geothermal energy that is economically viable. Therefore, it will probably
never become a major source of energy.
5
1.2 AIM
The aim of the study is to research the sustainability through different types of renewable
energy in high rise buildings.

1.3 OBJECTIVES
This research aims to assess the potential for using solar energy in high-rise buildings in India

This research Aims to assess the potential for using wind energy in high-rise buildings in
India.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Integrating solar and wind energy is efficient or not?

How to increase the utilization of renewable resources in high rise buildings?

1.5 LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE

The study will only focus on wind energy and solar energy in high rise buildings.

1.6 METHODOLOGY
• INTRODUCTION : To study the evolving technology of wind energy and solar energy
improving the energy performance and sustainability of a building through.

• The objective is to collect the data on wind and solar energy and study their their
relationship with sustainability.

• LITERATURE REVIEW : Explaining how proposed design work in wind energy and solar panels
added on facades

• how they are different from conventional methods

• CASE STUDIES : Data collection through literature case studies, books and articles and then
comparing them to draw conclusion.

• CONCLUSION

6
 CHAPTER 2
WIND ENERGY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Wind, one of the renewable energy sources, is so sustainable and environmentally friendly
that the relevant market has increased every year with an annual growth of around 20%. The
common application for the use of wind energy is to construct wind farms, i.e., arrays of large
wind turbines, in hilly or coastal areas that have a constant flow of non-turbulent wind. In
spite of its effectiveness, however, a wind farm has a critical limitation due to the long
distance between the farm, which is usually located in a remote place, and an urban area,
where over 60% of global energy demand is consumed. This long distance between the
producer and the consumer requires an electricity transmission system that results in
considerable energy loss during the transmission process and costs too much money. These
issues, electricity loss and high cost of the transmission system, should be accordingly
addressed so that a more effective utilization of wind energy can be achieved in urban areas.
Because of the limitations of using rural wind farms, interest in directly utilizing wind energy
within urban areas has gradually increased.

However, wind environments in urban areas are quite different from those in hilly or coastal
areas. First,wind speed in urban areas is generally less than that at the same height in hilly or
coastal areas due to the surface roughness caused by complicated building arrangements.

Furthermore, space needed to install many large wind turbines is limited in urban areas, so a
wind farm may not be seen as a feasible approach in such areas.

On the other hand, the upper air in urban areas is not considerably affected by surface
roughness. In addition, specific building arrangements such as urban canyons or height
differences between neighboring building structures can frequently create strong winds
around buildings.

For example, in Hong Kong, the mean wind speed at 150 m is around 5 m/s to 6 m/s.Thus,
these attractive characteristics should be carefully examined when the use of wind energy in
urban areas is considered.

7
2.2 WIND CHARACTERISTICS
Wind speed varies with the season, time of day, and weather events. According to the Danish
Wind Industry Association, roughly 1% to 2% of the sun's energy that strikes the earth is
transformed into wind. Collected wind data focuses on two primary considerations: average
annual wind speed and a frequency distribution of the wind at various speeds. The wind speed
at any given time determines the amount of power available in the wind.

2.3 WIND CLASSIFICATIONS AND WIND MAPS

Wind power is related to the cube of the wind speed (V³). This relationship is important
because as the wind speed doubles, the power increases by a factor of eight (2³ = 8). Thus,
small changes in speed can result in significant differences in energy production.

Wind quality, or clean flowing wind, is just as important as wind quantity, or speed.
Turbulence in the air decreases the electricity generated from the wind and also creates
trouble for the equipment—by increasing maintenance and decreasing life expectance. In
addition, wind speed decreases behind an obstacle, such as a building or trees, and so it is
extremely important to account for local wind obstacles in the prevailing wind direction near
the turbine to make accurate energy output predictions.

Appropriate tower height for a wind turbine is essential for optimal performance. Taller
towers provide access to higher wind speeds and lower turbulence, so typically, the taller the
tower, the higher the electricity production from a turbine. It is important, however, to achieve
a balance between the increase in electricity and the increased costs associated with a taller
tower.

There is a wind classification system that has been developed to quantify wind resources
using a term called wind power density, which defines the wind power available per square
meter of rotor area.

8
Figure 1:mean wind speed map
2.4 WIND SPEED
It is known that the generated power is proportional to the cube of the inlet speed, so an
increase in the inlet wind speed is strongly related to the improvement of the system.

S.NO WIND WIND WIND WIND WIND WIND

POWER SPEED POWER SPEED POWER SPEED
DENSITY (m/s) DENSITY (m/s) DENSITY (m/s)
AT 10M AT 30M AT 50M
1 100 4.4 160 5.1 200 5.6

2 150 5.1 240 5.9 300 6.4

3 200 5.6 320 6.5 400 7.0

4 250 6 400 7.0 500 7.5

5 300 6.4 480 7.4 600 8.0

6 400 7 640 8.2 800 8.8

7 1000 9.4 1600 11.0 2000 11.9

9
2.4TYPES OF WIND TURBINES
2.4.1 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
These are the turbines which are seen in wind farms. They can be broken down into three
main components: rotor, generator, and structural support. The rotor contains blades that
spin to convert wind energy to rotational energy; the generator, which accounts for 34% of the
wind turbine cost, consists of electrical elements and converts incoming rotations to high-
speed rotations, producing electricity generation; and the structural support includes the tower
and base for the wind turbine as a whole.

Turbine size varies, depending on location, wind speeds, and other factors, but its blades can
be up to 130 feet long and tower as high as 300 feet, totalling an overall height of 430 feet or
more. Offshore wind turbines can be even greater in size.

Wind power is the cube of wind speed; therefore, double the wind speed will result in nine
times the wind power. Because of this, it is critical for wind turbines to be properly
engineered and placed in specific areas for maximum efficiency.

Recent developments in building integrated wind turbine technologies involve improving

reliability, improving efficiency at low wind speeds and lowering capital cost. Wind turbine
blades are now designed with lightweight materials and aerodynamic principles, so that they
are sensitive to small air movements. Furthermore, the use of permanent magnet generators,
based on rare earth permanent magnets, results in lightweight and compact systems that allow
low cut-in wind speeds. In this way, electricity can be generated with wind speeds as low as a
few metres per second.

Figure 2:horizontal axis wind turbines

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2.4.2VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
They have a vertically-arranged rotor that does not need to be pointed into the wind to work
properly. This model is commonly seen when integrated into structures such as buildings or
stadiums. To be more attractive for integrating into buildings, micro wind turbines are also
being designed to be more visually attractive, without compromising their performance.
Another objective is to reduce/eliminate noise associated with blade rotation and
gearbox/generator noise. This can be achieved by using low-noise blade designs, vibration
isolators to reduce sound and sound absorbing materials around the gearbox and generator.by
simplifying wind turbine components/systems also adds to the attractiveness of wind turbine
application and reduces maintenance costs.

Micro VAWTs are often installed at locations with frequent windy conditions. Prior to
installation of a wind turbine, it is important to collect wind data in the immediate vicinity of
a building or installation site. Based on the wind data, a suitable type of wind turbine and
suitable location can be determined to maximise the electricity generation. One important
criterion is to match ambient wind conditions with a wind turbine‘s cut-in wind speed, rated
wind speed and cut-out wind speed.

Prior to installation of wind turbine, especially in a large number, on an existing building

rooftop, it is important to ensure the roof structure is strong enough to hold the additional
loads. These include the weight of wind turbines and vibration from wind turbine operation..
As wind turbines are usually installed on the high point of the building, prevention measure
from lighting damage should be in place. Accessibility for maintenance should also be
planned for.

Figure 3:vertical axis wind turbines

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2.5 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF WIND TURBINE SYSTEM
1. Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the
controller.
2. Blades: Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin.
Most turbines have either two or three blades
3. Brake: Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically, in emergencies.
4. Controller: Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour
(mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind
speeds above about 55 mph because they may be damaged by the high winds.
5. Gear box: Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the
rotational speeds from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800
rpm; this is the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity.
The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are
exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't
need gear boxes.
6. Generator: Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction
generator.
7. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator.
8. Low-speed shaft: Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm
9. Nacelle:Sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to
land on.
10. Pitch: Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep
the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
11. Rotor: Blades and hub together form the rotor.
12. Tower: Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the
structure of the turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable
turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
13. Wind direction: Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbines—like the one
shown here—face into the wind while downwind turbines face away.
14. Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient
the turbine properly with respect to the wind.
15. Yaw drive: Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction
changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind manually
blows the rotor away from it.
16. Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

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 Figure 4:components of wind turbines

2.6 APPLICATION OF BIWT SYSTEMS

The first is to apply one or a few large-size wind turbines to high-rise buildings. As illustrated
in Figure there are three possible locations for large-size wind turbines:

i. on the rooftop
ii. between two adjacent buildings and
iii. inside a hole within a building that is specially designed for this purpose.

These types have already been

applied to full-scale buildings such
as the World Trade Center in
Bahrain and Pearl River Tower in
Guangzhou. Despite their high
efficiency, however, it has been
reported that they had several
unsolved issues, such as noise and
vibration problems caused by the
large turbines and aesthetic
dissatisfaction.

The second way to apply BIWT

systems to buildings is to install
Figure 5:location for large size wind turbines many small-size wind turbines on
the buildings instead of a few
large-size wind turbines.
13
 This type of the BIWT system is considered as a convenient and economical method. The
most important advantage of this approach is that it can be used with existing structures
without any specific structural strengthening.

However, the total output power from this system would be considerably lower than that from
large-size wind turbines because their installable area is limited to such areas as rooftops and
edges of building.

This BIWT system that directly utilizes the building skin (or an exterior wall of a building)

Figure 6:building integrated system

that is always subjected to wind pressure but is an unused large area, which is the case of all
the conventional BIWT systems.

To this end, combining a guide vane that can concentrate the wind flow and increase its speed
and a rotor with an appropriate shape for the designed guide vane.

A schematic diagram of the system is shown in Figure as shown, the whole system is an
assemblage of many unit modules filling an empty building skin area. Modularization enables
the system to be easily applied to various types of existing buildings and makes it convenient
for the system to be attached and detached. The right picture in Figure depicts a unit module
consisting of a guide vane and a rotor. In the unit module, the guide vane is the key
composition that changes according to approaching wind conditions, such as low velocity or
high static pressure, to be appropriate for rotor operation.

The characteristics of the wind flow around the building skin are very complicated. Every
building has its own particular wind flow around itself due to its form and arrangement with

14
neighbouring structures. To concentrate the dispersed wind flow into a rotor efficiently, a
guide vane should be introduced in the system and plays an important role in increasing the

Additionally, a series of guide vanes form empty space between themselves and the building
skin. The empty space behind the guide vanes plays the role as a passage for the wind passing
through the rotor to flow out of the building easily. It creates a pressure difference between
the back and forth of the guide vanes and the wind effectively comes into the guide vane.

It is an important role for the system because it is installed on the building skin where the
wind velocity is relatively low and the static pressure is higher than on the edge of the
building. The rotor is a main part of wind turbines, so selecting the optimal rotor is also
important.

Rotors are classified as the horizontal-axis type and the vertical-axis type according to the
axis orientation. They also can be divided into the drag-force type and the lifting-force type
based on how the rotor blades obtain the driving force. It is generally known that wind
turbines that use the lifting force have a higher efficiency

2.7 ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM

2.7.1INSTALLABLE AREA
Structural strengthening or modification is usually needed to apply the conventional wind
turbines to buildings, especially large-size turbines.

2.7.2 DEPLOYABLE SPACE

It is very much limited to rooftop and its edges

The basic concept of the

system can be graphically
addressed as shown in Figure
by comparing the deployable
space of the proposed system
with that of the conventional
wind turbine system. As shown
in the figure, the conventional
BIWT systems generally
consist of one or a few large-
size turbines or aligned small-
size turbines following the
edge. As a countermeasure, the
proposed BIWT system
consisting of many unit
modules is designed to be
installable on the building skin
(or an exterior wall of a
building), which is a
Figure 7:conventional vs proposed
15
previously unused and unavailable large
area. The ideal window to wall ratio for
energy consumption is reported as 25% to
30% so there remains large installable area
except for windows.

Structural Issue Conventional BIWT

systems occasionally require structural
reinforcement because the additional wind
pressure acts on the wind turbine installed
on the rooftop or between buildings.
However, this system is able to utilize the
wind pressure acting on the building wall,
so structural strengthening or modification
is not necessary because this wind pressure
is already considered in the building design Figure 8: covered area of conventional and proposed
stage as shown in Figure (e.g., the wind
velocity for the design wind load in Seoul, Korea is regulated as 30 m/s by Standard Design
Loads for Buildings.). The only important consideration is a structurally solid connection
between the modules and the building skin for the system to satisfy the standard as a cladding.

Structural Issue Conventional BIWT systems occasionally require structural reinforcement

because the additional wind pressure acts on the wind turbine installed on the rooftop or
between buildings. However, the proposed system is able to utilize the wind pressure acting
on the building wall, so structural strengthening or modification is not necessary because this
wind pressure is already considered in the building design stage as shown in Figure (e.g., the
wind velocity for the design wind load in Seoul, Korea is regulated as 30 m/s by Standard
Design Loads for Buildings.). The only important consideration is a structurally solid
connection between the modules and the building skin for the system to satisfy the standard as
a cladding.

2.8 THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA ARE PRE-CONDITIONS TO

SATISFY BEFORE THOROUGHLY ASSESSING THE WIND
POTENTIAL AT A PARTICULAR SITE:
2.8.1 OBSTACLES AND WIND SHEAR
Selecting a wind turbine project site is crucial to its long-term performance. The wind energy
project should be placed in a location with a wide and open access to the prevailing winds.
Obstacles diminish the energy available in the wind and increase turbulence, both of which
decrease the turbine's energy production. Ground roughness also affects wind speeds; the
more pronounced the roughness of the terrain, the more the wind will be slowed down.

2.8.2 PROXIMITY TO DISTRIBUTION LINE INTERCONNECTION

For all scales of wind projects, the electrical connection from the wind project to the point of
interconnection is a factor. Specifically for small projects, this cost can be significant.

16
Therefore, the distance and the cost of the conductor should be minimized where possible. For
larger projects, this factor becomes far less important. The choice of whether to use buried or
above-ground conductors is generally based on the standard practices where the project is to
be sited. Small turbines can largely be interconnected directly into a building or local
electrical distribution system while larger turbines will require interconnection to more
established electrical transmission systems.

2.8.3 REASONABLE ROAD ACCESS

For smaller turbines, road access is typically not an issue. For Federal agencies considering a
wind turbine project using utility-scale wind turbines, adequate access for large wind turbine
component shipments (tower sections and blades) and heavy construction equipment (cranes)
needs to be fully investigated. A typical site road width requirement for utility-scale wind
turbines is 18 feet. Turning radius and slope for existing roads should be fully investigated
long before components are shifted to the site.

2.8.4 SITING OF THE TURBINE

The siting of the turbine on the facility property is important not only for its access to the
wind and interconnection points, but also for the impacts of the turbine on the facility and
surrounding areas. Wind turbines make noise, which is mitigated somewhat by the wind itself
but also by distance from the turbine. Best practice also places the turbine such that the "drop
zone," or circumference around the turbine that equals the turbine height, is clear of inhabited
facilities. The turbine should be assessed for noise and other impacts, and sited to ensure that
there is no disruption to facility occupants or surrounding neighbours.

TURBINE SIZE COST OF ELECTRICITY PRODUCED PER KILOWATT-HOUR

1 TO 20KW 3.5RS TO 4RS KW/H
20 TO 200KW 4.96RS TO 5.6RS KW/H
200 TO 1500KW 5.6RS TO 10.63RS KW/H
1 TO 3 MW 8.5RS TO 14.18RS KW/H
1.0 to 3.0 MW 14.18RS TO 28.36RS KW/H

2.9 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

When planning and designing wind technology systems, it is important to do all of the
following:

1. Provide area or wall space near electrical equipment for wind turbine disconnect and
related equipment
2. Locate turbine on highest, unobstructed area of property
3. Locate turbine so that nothing of value is within fall zone of turbine, blades, and guy
cables (if applicable)
4. Locate turbine near enough to electrical equipment, however, so that trenching and
cable costs do not become excessive
5. Consider the wind wakes and turbulence created by all buildings, trees, and structures
on property, and use tall enough tower to avoid "shading" of turbine

17
 6. Oversize the electrical panel that will receive solar power to accommodate the sum of
utility power plus solar power, as per code requirement as the sum of wind and grid
input breakers can never exceed 125% of the panel rating. Only the panel needs to be
oversized, not the entire service to the building.

2.10 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Wind turbines require regular maintenance. Manufacturer warranties typically only cover the
first 2 to 5 years. Most manufacturers of utility-scale wind turbines offer long-term (10-year)
integrated service plans that provide qualified service during the financing period. Where
these services are not available, professional wind turbine maintenance contractors, or wind
smiths, are recommended after the warranty period.

Operation and maintenance programs for wind turbines should consider the following:

1. Frequency and time involved in routine maintenance

2. Special skills or training required to service equipment
3. Costs associated with maintenance
4. Discussion of controls and remote monitoring
5. List of components which need to be refurbished or replaced during system life

18
 CHAPTER 3
3.1 CASE STUDY

The objective of this section is to examine the practice of wind turbines in the practical world.
Through case studies, we get detailed insights about the wind turbines used in building, how
they work and how they affect the energy efficiency of the building and how I can use them in
my future designs in reference to the conclusions derived from these case studies.

The factors that affected my choice of case studies are-

1. Position of wind turbines

2. Energy generation
3. Height of the building
4. Location of the building
5. Which type of turbines are used

19
3.1.1 WORLD TRADE CENTER,BAHRAIN

CASE OVERVIEW

ARCHITECTS - ATKINS

PROJECT – WORLD TRADE

CENTER,BAHRAIN

BUILDING TYPOLOGY – COMMERCIAL

LOCATION - MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA

YEAR OF COMPLETION - 2008

HEIGHT-240m

Figure 9: world trade centre views

3.1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Bahrain World Trade Centre forms the focal point of a master plan to rejuvenate an
existing hotel and shopping mall on a prestigious site overlooking the Arabian Gulf in the
downtown central business district of Manama, Bahrain.

The concept design of the Bahrain World Trade Centre towers was inspired by the traditional
Arabian ‗wind towers‘ in that the very shape of the buildings harnesses the unobstructed
prevailing onshore breeze from the Gulf, providing a renewable source of energy for the
project.

The two 50-story sail-shaped office towers taper to a height of 240 m and support three 29 m
diameter horizontal-axis wind turbines.

The towers are harmoniously integrated on top of a three-story sculpted podium and basement
which accommodate a new shopping centre, restaurants, business centres and car parking.

The elliptical plan forms and sail-like profiles act as aerofoils, funnelling the onshore breeze
between them as well as creating a negative pressure behind, thus accelerating the wind
velocity between the two towers.

Vertically, the sculpting of the towers is also a function of airflow dynamics. As they taper
upwards, their aerofoil sections reduce. This effect, when combined with the increasing
velocity of the onshore breeze at increasing heights, creates a near-equal regime of wind
velocity on each of the three turbines.

Understanding and utilizing this phenomenon has been one of the key factors that has
allowed the practical integration of wind turbine generators in a commercial building design.
20
Wind tunnel testing has confirmed how the shapes and spatial relationship of the towers
sculpt the airflow, creating an ‗S‘ flow whereby the centre of the wind stream remains nearly
perpendicular to the turbine within a 45° wind azimuth, either side of the central axis. This
increases the turbines‘ potential to generate power while also reducing fatigue on the blades to
acceptable limits during wind skew across the blades.

3.1.1.2 WIND ANALYSIS

Three wind turbines have been integrated into the building to generate electricity. Horizontal-
axis wind turbines are normally pole mounted and turn to face the direction of the wind, thus
maximizing energy yield. The practical application of such turbines to buildings in variable-
direction wind climates therefore very difficult.

Development for vertical-axis wind turbines is encouraging and of course they benefit from
the advantage of being truly omnidirectional. However, at the time of design development for
this project, large-scale proven vertical-axis turbines were not available for building
applications.. From the outset of this project, the shape of the towers has been designed to
capture the incoming wind and funnel it between the towers. Extensive wind tunnel modelling
that was latterly validated by CFD modelling,

Engineering predictions show that the turbine will be able to operate for wind directions
between 270° and 360°; however, caution has been applied and turbine predictions and initial
operating regimes are based a more limited range of between 285° and 345°.

At all wind directions outside of this range the turbine will automatically adopt a ‗standstill‘
mode. It is no coincidence that the buildings are oriented toward the extremely dominant
prevailing wind. The funnelling of the towers has the effect of amplifying the wind speed at
the turbine location of up to 30%.

This amplification, in conjunction with the shape of the towers (larger effect at ground) and
the velocity profile of the wind (lowest at ground), has the effect of balancing the energy yield
to the extent that the upper and lower turbines will produce 109%and 93% when compared to
100% for the middle turbine.

The full power of about 225 kW will be achieved at 15–20 m/s depending on air density. In
the event of extremely high wind speeds under operating or standstill modes, the tip of the
blade extends by centrifugal force and rotates to act as a self-regulating governor brake,
through the exertion of a drag force. For this project, nacelles are a conventional design, with
some enhancements to suit the desert application and to increase the structural safety.

3.1.1.3 STRUCTURAL DETAILS

The two towers are linked via three sky bridges, each holding a 225 kW wind turbine,
totalling to 675 kW of wind power capacity.

Each of these turbines measure 29m in diameter, and is aligned north, which is the direction
from which air from the Persian Gulf blows in.

The sail-shaped buildings on either side are designed to funnel wind through the gap to
provide accelerated wind passing through the turbines.

21
This was confirmed by wind tunnel tests, which showed that the buildings create an S-shaped
flow, ensuring that any wind coming within a 45° angle to either side of the central axis will
create a wind stream that remains perpendicular to the turbines. This significantly increases
their potential to generate electricity.

The wind turbines are expected to provide 11% to 15% of the towers' total power
consumption, or approximately 1.1 to 1.3 GWh a year.

This is equivalent to providing the lighting for about 300 homes, 258 hospitals, 17 industrial
plants, and 33 car engines.

They are expected to operate 50% of the time on an average day.

35th floor. The The topmost turbine is on the second one is on the 25th floor. while the lowest

one is on the 16th floor.

Figure 10:wind turbines

3.1.1.4 ARCHITECTURAL AND TECHNICAL DESIGN

The main design criteria‘s considered for incorporating the wind turbines can be classified as
follows:-

i. Aerodynamic building shape:-

The elliptical plan forms and sail-like profiles acts like aero foil, funnelling the on-
shore breeze between the twin towers creating a positive pressure in the north
elevation and a negative pressure in the south elevation, which increases the wind
velocity between the two towers.
ii. Location-
The unique location of the building facing directly opposite the Arabian Gulf insured
free availability of the onshore wind.
iii. Operational Limits:-
A number of design parameters have been built into the system, in consideration of the
turbines operational efficiency and safety features
22
3.1.1.5 DISADVANTAGES
i. The fixed horizontal turbine suffers the drawback of only being able to operate with
wind from a limited azimuth range, if problems with blade deflections and stressing
through excessive skew flow are to be avoided
ii. if the wind turbines are on the opposite side then it would have produced 31% more
power.
iii. additional reinforcements were provided to strengthen the building because of the
vibration.
iv. it generates a lot of noise when it starts to move and is very difficult for the peopleto
work in there.

3.1.1.6 ACHIEVEMENTS

1. The turbines have been successfully commissioned and have been demonstrated to
generate in a manner as intended.
2. Generated power have been successfully utilized with no detrimental impact on any of the
electrical systems.
3. All safety features have been put to real time test and have been passed
4. All automatic controls have been demonstrated to be working in a logical manner in
synchronization with the operation of the turbines.
5. Double Glazing (30 mm in thickness) is used on surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation.
This will reduce the surface absorptivity by 90-95% . It allows the light to come in but it
cuts the heat. The indoor seems cold even if the outdoor is hot and the air conditioners are
off.
6. The building uses all the glass overall so that to allow the natural lighting into the building
and to use less electricity and to save energy and the lights come on when it gets dark or
when its night.

Energy yield

TURBINE 1 340-400mw h/y

TURBINE 2 360-430mw h/y
TUBRINE 3 400-470mw h/y

3.1.1.7 ANALYSIS
The Bahrain World Trade Centre with its magnificent dynamic form is becoming one of the
dominant iconic skyscrapers emphasizing the tremendous possibilities of utilizing wind
energy in buildings.

In the light of the above, and the fact that this design solution was the first of its kind in the
world, defines the success of the project. The World Trade Centre project offers designers,
architects and engineers around the world a huge knowledge on how large wind turbines
could be integrated with the building structure as a source of generating renewable energy.

23
The Bahrain World Trade Centre project establishes a technological precedent which is set to
raise the awareness of environmental design and its importance in the built environment and
pave the way for designers and clients to incorporate renewable and energy efficient measures
into their future developments to reduce carbon emissions which is causing climate changes.

The Bahrain World Trade Centre (BWTC) has received international acclaim for its
commitment to sustainable development, being awarded LEAF Awards 2006 for ―Best Use of
Technology within a Large Scheme and recently the Arab Construction World Sustainable
Design Award. Wind energy is one of the cleanest, most environmentally friendly energy
sources. It emits no greenhouse gases or air pollutants.

The strong integration of the wind turbines with the structure of the towing towers was a great
challenge in itself. There are a number of technological and structural problems which should
have been carefully studied and analysed through rigorous wind tunnel experiments. Of
course the findings of the simulation experiments, i.e., wind tunnel experiments will not
reflect the exact performance of a full scale building, since such experiments are based on a
number of assumptions.

3.1.2 STRATA
TOWER, LONDON

CASE OVERVIEW

ARCHITECTS - BFLS

PROJECT -STRATA
TOWER,LONDON

BUILDING TYPOLOGY – RESIDENTIAL

LOCATION – ELEPHANT AND CASTLE,LONDON Figure 11:strata tower

YEAR OF COMPLETION - 2008

HEIGHT-148m

3.1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Strata is a 147-metre-high building which forms the focal point of the £1.5 billion, 170 acre
regeneration of the Elephant and Castle area. The innovative design of the structure creates a
dramatic landmark on the London skyline and is the first building in the world to have three
integral wind turbines, each nine metres in diameter. Turbines are housed in the twenty metre
24
section at the top of the tower. The energy harvesting from the three wind turbines installed in
the roof should be able to provide 8% of the total energy consumption of the Strata tower.It
comprises of 408 apartments which have far-reaching views across the Capital.

3.1.2.2 DESIGN OBJECTIVE

The objective for the design was to create a flat soffit within minimal floor to floor heights
whilst at the same time maintaining an optimal slab thickness. A 200mm thick floor slab was
achievable for typical residential floor spans - 3000mm structural floor-to-floor height;
2500mm floor-to-ceiling height to living rooms and bedroom.

3.1.2.3 POST-TENSIONING
The use of post-tensioning on this project made it possible to achieve long spans with difficult
plan geometry, to maintain a structural depth of typically 200mm on spans of up to nine
metres. This slab depth would have proved impossible using traditional reinforced concrete
construction methods. At the same time the post-tensioned slabs provided deflection and
crack control for these spans across the tower.

Also included in the design was a stage stressed transfer beam at level two Pavilion. This was
used to control deflections as construction continued above, whilst minimising structural
depth and headroom implications. Any requirement for down stand beams in the typical
residential floor plate was removed which facilitated the routing of services and the soffit
marking of tendons.

The floors themselves were of a curved design which created additional complications. CCL
was the first company within the UK to develop a range of post-tensioning anchors to these
rigorous standards. The Strata project itself was the first in the UK which has these products
installed. The subsequent use of wider duct for the curved tendons around the edge of the
building led to reduced friction when pushing the strand up to 30 metres in a multifaceted
curve.

3.1.2.4 BENEFITS ACHIEVED BY THE USE OF POST-TENSIONING

The construction of the tower began in July 2008 and the floors were completed in 49 weeks,
which resulted in an impressive completion rate for the post-tensioned floors of just over one
per week.

Use of post-tensioning produced a reduction of 50 – 75mm of concrete per floor when

compared to traditional reinforced concrete construction. This permitted an overall saving of
approximately 2000m3 of concrete within the superstructure alone. Further savings resulted in
the substructure in the form of reduced depth and diameter of piles. The combined reduction
in the concrete per floor was equivalent to approximately three metres of concrete, or an
additional floor within the same building envelope when compared to traditional construction
methods.

25
 In terms of value
for money, the
post-tensioned
floors produced
savings of at least
15 per cent of the
costs of the
superstructure
materials alone
and further cost
reductions would
have been
achieved because
Figure 12:sketch up view of the rapid
construction
schedule CCL was able to realise (just over one floor per week) and the use of climbing
screens and a formwork hoist.

Minimal quantities of traditional reinforcement were required which in turn minimised the
financial risk to the client over a long construction period in an uncertain market. Waste
materials were kept to a minimum and all such items were recyclable.

As shown in figure the Strata building is far taller than any of the surrounding topography and
architecture suggesting that at the height of the turbines an uninterrupted, smooth wind flow
may be achieved. By CFD design and modelling local wind data can be used to model
differing structural scenarios and how this affects the local wind flow. This will allow
comparisons of design and location as well as installation optimisation (turbines, venturi,
building and site location) to be tested.

3.1.2.5 DISADVANATGES
Unfortunately some issues have affected the projects progress. The unique design of the
turbine installation requires incredibly stringent health and safety precautions to be taken. A
sensor had to be installed to ensure the turbines would shut down when the buildings custom
window-cleaning winch was deployed and/or any of the turbine venturi maintenance hatches
were open.

Unfortunately the sensor circuit malfunctioned and in the process of being rewired, which will
leave the turbines inactive until the works completion. The turbine installation has a remote
logging system in place to log atmospheric variables including wind speed, direction, density,
barometric pressure and rainfall.

26
 CONCLUSION

Wind turbine technology has demonstrated the potential for contributing to the energy needs.
If the sites with acceptable wind characteristics were fully utilized, they could contribute up to
about 10% of the nation's electrical energy needs. The limitation is based on utility system
stability issues rather than available site locations. As in all energy investment decisions, the
ultimate penetration level will be driven by the cost of energy that is produced. In turn, this is
decided by the initial cost of the wind energy plant and the annual cost for maintenance and
operation. Urban wind turbines could provide a serious contribution to lowering CO2
emissions and produce an efficient form of renewable energy. By being included into the
buildings architecture from design stage, negative views on aesthetics and ruined landscapes
common with rural wind farms can be overcome. With proper vibration and noise control
structural problems as well as noise pollution and annoyance concerns can be avoided. A pilot
study into the local wind regime is critical. It doesn‘t matter how cutting edge or aesthetically
pleasing the technology is, without wind there is no power, just wasted money, time and
resources. With this knowledge an acceptable location, height, direction and system can be
designed for and an efficient urban turbine installed.

27
 CHAPTER-4
SOLAR ENERGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Urbanisation is an integral part of development in modern world. Due to scarcity of land
resources, the urban areas are witnessing a growth in high-rise buildings. These buildings are
densely populated & are major consumers of energy. They are also GHG emissions presently
by use of power generated from fossil fuel based sources. India is blessed with abundant
sunshine & solar energy is getting the importance it deserves in recent times. Distributed
generation is a key aspect of Solar PV in India.

Green building norms under TERI – GRIHA and IGBC-LEED certification process require
energy efficiency of about 14% for the Building Envelope & 10% of the total building energy
be drawn from solar power. Accordingly high-rise buildings in urban areas which are major
consumers of energy need to be utilised as sites for Solar PV. Though roof-top Solar PV has
been getting due attention, facades of high-rise buildings also offer a great opportunity for
Solar PV.

This research aims to assess the potential for monetary savings & reduction in GHG
emissions using Solar PV Facades in high-rise buildings in Delhi, India. The concept can also
be applied to high-rise buildings in other parts of India. There is a need to include Solar PV
Facades from the concept stage for high-rise buildings to ensure proper integration &
minimum cost.

Saving in land resource is also an advantage in using Solar PV for Facades. As electrical
output of Solar PV Facade can be consumed in the high-rise building itself, it is a form of
distributed generation with captive consumption avoiding transmission infrastructure &
losses. This paper also examines the relative performance of mono-crystalline & thin film
technologies used for Solar PV Facades & related payback periods.

28
There are two ways to harness solar energy.

Active systems have devices to convert the sun‘s energy into a more usable form, such as hot
water or electricity.

Passive systems are structures whose design, placement, or materials optimize the use of heat
or light directly from the sun.

4.2 ACTIVE SYSTEMS

Active Solar Space Heating: In an active solar space heating system, a collector holding a
heat-transfer medium such as air or liquid captures the sun‘s thermal energy, which is then
distributed through the building via electric fans or pumps.

4.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

1. The main construction material includes flat-plate PV panels. This kind of panel uses
advanced designs which are formed by connecting all the panels with each other.
2. The common practice is to use liquid or air in solar collectors as a conductor. Mainly,
the solar collectors are used to store and conduct energy.
3. The conductors that use liquid are normally known as hydronic collectors. The ones
that use air are called air collectors.
4. Liquid conductors are more commonly used as compared to air based conductors.
Though air based conductors only have one drawback i.e they don‘t freeze.

4.2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

1. The required equipment is expensive.
2. Equipment maintenance can also be heavy on your pockets.
3. Fluids that store heat in the solar panel have the potential to release toxins in the air.

4.2.3 ACTIVE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. Large unobstructed roofs or ground areas are ideal for photovoltaic panel arrays.
2. Trees, mechanical units and other buildings should not shade the panels at any time.
3. Panels typically produce the most energy when tilted at the correct angle equal to the
latitude of the sun at that specific location.
4. For buildings with smaller floor plates, consider installing panels on parking structures
or covered parking pavilions.

4.3 PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

Passive solar panels depend heavily on the design and construction. Passive energy systems
use the sun‘s energy for heating and cooling purposes. Passive solar systems operate without
reliance on external devices. They use passive collectors to convert rays into the energy. The
passive collectors are based on laws of thermodynamics which transfer heat from warmer to
cooler surfaces. The overall success of a passive solar system depends on their overall
orientation and the thermal mass of its walls. Passive solar systems are independent of all the
external devices.

29
4.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS:
1. No external equipment is required, so automatically the entire setup is cheap.
2. Eventually, all energy expenditure costs are down nearly by 14%
.

4.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS:

1. The efficiency directly depends on the weather. Particularly if you‘re living in a hot
area, your buildings have a potential to overheat.
2. Its efficiency is directly dependent on the weather. If you‘re living in a particularly hot
area, there are chances that your building would overheat.
3. You would have to choose the right kind of windows for maximum success.

Figure 13:passive solar energy

30
4.4 SOLAR WATER HEATER
It produce thermal energy to heat water for households, commercial entities, and swimming
pools. These heaters are one of the most commonly implemented renewable energy
technologies because of their cost effectiveness and relatively simple installation. With the
proper model installed, they heat efficiently regardless of outside temperature. Solar water
heaters typically need a backup conventional gas or electric water heater to account for cloudy
days or unusually high water demand.

4.4.1 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR WATER HEATER

1. Collector: Usually made up of evacuated tubes that are highly efficient in collecting
heat from sunlight.
2. Storage Tank: Insulated tank for retaining water temperature overnight; for use of
water next morning.

4.4.2 SOLAR WATER HEATERS CONSIST OF TWO PARTS:

a solar collector and a storage tank. In warm climates, collectors heat water directly, but in
cold climates, a denser fluid is heated and then transported to a water tank where it heats the
water indirectly. The heater can be built to use an active or passive system for circulating
warmed fluid depending on climate and the time of day when water demand is highest. The
maximum heating temperature varies with collector model, but water temperature can exceed
200 degrees Fahrenheit, suitable for commercial purposes.

Solar water heaters can reduce conventional energy consumption for heating water by 60
percent in commercial applications and up to 75 percent.

4.4.3 ADVANTAGES
2 Less space: Solar thermal panels are usually less space-intensive than photovoltaic
panels. Fewer are required to heat water than in an array used to produce sufficient
power for a home.
3 High efficiency: About 80 percent of the sun‘s radiation is turned into the heat energy
needed to obtain hot water at home.
4 Cost savings: The cost of two or three panels is cheaper than larger domestic
installations. You also save on fuel bills for supplying gas heating systems.
5 Low maintenance: After installation, little maintenance is required, and a solar water
heater can run for up to 20 years.
6 Lower carbon footprint: it can be eco-friendlier, plus tax incentives may be available
for using renewable energy.

4.4.4 DISADVANTAGES
1. Maintenance is one disadvantage, although most systems don‘t require a high degree of
care. However, scaling occurs when there are minerals suspended in domestic water,
which build up as calcium deposits in the system. Adding water softeners or mild acidic
substances such as vinegar can avoid scaling. It only must be done every three to five
years, but this can vary depending on the water quality.
2. Corrosion is another concern. In this solar systems, oxygen can rust any iron or steel part.
The plumbing components are more resistant if they‘re made of copper, brass, bronze,
31
 stainless steel, plastic or rubber. Storage tanks should be lined with glass or plastic to
resist corrosion as well.
3. active systems can overheat if the size of the storage tank isn‘t appropriate for the
collector. The general rule is that for each square foot of collector, there should be 1.5
gallons of storage. With that in mind, such a disadvantage can be avoided.
4. Compared to photovoltaic panels, solar thermal panels only heat water.
5. Solar heaters require sufficient roof space to accommodate them.
6. Solar water heaters require direct sunlight to function.
7. The system does not function on cloudy, rainy, or foggy days.
8. Annual maintenance is recommended to check the pump and antifreeze.
9. Installation requires the use of a new hot water cylinder.
10. Also, heating is only provided in the daytime. That does not mean hot water won‘t be
available at night. An insulated storage tank can maintain water temperature so that the
water heated during the day can be used during night-time hours.
11. Cost can be another disadvantage. Oftentimes a solar water heating system costs more in
terms of purchasing and installation, compared to other types of water heaters. The
savings come over the long run because water heating bills can be reduced by as much as
50 to 80 percent. Price hikes, fuel shortages, and other issues with utility-based heat are
not a concern either.

4.4.5 CHALLENGES FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS:

1. Pressure Difference from Top Floor to Bottom Floor
In a high-rise building, water pressure is highest on the bottom floor and lowest on the
topmost floor. This leads to a higher water usage on the bottom floor and a lower
usage on the top floor, resulting in an inequitable distribution of water.

There are different ways of overcoming this problem. For instance, pressure reducing
or flow control valves can be installed on the lower floors to control the usage.
However, this adds to the cost.

Alternatively, a tapering pipe may be used with highest diameter on the top floor and a
small diameter at the bottom floor. While this solution is less expensive as compared
to flow control valves, it is less effective. In general, the pressure difference on
different floors will result in an inequitable usage of hot water, unless expensive
devices are used to control the flow precisely.
2. Pipe Length and Associated Issues
In a high-rise building, each floor corresponds to about 3 meters of pipe length. For
example for an 11 storey building, the apartment on the first floor will require at least
33 meters of pipe. Since the pipe carries hot water, heat loss takes place throughout the
length of the pipe. Longer the pipe, more will be the heat loss.

Secondly, longer pipes also imply a higher cost of plumbing. However, there are ways
to reduce the impact of heat loss. Pipes made of composite materials tend to have
lower losses.
Also, In many cases, buildings already have ducts through which the pipes can be
laid. Ducts tend to reduce the heat loss since a duct acts like an insulator. The impact
32
 of heat loss is best reduced by ―chunking‖ the usage of hot water. If primary use of hot
water is for bathing, it is best that everyone in the family takes a bath in close
succession. This does not allow any time for heat loss to take place in the pipes.
3. Overhead Tanks and Water Pressure
High-rise buildings tend to have very large overhead water tanks that can rise several
meters above the terrace floor. It is these tanks that feed cold water to the solar water
heating systems. It is necessary to make sure that the solar water heater can tolerate
the pressure that corresponds to the overhead water tank. It is sufficient to measure the
maximum water level in the overhead tank to estimate the pressure that the solar water
heater must sustain.
4. Pressure Pumps
Some modern high-rises don‘t use an overhead tank. Instead, water pumps operate on
underground water tanks to pump water at high pressure directly to individual
apartments. The pressure generated by these pumps may be quite high even on the
rooftop of such buildings, where solar water heaters are expected to be installed.
5. Vent Pipes and Associated Problems
It is necessary to tie the vent pipes to the terrace structure using steel wires to prevent
them from snapping during strong wind. When several solar water heating systems are
installed, the vent pipes of all such systems, with associated ties, look very ugly.

However, more importantly, such high rising vent pipes can attract lightning strikes on
the systems. This danger is especially elevated for very tall structures or structures
located on hills. Given the unpredictable nature of lightning strikes, it is impossible to
quantify the risk of lightning strikes due to vent pipes.

Hence, for high-rise buildings, it makes sense to avoid vent pipes when separate
systems are installed for every apartment. Even when a common system is installed, it
may be necessary to avoid the use of vent pipes for certain locations or for very tall
buildings (compared to surroundings).

4.4.6 SHARED SYSTEM OR SEPARATE SYSTEMS

The most important decision to take is if the building will have a common water heating
system or a separate system for each apartment. A shared system costs lower and requires
somewhat lesser terrace space as compared to individual systems. However, with a shared
system, owing to pressure differences on different floors, there is no guarantee of equitable
sharing of hot water among residents. Normally, it is necessary to restrict the use of shared
system to 3 hours in the morning, from 6 am to 9 am. Such restrictions are not acceptable to
everyone due to differences in daily routines. Implementing daily time controls also becomes
an operational challenge.

On the contrary, an implementation with separate system per apartment does not involve
usage controls or operational challenges. The idea is to share floor space on the terrace,
instead of sharing water. The challenge is in preparing a layout so that all systems can be
accommodated on the terrace. It is necessary to take care that long shadows during winter do
not result in blocking the sunlight on any of the systems during the time of peak solar
insolation (10 am to 3 pm, approximately). The layout to accommodate all systems will

33
constrain the maximum capacity of each system. For a family of 4, a 150 litre system is
normally adequate. In the case of separate systems, the pipes of hot water are separate for
every system. This increases the cost and clutter on the terrace space.

Many new high-rise buildings come installed with shared solar water heating systems during
the construction phase. However, inequitable sharing of hot water leads to disputes and there
is a risk that such systems may be perceived as ―failed‖. This problem can be solved by
providing separate system for every apartment. Care must be taken to address various issues
unique to high-rise buildings while procuring the systems. In the case of separate system for
every apartment, it is useful to avoid the use of vent pipes.

4.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELLS

It is an active system in which small panels faced with semiconducting material turn sunlight
into electricity. This material, usually made of silicon but potentially other polycrystalline thin
films, generates a direct current when sunlight hits the panel. PV cells are effective in all
regions of the country, from Alaska to Alabama. Commercially available PV panels are up to
22.5 % efficient at converting sunlight into electricity in optimal conditions, but even in partly
cloudy weather, they can operate at 80 percent of their maximum output. . PV systems can be
tailored to meet a building‘s energy needs by adding concentrating or sun-tracking devices,
DC-AC converters, and/or battery storage.

PV systems may or may not be connected to the electric transmission grid. PV systems linked
to the transmission grid can supplement utilities‘ energy supply during daylight hours, which
normally include the peak energy demand periods. Independent PV cells can power a variety
of individual items, from personal calculators and streetlights to water pumps on ranches and
remote settlements far from power lines. A few utility-scale PV installations have been
constructed although energy production is limited to daylight hours and they generally have
higher upfront costs than fossil fuel plants.

Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers of semiconductors with one layer containing
positive charge and the other negative charge lined adjacent to each other.

Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as photons, strikes the cell, where it is
either reflected, transmitted or absorbed.

When the photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, the energy of
the photon gets transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell.

With the increase in energy, the electron escapes the outer shell of the atom. The freed
electron naturally migrates to the positive layer creating a potential difference between the
positive and the negative layer. When the two layers are connected to an external circuit, the
electron flows through the circuit creating a current.

4.5.1 ADVANTAGES
1. Environmental Sustainability: Photovoltaic cells generate clean and green energy as
no harmful gases such as Cox, NOx etc are emitted. Also, they produce no noise
pollution which makes them ideal for application in residential areas.

34
 2. Economically Viable: Operation and maintenance cost of cells are very low. The cost
of solar panel incurred is only the initial cost i.e., purchase and installation.
3. Accessible: Solar panels are easy to set up and can be made accessible in remote
locations or sparsely inhabited areas at a lesser cost as compared to conventional
transmission lines. They are easy to install without any interference to the residential
lifestyle.
4. Renewable: Energy is free and abundant in nature.
5. Cost: Solar panels have no mechanically moving parts except in some highly
advanced sunlight tracking mechanical bases. Consequently, the solar panel price for
maintenance and repair is negligible.

4.5.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable sources of energy.
2. Energy from the sun is intermittent and unpredictable and can only be harnessed in the
presence of sunlight. Also, the power generated gets reduced during cloudy weather.
3. Long range transmission of solar energy is inefficient and difficult to carry. The
current produced is DC in nature and the conversion of DC current to AC current
involves the use of additional equipments such as inverters.
4. Photovoltaic panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily. Additional
insurance costs are required to ensure a safeguard to the investments.

4.6 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC

4.6.1BUILDING-APPLIED PHOTOVOLTAICS (BAPV)

it is sometimes used to refer to photovoltaics that are a retrofit – integrated into the building
after construction is complete. Most building-integrated installations are actually BAPV.
Some manufacturers and builders differentiate new construction BIPV from BAPV.

It is a truly elegant means of producing electricity on site, directly from the sun, without
concern for energy supply or environmental harm. These solid-state devices simply make
electricity out of sunlight, silently with no maintenance, no pollution, and no depletion of
materials.

4.6.2BUILDING-INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS (BIPV)

they are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials in
parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights, or facades. They are increasingly
being incorporated into the construction of new buildings as a principal or ancillary source of
electrical power, although existing buildings may be retrofitted with similar technology.

The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-integrated systems is that
the initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on building materials and labor that
would normally be used to construct the part of the building that the BIPV modules replace.
These advantages make BIPV one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic
industry.

35
 Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) is the integration of photovoltaics (PV) into the
building envelope. The PV modules serve the dual function of building skin—replacing
conventional building envelope materials—and power generator. By avoiding the cost of
conventional materials, the incremental cost of photovoltaics is reduced and its life-cycle cost
is improved. That is, BIPV systems often have lower overall costs than PV systems requiring
separate, dedicated, mounting systems.

4.7 COMPONENTS OF BIPV

a) the PV modules (which might be thin-film or crystalline, transparent, semi-
transparent, or opaque);
b) a charge controller, to regulate the power into and out of the battery storage bank (in
stand-alone systems);
c) a power storage system, generally comprised of the utility grid in utility-interactive
systems or, a number of batteries in stand-alone systems;
d) power conversion equipment including an inverter to convert the PV modules' DC
output to AC compatible with the utility grid;
e) backup power supplies such as diesel generators (optional-typically employed in
stand-alone systems); and
f) appropriate support and mounting hardware, wiring, and safety disconnects.

BIPV systems can either be interfaced

Figure 14:components of bipv
with the available utility grid or they may
be designed as stand-alone, off-grid
systems. The benefits of power
production at the point of use include
savings to the utility in the losses
associated with transmission and
distribution (known as 'grid support'), and
savings to the consumer through lower
electric bills because of peak saving
(matching peak production with periods
of peak demand). Moreover, buildings
that produce power using renewable
energy sources reduce the demands on
traditional utility generators, often
reducing the overall emissions of climate-
change gasses.

36
4.8 POLYCRYSTALLINE CELLS
They are the most commonly used. Polysilicon is produced from metallurgical grade
silicon by a chemical purification process, called the Siemens process. This process
involves distillation of volatile silicon compounds, and their decomposition into silicon at
high temperatures.

4.9 MONO-CRYSTALLINE CELLS

They are created in a process in which the ingots are manufactured according to the
Czochralski process. The ingots have the same crystal orientation through their whole length.
& have a circular cross section.

4.10 MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON

Multi-crystalline cells Techniques for the production of multicrystalline silicon are more
simple, and therefore cheaper, than those required for single crystal material. However, the
material quality of multicrystalline material is lower than that of single crystalline material
due to the presence of grain boundaries. Grain boundaries introduce high localized regions of
recombination due to the introduction of extra defect energy levels into the band gap, thus
reducing the overall minority carrier lifetime from the material.

4.11 THE FOLLOWING ARE BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR

DESIGNING A SOLAR POWER PLANT. THIS IS FOR A SOLAR
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM.

1. POWER LOAD (SIZE AND TYPE)

This is typically the maximum instantaneous load the power plant must support. This will
decide the size of Power inverter or Power Conditioning Unit required.

2. ENERGY REQUIREMENT

This will give an idea of the power that needs to be stored. It could be so that the equipment
to be powered is a critical load. In this case the battery or power reservoir must be able to
supply the said load for the required time period.

3. PURPOSE OF THE SOLAR POWER PLANT

The purpose of the power plant could be to ensure uninterrupted power supply or to reduce
the dependency on the grid supply. In cases where grid supply is consistent it would be
reasonable to go for a grid tied system

4. SHADOW FREE AREA REQUIRED

The solar panels, whatever technology they may be, must be placed in a shadow free area
pointing directly at the sun for best performance. This requires ample area on the roof or
37
nearby that will have shadow free solar irradiation.

5. BUDGET/ FINANCIALS

Budget is a very important aspect of the design. A typical power plant will pay itself off in 5
to 8 years, but there is a considerable upfront cost to it. For example, technically a battery
system might be required, but without it the cost of the system could come down by 40%.
You could consider other alternatives like a diesel generator or micro hydro generator to
supplement the system.

4.11 THIN-FILM TECHNOLOGY

cells are manufactured by a process of printing on glass in many thin layers. Thin film cells
put thin layers of photovoltaic materials on top of a substrate having a light spectrum within
which they convert sunlight to usable energy. The common types of thin film technologies are
amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenite.

4.11.1 THIN FILM SOLAR PV

Thin-film technology cells are manufactured by a process of printing on glass in many thin
layers. Thin film cells have thin layers of photovoltaic materials & substrate having a light
spectrum within which they convert sunlight to usable energy.

Since thin film cells are much thinner (nm to few µm) as compared to crystalline cells (200
µm) , they are flexible , lighter with less friction. Thin-film PV modules offer the advantage
of flexible, curved shapes and a lighter weight compared to the crystalline modules.

Thin-film PV modules can also attain efficiencies similar to the crystalline modules, as shown
by recent research. The price per watt-peak has also become comparable to crystalline
modules. The above features make thin-film PV a technology optimum for Solar PV Facades

The common types of thin film technologies are cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium
gallium selenide (CIGS) , amorphous silicon & Gallium Arsenide which are detailed as
follows

4.11.2 CADMIUM TELLURIDE (CdTe)

it is a dominant thin film technology with a majority of thin film market share. The cell's lab
efficiency has improved in recent years & may be comparable to crystalline in near future

4.11.3 COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM SELENIDE

A CIGS cell uses an absorber made of copper, indium, gallium, selenide . The fabrication is
by vacuum processes including evaporation and sputtering. Non-vacuum process has also
been developed recently.

4.11.4 AMORPHOUS SILICON

It is is a non-crystalline, allotropic form of silicon and well developed thin film technology. It
is an alternative to crystalline silicon. Silicon based devices avoid drawbacks of CdTe and

38
CIS modules such as toxicity and humidity issues. The silicon-based module types common
are - amorphous silicon cells,amorphous / microcrystalline tandem cells & thin-film
polycrystalline silicon on glass.

4.11.5 GALLIUM ARSENIDE THIN FILM CELLS

It is also used for single-crystalline thin film solar cells. Although expensive, GA As, has
record highest-efficiency for single-junction solar cell at 28.8%.They are used in solar panels
on spacecraft .They are also used in concentrator photovoltaic, using lenses to focus sunlight
on a small GA As concentrator solar cell.

4.12 SOLAR PV FACADES

Facade is the public face of a
building and defines the look
of a building. The facade acts
as a barrier between the
interior and the exterior
environment. The facade can
shield from solar insolation
reducing heating/cooling loads
and improving distribution of
daylight. There are two main
building facade systems
suitable for Solar PV - Rain
screen Cladding (Ventilated
Facade) and Curtain Walling.

4.12.1 RAINSCREEN
CLADDING
(VENTILATED
FACADE)
Rain screen cladding is used in
new as well as renovated
buildings. It consists of a
stainless steel sub-frame fitted with cladding panels. The stainless steel cladding rails and
fixing brackets are bolted onto the internal wall.

The cladding panels form a ventilated cavity with the internal insulated wall .The cavity also
acts as barrier for driving rain protecting the insulated inner wall. Opaque or transparent solar
panels can be used as needed. The ventilated cavity facilitates better cooling for the solar
panels.

39
4.13.2 CURTAIN WALLING SYSTEMS
Curtain walls are supported by the building floors & columns .They are airtight and resist
wind and weather. Curtain walls use aluminium or stainless steel frame & are lightweight
Fitted with transparent or opaque solar panels

Figure 15:solar facades

Solar PV Façade is aesthetically pleasing, generates electricity & helps in better energy
performance of the building. Transparency in Solar PV Façade can be obtained by spacing
between solar cells or see through thin film solar cells. Light effects can also create nice
patterns on the same.

For best power generation south facing walls (also southeast & southwest) are ideal in the
northern hemisphere.

Shadows need to be avoided. The cabling system is designed to integrate with the installation
& remain hidden from sight. The electricity generated by Solar PV Façade is fed to an
inverter which converts DC supply to AC & connects to the consumer.

An example of Solar PV Façade is the City Hall in Freiburg With a surface of approximately
13.000 m², the overall PV output of 220 kWp is generated by a total of 880 solar modules,
using special seamless double-glass modules with the dimensions of 3.5 m height on 60 cm
width, weighing 100 kg each. The City Hall completely matches with the principal standards
of a zero-energy building. Further, it is also possible to use transparent Solar PV facade
which not only absorbs energy for photovoltaic, but also transmits energy to ensure heat &
light gain for building

4.13.2.1 ADVANTAGES
1. Intelligent ways of balancing the day lighting and shading
2. Iconic importance for field of architecture
3. Difference colours and visual effects can be included
4. Regulates the internal temperature of the buildings by minimising the temperature in
the summers
40
 5. Light effects from this panel leads to ever-changing effects of shadows as well
6. Maximises façade wall for energy generation

4.13.2.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. Installation costs can be high
2. Potentially less energy than on roof top
3. Requires complex planning
4. Compliance with a many physical properties
5. Properly handling need to obstruct the view of electrical cable

4.13.2.3 CHALLENGES
The challenges for Solar PV Facades in India can be listed as follows –

1. As Solar PV Façade may hinder ventilation , heating up of the interiors may happen
2. There is absence of integrated codes, standard and regulations in regard to Solar PV
Facade systems
3. The customer and all the construction value chain members have to be convinced on the
importance of Solar PV Facades for the particular project from the project inception stage
till the construction is over
4. Trained personnel are needed for execution of Solar PV Façade
5. Cleaning of Solar PV Façade has to be regular as dirt may reduce the output. 6. The
systems for mounting of solar panels in a facade need to be further developed to facilitate
best angle of inclination without compromising the functions as a facade.

4.14 SOLAR GLAZING AND WINDOWS

Solar glazing is a unique combination of solar photovoltaic (PV) and glass where the PV cells
are laminated between two panes of specialised glazing. The finished effect of Solar
glazing offers a unique aesthetic where natural lighting is combined with dappled shading to
provide comfortable naturally lit spaces.

4.14.1 ADVANTAGES
1. Allowing for filtered view as well as energy generation
2. Potential application as opaque or semi-transparent/translucent glazing
3. Special pv elements used thermal insulators in combination with standard double or
tripled glazing elements
4. Added functionality as sun shading
5. The patterns from the shading generate a dynamic experience of spatial variety
through the day
41
 6. External devices/accessories
7. Sunshade and sunscreens, spandrels,balconies,parapets,elements of visual and acoustic
shielding
8. Potential for minimizing both building heat loads and energy consumption
9. Vertical or horizontal sun shading provided above windows
10. Use of building shading structures as mounting to prevent additional load on façade
11. Potential as fixed or adjustable devices
12. Allows for pv modules of different shapes
13. integration with advanced aesthetic polymer technologies
14. generation of heat in winter for space heating
15. double skin facades assist in cooling of bipv panels
16. possible integration with other building elements for performance and aesthetics

4.14.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. Shadow cast from bipv panels may need filtering to even out light distribution
2. Obstruction of view if not transparent or translucent
3. Advanced/innovative envelope systems
4. it includes double skin facades,active skins,rotating or moving façade etc.
5. potentially more expensive than other types
6. energy maybe required for extraction of heat in summer via echanical means or forced
ventilation

4.14.3 ECONOMIC BENEFITS

1. removal of need for the transmittance of electricity over long distances from power
generation stations
2. reduction in capital expenditure for infrastructure and maintenance reduction in land
use ffor generation of electricity
3. material and labour savings as well as electrical cost reductions
4. environmental benefits
5. reduction of carbon emissions
6. the pollution free benefit of solar energy
7. reduces the social cost of carbon relating to the health of the public and the
environment

4.15 Usage OF PV in Different climates

Today PV panels are installed on buildings in différent countries, although the climate hot or
cold. The thing important is that the sunlight angle comes perpendicular to the surface of the
panel, rather than cold climate. Cold, clear days increase power production, while hot.
Overcast days reduce array output. However, the sunlight angles comes more inclined to the
world surface where the cold climate or winter time exist. So PV modules which positioned
incline will be more efficient in colder countries

42
On the other hand duration of the insolation is longer where the hot climate exists. So the
output of PV module can be higher during the long daytime. The disadvantage of using PV in
hot climate is the high temperatures
affect which reduces output of the
PV. The cell temperature (not
ambient temperature) of PV modules
standardly should not more than 25
°C for efficient performance.
Generally, cell temperature up to 60
Figure 16:distance between facades
°C, a module loses 0.5 per cent
efficiency per degree centigrade.
Thus. PV should be ventilated leaving a space between structures. This space should not be
less than 15cm. especially where hot climate exist. The figure 18 below shows the effect of
heat gain to the PV module efficiency.

it is also necessary to avoid unwanted heat gain from PV modules inside of the building
which affects comfort of occupants. For this reason ventilation cavity should be allowed and
if very hot climate exist this cavity might be ventilated

4.16 TILT AND ORIENTATION

The most important part of the design process is the tilt and orientation of the façade. The PV
panels should be set for maximum irradiation which depends on the true orientation and the
angle of the collection surface.Façade integration might be convenient in some countries, at a
northern (above 50°N) or a southern (above 50°S) latitude. Sloped façades or even horizontal
facades might be more suitable in countries between these latitudes.

In the northern hemisphere, the south aspect is the most appropriate direction to obtain the
maximum yield and the tilt from the horizontal equal to the latitude of the site minus 20° .This
angle comes from the fact that peak insolation takes place in summer, when the sun is higher
than the latitude of the site

43
 However, different orientation gives different energy output. Table17 shows the output of
different 50m* PV arrays in London. The directly south orientation gives highest output on
vertical wall for both monocrystalline and thin-film PV array. Comparison of orientations
according to power
yield of PV arrays in
London, between
south and 15° west of
south shows that,
there is not so much
difference of PV
Figure 18:different types of installation
array's power yield.
Figure 17:angle of sun rays On the other hand
according to the table. PV
arrays give minimum output when they oriented to 45° cast of south. It shows that the
orientation of PV arrays directly effect to the energy output. However, roof integration of PV
is more efficient comparison with facades integration. According to table I roof integration
with angle 30° is most efficient position in London. So roof integration of
PV is mostly preferred than facades around the world.

On the other hand the integration PV into the building façade may have to consider non
optimal orientation. Design tools such as global insolation charts can be used for the area of
construction site to find out the true direction for the maximum output

4.17 USE OF PV IN BUILDING ENVELOPE

The most important advantage of the PV technology is that the readily integration with the
architectural buildings. Buildings give high opportunities with their large surface areas to
provide energy by integration PV systems. These systems can be integrated either into roof or
façade of the building. Also they might be used as a shading glazing element to control
natural daylight. This is the passive way to reduce

Solar gain and production of

energy happens at the same
time. Moreover PV might be
integrated in
attriums,balconies,facades or
skylights. PV module might
be designed opaque, semi
transparent,it might be double
glazed or single which all
depends on the design.

However, façade installation

plays important role as city
silhouette, due to high visibility of the installation. The large surface area can be covered by
44
PVs to provide high output. Nevertheless the main problem is that the verticality of façade
which is the usually sub-optimal in orientation and reduces the efficiency. Also there are
advantages to be gained by using PV on facades, modules can protect to the building from
excessive solar radiation and PV modules can be an alternative to expensive cladding for
prestigious buildings. However. PV might be installed on an incline façade or modules might
be installed inclined on the vertical facades to improve module output.

On the other hand the mounting is difficult into die facade than roof, because of the wiring
and junction boxes, which have to be hidden.The other things that have to be considered for a
building-integrated PV system is the color, image, size, weather-tightness, wind loading,
lifetime, maintenance, provision of ventilation to the back of die modules and avoiding
shading. Facades can be affected by external shadows very easily, so site evaluation and
shade modeling have to be done successful.

4.18 Use of Photovoltaic on Curtain Wall Systems

Curtain wall systems are the exterior wall which does not carry the floor or roof loads of the
building. The dynamic loads are transferred to the structure of the building with the use of
adjustable connection components and thus carried accordingly . A curtain wall is designed to
resist air and water infiltration, seismic forces, wind forces acting and its own dead load
forces on the building

Curtain walls are typically designed with metal- framed glazing which provides
architecturally aesthetic of the buildings. The curtain wall facades can be transparent, semi-
transparent or opaque glazed with the benefits, such as day lighting. PV modules can cover
the entire façade surface. There are two types of curtain wall systems according to the system
of fabrication and installation: stick system which is erected on site and unitized system which
is prefabricated in factory.

4.19 USE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ON STICK SYSTEM CURTAIN WALL

In the stick system, the curtain wall frame (mullions) and glass or opaque panels are installed
floor to floor and connected together piece by piece. The horizontal
transoms are fixed in between the mullions. The stick system curtain walls are mostly used for
low-rise buildings. The scaffolding is used to the outside of the building. For this reason they
are not recommended for high-rise buildings. The stick wall system is the less expansive per
square meter and less complex replacement than the other curtain wall systems

PV installation on the curtain wall is the same as installation of glass panels. PV modules can
be integrated in the vision area or in the spandrel area of the façade.

45

Figure 19:stick system curtain wall

The PV module which will be integrated into the vision area of the façade would be laminated
onto a carrier glass and also it would be a double-glazed unit that is included low emissivity,
solar control or high-performance coatings.

On the other hand an opaque or semi-transparent solar laminate would be used to integrate PV
modules into the
spandrel area of
curtain wall. The
modules could be
integrated into single
or double-glazed
units. Also face of an
insulated sandwich
panel can be used as
an area to be
integrated PV
modules into the
spandrel area of the
Figure 20:unitized system curtain wall curtain wall. The
main issue is the wiring installation
which is needed careful consideration relating the space requirements, access weathering
performance etc.

Figure 21:curtain wall

4.20 USE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ON UNITIZED SYSTEM CURTAIN

WALL

Unitized curtain walling reduces the construction time because it is prefabricated directly in
the factory which contains external weathering elements, insulation, vapor barrier, structural
46
framing, fire protection, vision panels and internal finish.The unitized system consists of
storey high units of steel or aluminum framework. It can be carried out from the floor slab
inside the building so there is no needed external scaffolding .

PV modules can be integrated in the

vision area or in the spandrel area or
the façade as stick wall system and it
might be single or double glazing
and clear or opaque units. Also PV
can be integrated into the
prefabricated panels in factory.
All the electrical wiring can be hided
in the aluminum frames in the
factory under the high control. As the
stick system curtain wall, double
glazed unit included low emissivity,
solar control or high-performance
coatings can be used when the PV
will be integrated into vision area.
Structural silicon should be used
between joints and used as spacer
because as with laminated safety
glass, silicone and the outer weathering seals cannot touch to each other

Curtain wall systems generally are used in prestigious buildings and other expensive cladding
materials such as stone panels or stainless steel can be replaced with PV modules. Also PVs
display building more prestigious, provides good aesthetical appearance and contribute to the
economy while producing electricity. Numerous design options are available and there are
possibilities to create combinations of opaque or semi-transparent PV panels with different
module design.Design
strategies depend on architects
and amount of the light which
is needed inside of the building.
In curtain wall system wiring
can be installed on aluminum
transoms or millions carefully.

47
4.21 USE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ON DOUBLE-SKIN FACADES
SYSTEM
Double-skin façade is an envelope system which consists of two transparent surface separated
by a ventilated cavity that can be natural, fan supported or mechanical. The extra skin can
improve energy efficiency, ventilation quality and insulation of buildings and also it can
reduce cooling demand in summer and heating demand in winter.
Double skin façade reduce the negative effects of the external environmental such as wind
pressure effect, heat, coldness, light, noise and etc.

PV panels should be integrated into the external façade to obtain the highest performance.
Double skin unitized module installed into the façade generally, but it can be installed as a
stick or unitized system.
Therefor the integration of PV on a double skin façade is the same as stick and unitized
system. External skin might be covered with single or double glazed PV modules. When the
PV module will be integrated curtain wall, the double glazed unit could be used which
equipped with low emissivity, solar control or high-performance coatings.
Besides if PV modules will be installed into the spandrel area, an opaque or semitransparent
solar laminate could be used. PV modules also can obstruct the solar gain to enter in the
building and protect the internal environment. While PV modules are protecting building
from the solar gain, they heat up and the efficiency of modules increase. Because of that
reason the air within the cavity of double skin façade can be used as cooling devise for
modules.

4.22 USE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ON RAINSCREEN CLADDING

SYSTEM
Rain screen façade systems consist of panels which are installed with an interspace from the
building to allow for drainage and ventilation. The external layer of the wall provides major
barrier to rain penetration and the ventilation cavity allows for evaporation of moisture vapor

Figure 22:shading systems

48
 and drainage. Insulation can be
installed within the cavity.

There are two types of the rain

screen systems: drained and
back-ventilated rain screen and
the pressure-equalized rain
screen. Both systems consist of
lightweight metal panel, often
coated aluminum. The other
coating materials are also
available such as. stone,
terracotta and concrete.

The rainscreen systems are very

suitable for PV integration. The
ventilation cavity gives

Figure 23:rainscreen cladding

possibility to reduce PV temperature and increases enhancing performance. Also it provides

space for cable routes

The lightweight metal panels of the rainscreen can be adapted as a form of frame and the PV
modules can be fixed into it.
The modules can be framed with aluminum extrusions/stainless steel by edges and fixed to
the cladding rails or proprietary brackets
In applications leaving spaces between building and PV modules provide drainage and
ventilation. Also the electrical wirings installed on this space. Rainscreen cladding system can
give possibilities to easy installation of electrical wirings with its ventilation cavity. Moreover
this cavity provides ventilation of back surface of PV modules (Figure 77).

4.23 USE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC AS SHADING SYSTEMS

PV also can be used as a shading glazing element to control natural daylight. This is the
passive way to reduce solar gain and produce electricity at the same time. PV can be
integrated into the facade after construction but. it is needed
independent carrier construction systems or they can be integrated
into the shading devices of the buildings. Also they might be
adjustable shading devices which are known as louvres and can be
arrange horizontally or inclined. PV modules can readily replace
metal, timber or plastic louvres (Robert and Guariento. 2009). PV
shading system divided into fixed and movable shading systems.
Movable system provides more efficiency than fixed system, but it is
also more expensive because of die mechanical systems.
49
4.24 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Photovoltaic becomes component of building envelope with their additional functions
including weather and noise protection, heat insulation, sun and daylight control.

All PV modules consist of multi-layers included laminated assembly and glass components.
These components and wind-tight outer skin protect building envelope from external weather
factors and heat protection can be contributed by insulated glass which is used for module
manufacturing.

PV modules have good sound absorbing properties due to laminated assembly. The multi-
layers body of PV can supply noise protection up to 25dB

The light control can be provided with arrangement of transparency of the modules. Glass-
modules can be used to allow daylight into the building. The distance between PV cells
determines how many light will be enter to the inside of the building. So daylight can be
controlled by organization of the cells on PV modules.

Also semi-transparent PV modules can be used. Furthermore PV might be used as shading

devices to control daylight while producing electricity.

4.25 INSTALLATION DETAILS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS ON BUILDING

FACADES

Architectural design and façade design of any building determines how much the building is
aesthetic. So buildings and their facades effect to the city silhouette and beauty of it.
However, there are different module fixing and details which are effected to the façade
appearances also city silhouette. These different fixing or installation details give possibilities
to design various facades.
The details of installations change according to module types. Framed and frameless modules
are installed by using different techniques. Usually PV modules are installed to the facade
with help of their frames. If PV modules are frameless, firstly auxiliary carrier profiles are
mounted to the façade and then PV modules installed to them. Glass-PV modules might be
framed or frameless too. If they are frameless fixing systems resemble the other glazing
systems. Glazing beads, pressure plates fixing systems are used for framed modules.
Structural sealant glazing, two-sided linear fixing and point fixings systems are used for
frameless modules.
The table below shows which type of modules fix by using which type of fixing system.
Shading PV systems installed into the facade with same techniques as facade PV module

50
 installations. Usually frameless PV modules are used for PV shading system and. point or
linear support fixing generally used for façade installation.

4.25.1 GLAZING BEADS

Glazing beads is the most common form of
windows construction. PV modules can be
fixed to the façade with windows too.
Glass-glass PV modules can designed with
windows and can be used on unopened part
of windows. The important thing is timbers
must be first drilled for the cabling. This
system is suitable for small applications.
Figure 24:glazing beads in high rise
Because only some part of glass facade are
covering with PV modules.

4.25.2 PRESSURE PLATE GLAZING

Framed glass-glass modules can be installed on curtain walls with pressure plate glazing wall
framing system. In this systems glass-glass PV panels are installed from the exterior of the
buildings as a standard glass sheets with supporting frames. Sealing of all joints in the
51
 framing ensure water tightness. The
important tiling when using PV
element that supporting structure must
be narrow and flat. Cells must be not
covered or shaded by frames. For this
reason distance between cells and
structure must be taken into the
account before the design and
installation. Also horizontal support
Figure 25:pressure plate glazing structure must be not impeding snow
from sliding off on slopping facades.
The other important thing is that any electrical contact with metal façade must be avoided.
The cabling must be installed on shortest path away from the glass rebates

4.25.3 STRUCTURAL
SEALANT GLAZING

This façade glazing as an

alternative to pressure
plate glazing is usually
used on unitized system
curtain wall. In structural
sealant glazing system
Figure 26:structural sealant glazing glass elements adhered
directly to the carrier steel
or aluminum frames with silicone. These carrier frames behind the glass sheets or PV panels,
create facades as frameless and without any support. It brings a simplicity and aesthetic to the
facade. Also shadow of carrier frames is eliminated. For this reason structural sealant glazing
is very suitable of PV module installation. Frameless glass or laminates PV modules can be
installed with structural silicon glazing .

4.25.4 TWO-SIDED
LINEAR-SUPPORT
FIXING
Frameless laminates or
glass PV modules can be
installed with this fixing
system on the upper and
Figure 27:two sidded support fitting
lower edges with glazing
bars. PV panels screwed to the façade supporting structure. This fixing system is used on
rainscreen cladding facades. Also it is suitable for PV modules due to rear ventilation

52
4.25.4 POINT FIXING

Point Fixing is the most common Fixing system for glazing facades. Glass PV modules can
create glazing Facades with energy producing by using point Fixing systems. There are
different types of point Fixing systems.
Point Fixing bolted glazing is the most popular type of point Fixing. The PV glass panel is
perforated and assembled by using special bolts and brackets.
Stainless steel spider Fittings mostly used on bolted glazing .This is an expensive solution of
point Fixing systems. Also it might create shadow on PV modules by their Fixing members.

For this reason other point Fixing is developed by companies as an alternative. Frameless
glass PV modules can Fixed by using undercut anchor on the module back. The supporting
glass is drilled (10 or 12mm.) before tempering which is using on module back. Anchors,
metal dowels and plastic are put on drilled shape.
The PV modules supported without penetrating to thestructure and all fixing elements are
hidden to the back of PV modules. So, smooth façade surface can be created by using this
fixing method .
Another alternative of point
fixing is clamp fixing system.
The advantages of clamp
fixing is the prevent PV
module from damage of
drilling. This system does not
require penetration in the
glass. Frameless PV modules
(opaque or glass-glass) are
fixed to the façade with
helping clamps to the rail
system supported structure.

Figure 28:point fixing The elimination of glass

penetration make this fixing
system economic than others and it provides smooth and aesthetic façade without any frame.

4.26 THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF

PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES
Electrical efficiency of PV modules relates how many sun‘s energy is transformed into the
electricity. There are some principles which affect to the modules output: the types of cells,
overshadowing, overheating, tilt and orientation and annual average daily insolation.

1. The types of cells: The module efficiency mostly depends on the selection of cell types.
Every PV cell has own degree of electrical efficiency due to their manufacturing methods
and structure. Crystalline silicon modules are more efficient than thin-film modules. It

53
 means that the integration area requirement of thin-film modules will be more than
crystalline silicon modules to achieve the same energy output.

2. Overshadowing: Shadowing is one of the important factor that influences the module
output. PV module should not be under any shadow. Even partial shading from trees or
lamp post can affect significantly to the amount of electricity generation.

Also the shadowing effects of neighborhood buildings are important. Building facades are
affected more sensitively from shadows than other parts of the buildings such as roof. For
this reason the distance between buildings should be calculated and possible shadowing
effects of other buildings should be taken into die account.

3 Overheating: PV modules convert some percentages of die sunlight to the electricity, not
all of them. So the large majority of the energy converts into die heat and when the cells
temperature get up to 25 °C, the output of electricity will be lower. Overheating is the
common problem of most PV modules. On the other hand thin-film modules less heated
in comparison to crystalline silicon modules.
The result is every type of modules should be ventilated. At least very slightly space between
structure and PV module should be left for air flow. In this context the rain screen cladding
and double skin facades are very suitable for PV modules where very hot climate is exist.

4 Tilt and orientation: tilt and orientation of the façade is one of the important part of
design process. PV modules should be integrated on facades with true orientation to get
maximum solar irradiation. However, the angel of the modules may not set for maximum
solar irradiation due to verticality of facades.
So as the alternative PV modules are integrated incline on facades or on inclined facades and
PV shading devices are designed to increase module output of facades.

5 Average daily insolation: As sunlight is the only energy source for PV modules, output
power will be more at long sunny days. So in northern hemisphere south areas will be more
suitable for installation of PV modules.

54
 CHAPTER 5
CASE STUDIES

The objective of this section is to examine the practice of solar panels on facade in the
practical world. Through case studies, we get detailed insights into what are intelligent
facades, how they work and how they affect the energy efficiency of the building and how I
can use them in my future designs in reference to the conclusions derived from these case
studies.

The factors that affected my choice of case studies are-

solar panels on facades of various locations

Different materials used.

Climatic conditions, similar to composite climate.

55
5.1 THE CENTRE D´ENTRETIEN DES ROUTES NATIONALES
The Centre d´entretien des
Routes Nationales (CeRN)
highway maintenance
building was developed as
a replacement for an
existing maintenance
building on the same site.
Figure 29:THE CENTRE D´ENTRETIEN DES ROUTES NATIONALES The site of the building is
part of the Swiss natural
landscape inventory as it sits amidst the vineyards of ―la Côte‖ near Geneva. The architect,
Atelier niv-o, proposed a solution that integrated the new building into the vineyard setting
through its dimensions, orientation and openings.

Materials were chosen to reduce the environmental impact of the building both during
construction and use. Minimisation of transport and grey energy were stringent demands.
Heat losses had to be reduced sharply and compensated for by passive and active solar gains.
The remaining heat demand had to be covered by burning wood provided from regular
highway maintenance. Maximising the use of daylight, controlled ventilation and the use of
lake water were incorporated into the design to improve the building‘s performance.

The economy of the building was calculated over a period of 40 years and included the total
costs for both installation and operation over its lifespan. The total cost works out cheaper
than that of buildings comparable in size and
function.

5.1.1 FAÇADE CONCEPT

The south-facing facade of the building is
covered with thermal solar collectors. The
vertical position of the collectors provides a good
compromise between solar gains and
architectural integration. The result gives an
optimum yield during the cooler months of the
year when heating is required. The collectors
produce maximum energy in the winter season which is used to heat the floor of the building.
Figure 30:facades
During summer the system still produces enough
energy for the hot water needs of the building.

The solar collectors operate as both solar

radiation absorbers and as a multifunctional
facade-cladding material. They are not just an
additional element on the building. The collectors
help to meet the economic and sustainability
criteria of the project.

The solar facade is made-up of stainless steel

absorbers. The absorbers contain heat exchangers

Figure 31:facades 56
through which the heat transfer fluid circulates.

The absorber is composed of two stainless steel sheets, each 0.6 mm thick. Regularly-spaced
square patterns are stamped on the sheets.

The front and back sheets are seam welded on the periphery and spot welded between each
dent providing form stability, even at pressure levels of 3 bars. The two sheets are assembled
back to back with the peaks and troughs shifted against each other so the fluid can flow
through the resulting voids. This principle ensures a uniform water flow. The heat transfer is
particularly efficient as the fluid is in contact with nearly the full surface of the absorber sheet.

Tests and experience have shown that the absorber concept is outstandingly efficient at

relatively low temperatures or in mild climates. Under these conditions, the installations give
results equal or even superior to those of glazed collectors. Unlike glazed solar collectors,
they do not overheat. The north facade has been completed with stainless steel elements of the
same geometry. The elements have the same appearance as those on the south side, but they
are made from a single sheet of stainless steel and are not thermally active.

The solar collectors are multifunctional. They gain energy from solar radiation as well as
forming an excellent corrosion-resistant
building element. The collectors withstand the
impact of aggressive climates without
sustaining any damage and they are fully
recyclable. Panels are modular in length, so
they fit the modular demands of the building.

Detailed view of upper connection of solar

collectors to the windows on the upper floor:

1. Stainless steel collector

2. Vertical and horizontal aluminium
profiles
3. Upper tube for heat transfer
4. fluid metal flashing sheet Figure 32:detailed view
57
 5. Window of the upper floor
6. Tube connection
7. Thermal insulation

Collector panels are fixed using aluminium profiles

with EPDM1 joints. The profiles are used to fix
conventional metal cladding. Once mounted, the facade
is watertight and durable.

: Detailed view of joint of four solar collectors:

1. Stainless steel solar collector

2. Vertical aluminium profile
3. Horizon aluminium profiles
4. Tube connection between lower and upper
collector
5. Heat insulation.

Figure 33:facade details

The CeRN building is a good example of a modern, energy efficient building concept.
Ecological aspects are considered as well as energy and economic ones. The architectural
integration into the neighbouring vineyards is exemplary. The facades are multifunctional,
offering both weather protection and energy gain. In order to achieve the optimum solar yield,
the stainless steel solar absorbers used in this project are fully irrigated and have a selective
coating that withstands ageing under outdoor conditions without alteration. They clearly fulfil
the sustainability criteria specified in the brief, including durability, grey-energy content and
recycling. Approximately 12 tons of stainless steel sheets were used to construct the building.
The components used in the project offer the optimum solution to meet aesthetic, functional
and ecological criteria.

58
5.2 4 TIMES SQUARE
Location: Broadway and 42nd Street, New
York City,

New York Owner: Durst Corporation

Date Completed: September 1999

Architect & Designer: Fox & Fowle

Architects,

building architects: Kiss + Cathcart

Architects,

PV system designers PV Structural

Engineers: FTL/Happold

Electrical Engineers: Engineers NY

BIPV glass laminate Size: 14 kWp Projected

System

Electrical Output: 13,800 kWh/yr

Figure 34:view
Gross PV Surface Area: 3,095 ft2 PV

PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon

PV Module Efficiency: 6% PV

Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected

59
Figure 35:blow up of solar panel

The tallest skyscraper built in New York City in the 1990s, this 48-story office tower at
Broadway and 42nd Street is a somewhat unusual but impressive way to demonstrate "green"
technologies. Its developers, the Durst Organization, want to show that a wide range of
healthy building and energy efficiency strategies can and should be incorporated into real
estate practices. Kiss + Cathcart, Architects, are consultants for the building tower‘s state-of-
heart, thin-film BIPV system. Working in collaboration with Fox and Fowle, architects for the
base building, Kiss + Cathcart have designed the BIPV system to function as an integral part
of the tower's curtain wall.

This dual use makes it one of the most economical solar arrays ever installed in an urban area.

Energy Photovoltaics of Princeton, New Jersey, developed the custom PV modules to meet
rigorous aesthetic, structural, and electrical criteria.

Traditionally, solar technologies have been considered economical only in remote areas far
from power grids or in areas with an unusually high amount of sunlight.

Advances in PV efficiency are overturning these assumptions, allowing solar electricity to be

generated cost-effectively even in the heart of the city. In fact, PV is the most practical means
of generating renewable electricity in an urban environment.

Further, BIPV can be directly substituted for other cladding materials, at a lower material
cost than the stone and metal it replaces. As the first major commercial application of BIPV in
the United States, 4 Times Square points the way to large-scale production of solar electricity
at the point of greatest use.

5.2.1 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The south and east facades of the 37th through the 43rd floor were designated as the sites for
the photovoltaic "skin." BIPV was incorporated into the design after the tower‘s general

60
appearance had already been decided upon, so the installation was made to harmonize with
the established design concept.

5.2.2 PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

The PV modules replace conventional spandrel glass in the south and east facades. There are
four different sizes of modules, and they correspond to the spandrel sizes established earlier in
the design process.

5.2.3 PV MODULE MOUNTING AND ATTACHMENT DETAILS

The PV modules are attached to the building structure in exactly the same way that standard
glass is attached. The glass units are attached with structural silicone adhesive around the
back edge to an aluminum frame. An additional silicone bead is inserted between the edges of
adjacent panels as a water seal. There is a separate electrical system for each facade. Each
system consists of two subsystems, feeding two 6-kW inverters and one 4-kW inverter. The
larger inverters serve the two large-sized PV modules, which have electrical characteristics
that are different from those of the smaller ones. Using multiple inverters enables the system
to perform more efficiently.

5.3 THOREAU CENTER FOR SUSTAINABILITY

location: Presidio National Park,
Building 1016, San Francisco, California

Owner: U.S. Department of Interior,

National Park Service

Date Completed: May 1996

Architect & Designer: Tanner, Leddy,

Maytum, Stacy

PV Product: Roof-integrated,
translucent glass-laminate

skylight Size: 1.25 kWp Figure 36:thoreau center view

Projected System Electrical Output: 716.4 kWh/yr/AC

Gross PV Surface Area: 215 ft 2 PV

PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline silicon

PV Efficiency: 11% cell, 7%

Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected

The Thoreau Center for Sustainability is a historic building, located in the National Historic
Landmark District of the Presidio in San Francisco, California. The goal of transforming this

61
 historic building into an
environmentally
responsive structure
produced an
opportunity to apply
principles of sustainable
design and architecture
and educate the public
about them. Within this
building rehabilitation
project, materials
selected for the
renovation included
recycled textile
materials, Figure 37:skylight view recycled
aluminium, recycled newsprint, recycled glass, and wood grown and harvested sustainably.
The environmentally friendly strategy included reducing energy consumption through a
Demand Side Management (DSM) Program with the local utility company, PG&E.

The building has a highly efficient direct/indirect lighting system with translucent office
panels to allow inner zones to borrow daylight from the perimeter. The building is heated by
an efficient modular boiler and is cooled by natural ventilation.

The BIPV system is a highly visible sustainable building feature. The demonstration of this
power system by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and numerous private-
sector partners illustrates that BIPV is a technically and economically valuable architectural
element for designers.

The skylit entryway of the Thoreau Center for Sustainability at Presidio National Park was the
first demonstration in the United States of the integration of photovoltaics into a federal
building. Laminated to the skylight glass are photovoltaic cells that produce electricity and
also serve as a shading and daylighting design element.

The solar electricity generated in the PV system in the skylight offsets power provided by the
utility, thereby conserving fossil fuels and reducing pollution. Converting the DC electricity
to AC, the system can produce about 1300 watts during periods of full sun. The system is
fully automatic and requires virtually no maintenance. Like other PV systems, it has no
moving parts, so this solar generating system provides clean, quiet, dependable electricity.

The entry area into the Thoreau Center is a rectangular space with a roof sloping slightly to
the east and west. The roof is constructed entirely of overhead glazing, similar to a large
skylight. PV cells are laminated onto the 200 square feet of available overhead glazing to
produce approximately 1.25 kW of electricity under standard operating conditions. The PV
Produced DC electric power is converted to high-quality AC by a power-conditioning unit
(inverter). After it is converted, the power enters the building to be consumed by the
building‘s electrical loads.

62
5.3.1 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design and construction issues for the relatively small Thoreau Center system were similar in
many ways to issues involved with designing and constructing much larger systems. The
panels for this project were custom-manufactured by Atlantis Energy to meet the esthetic
requirements of the
architect. The square,
polycrystalline PV
cells are spaced far
enough apart from
one another to permit
daylighting and
provide pleasant
shadows that fall
within the space.

The amount of
daylight and heat
transfer through these
panels was considered
in determining the
lighting and HVAC Figure 38:elevation

requirements for the space. The panels themselves were constructed to be installed in a
standard overhead glazing system framework.

The system is installed above seismic code-approved skylight glazing. The daylighting and
solar gains through the PV modules mounted above the skylight system do affect the building
lighting and HVAC loads, but the modules do not also serve as the weathering skin of this
building envelope.

the design called for the PV modules to replace the skylight

units. But during design approval, local building code
authorities were uncertain whether the modules could meet
seismic code requirements. So the alternative design,
stacking the skylights and the modules, was used instead

5.3.2 PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

The BIPV glazing system consists of 24 PV glass
laminates. The spacing of the cells within the modules
allows approximately 17% of the sunlight into the
entryway, reducing the need for electric lights. The modules
consist of 6-mm Solar hire glass, 36 polycrystalline silicon
PV cells, an ethylene-vinyl acetate coating, a translucent
Tedlar-coated polyester backsheet, and two sealed and
Figure 39:section
potted junction boxes with a double pole plug connector.

63
The PV cells are laminated in a 6-cell x 6- cell matrix. The minimum spacing between cells is
1.25 cm (1/2 in.). The dimension of each module is 81 cm x 94 cm (32 in. x 37 in). The gross
area of the entire structure is 18.8 m2 (200 ft2).

The power produced by the system is converted to high-quality AC electricity and

supplements power supplied to the building by the utility. The system is rated at 1.25 kW.
Each of the 24 PV modules generates 8.5 V of DC power at approximately 5.5 amps. Six
modules per sub-array are connected in series to feed the sine-wave inverter, which is
configured to 48 V and rated at 4,000 W capacity

64
 CONCLUSION

This research establishes that there is potential for substantial monetary savings & reduction
in GHG emissions if Solar PV Facades are used in high-rise buildings in India. The concept
can also be applied for high-rise buildings in other parts of the world as well. The payback
period of less than 2 years is also very attractive. There is a need to include Solar PV Facades
from the concept stage for high-rise buildings to ensure proper integration & minimum cost.
Thin Film technology is a good choice for Solar PV Facades .Saving in land resource is also
an advantage in using Solar PV for Facades. As electrical output of Solar PV Facade can be
consumed in the high-rise building itself, it is a form of distributed generation with captive
consumption avoiding transmission infrastructure & losses. As Green building norms under
TERI – GRIHA and IGBC-LEED certification process require energy efficiency of about
14% for the Building Envelope & 10% of the total building energy to be drawn from solar
power, Solar PV facades help the high-rise buildings in meeting there norms . Solar PV
Facade for High-rise Buildings in Further research in India is needed to arrive at standards for
integration of Solar PV Facades with high-rise buildings to ensure all the benefits of Facade
& Solar PV are utilised. The systems for mounting of solar panels in a facade need to be
further developed to facilitate best angle of inclination without compromising the functions as
a façade.

65
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