IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Research Article

High-impedance fault detection and ISSN 1751-8687

Received on 22nd October 2017
Revised 25th April 2018
classification in power system distribution Accepted on 23rd May 2018
E-First on 22nd June 2018
networks using morphological fault detector doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2017.1633
www.ietdl.org

algorithm
Moses Kavi1, Yateendra Mishra1 , Mahinda D. Vilathgamuwa1
1Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,
Australia
E-mail: Yateendra.mishra@qut.edu.au

Abstract: This study presents a fast, secure and reliable algorithm for the detection and classification of power system
disturbances including high-impedance faults (HIFs). The proposed algorithm utilises mathematical morphology (MM)
techniques, where the non-linear MM characteristics are exploited by strategic cascading of appropriate filtering functions to
form a multistage morphological fault detector (MFD) for the extraction of features necessary for the characterisation of HIFs.
The target features of the HIF are the randomness and arc extinction and re-ignition/unsymmetrical characteristics. The
reliability and robustness in the extraction of the desired HIF features are enhanced by a weighted convex structuring element
designed based on the attributes of power system signals. The performance of the proposed algorithm is tested under different
types of disturbances including cases of HIFs on different contact surfaces. Moreover, the effectiveness of the algorithm is
tested under noise condition to demonstrate its performance of the proposed MFD. All tests are simulated using IEEE13 bus
test system.

1 Introduction characteristic. The most influential of all is (i) contact surface

Any power system fault conditions or events resulting in low fault
current magnitude not sufficient to overcome the threshold setting
of the conventional overcurrent (OC) protection scheme are
classified as high-impedance faults (HIFs). Unlike bolted short-
circuit faults, HIFs normally have high a HIF path which limits the
fault current magnitude. Occurrences of HIFs are frequently
experienced at medium-voltage to low-voltage networks. HIFs can
be grouped as (i) fallen energised conductor either broken or intact
making unwanted electrical contact with high impedance surfaces
such as bitumen, concrete, sand, soil and so on, and (ii) energised
overhead conductor making unwanted contact with tree trunk and
branches [1]. Such contact surfaces provide a HIF path to ground
resulting in a fault current magnitude of typically between 10 and
50 Arms with erratic waveform. While the low HIF current
magnitude may not pose immediate significant threat to power
system infrastructure; nonetheless, a fault condition exist.
Moreover, if a HIF is allowed to persist, it increases risk of fire and
safety hazard for people. Moreover, HIFs introduce harmonics, and
can degrade the quality of power supply in the long run [2],
therefore must be detected and removed within a reasonable time.
The OC protection scheme in distribution network depends on
accurate measurement of fault current magnitude, and then makes a
comparison with a predefined threshold to determine the trip time.
If the fault current magnitude falls below the threshold, the event is
ignored. Considering that the threshold in OC protection is set at
around 2-to-3 times the prefault load current, it is impossible for
any conventional OC protection device, whose effectives are
contingent on secure and reliable detection of increased fault
current magnitude above a predefined threshold to detect HIFs to
suffice [3]. Thus, a scope for HIF detection and classification
technique based, not only on the fault current magnitude but a
combination of other HIF characteristics exists.
HIF characteristics are highly random and non-linear which
adds to the challenges in developing HIF detection and
classification using pattern recognition and other feature extraction
techniques. There are several factors including, ground contact
surface material, weather, humidity, network topology, load
condition and voltage level [4] that dictate the randomness in HIF
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
material, which gives the non-linear voltage-current (V–I)
characteristic and, (ii) surface humidity, which dictates the level of
fault current magnitude [5]. Generally, HIFs most often result in
arcing creating an arc channel for the fault current to flow. The arc
channel can be represented by an arc resistance, Rarc, which is
highly random and inversely proportional to the surface humidity
[6]. The arc resistance restricts the magnitude of the fault current
through the arc channel. The fault current is further restricted by
the high impedance contact surface, whose resistance can be
represented by Rx. This gives an effective fault resistance, Rf = Rarc 
+ Rx seen at the fault location. Different contact surfaces have
different Rx. which defines the non-linear (V–I) characteristic for
each surface material. Rarc and Rx are random, and usually very
high values, which defines the randomness and chaotic nature of
the fault resistance.
For arcing to occur, a separation (gap) between the energised
conductor and high impedance contact surface must exist. The gap
can be represented by an air-gap breakdown voltage, Vbr, which
must be overcome by the conductor voltage for arcing to take
place. Considering that the conductor voltage is cyclic at 50 Hz,
there are two zero-crossings every half cycle, during which the arc
is extinguished at, then re-ignites at about the positive and negative
peaks. Moreover, Vbr retains random value each half cycle resulting
in an asymmetrical fault current waveform with unequal positive
and negative half values [7, 8]. Furthermore, the fault current
gradually escalates to its maximum value due to slow initial
contact separation and maintains this value for several cycles
giving the build-up and shoulder characteristics of the HIF current
[9]. Moreover, the HIF current contains high frequency harmonics
of between 2 and 10 kHz [10].
Voltage and current signals are the primary quantities in fault
detection, and from the foregoing discussions, it can be concluded
that HIFs do not manifest clearly in voltage and/or current
variation. Moreover, the discussion alludes to the fact that; HIFs
exhibit highly random and non-linear characteristics influenced by
the environment and network condition. Furthermore, the physical
characteristics of HIF are specific to the condition at which the
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fault occurred. This implies that it may be impossible to detect all
cases of HIFs based on a single technique that targets a single HIF
signature. Thurs, for a secure and dependable HIF detection, an
algorithm incorporating multiple techniques targeting more than
one HIF characteristic may be necessary.
Some of the success in identifying the characteristics of the HIF
is attributed to the algorithms and techniques proposed in the past.
The systems for HIF detection are classified as either mechanical
or electrical [11]. Mechanical protection using forced grounding to
activate the conventional protection system was introduced by
Wester [12], however, this was abandoned due to reliability issues
and cost implication. Other methods such as lower threshold
settings were proposed [13], which compromised relay
coordination resulting in nuisance/unwanted tripping. Electrical-
based systems extract HIF characteristics in the time [14, 15],
frequency [16] and time–frequency domain [17]. Development in
new and advance signal process techniques allowed for further
improvement in the HIF detection and classification process. The
techniques involving expert systems and learning algorithms
including; decision-three based algorithm [18], Kalman filter [19],
artificial neural networks (ANNs) [20–22]; fuzzy logic and neuro-
fuzzy [23, 24] were proposed. Hybrid frequency–time-domain
techniques such as wavelet transform (WT) [25–27] and time-
domain techniques such as mathematical morphology (MM) [28]
have also been proposed. The authors in [18] used a technique
based on decision-tree to analyse the harmonic current magnitudes;
however, this does not perform well under noisy environments. In
[19], Kalman filter is extended to incorporate support vector
machine, which is based on statistical learning theory to extract
features of magnitude and frequency of the fundamental and some
odd harmonics components. The technique requires a large dataset
for training which can become problematic if good dataset is not
available. The expert systems based on neural networks [20, 21],
and probabilistic neural networks [22] are sensitive to frequency
change and require a large training dataset as well as building
complex non-linear system by learning examples which be
problematic with insufficient dataset or incorrect training. The
authors in [23] proposed multiple techniques including WT, fuzzy
logic and ANN for HIF detection and feature extraction, whereas a
genetic algorithm based on WT, principal component analysis and
fuzzy logic is proposed in [24]. In [25] a technique based on WT is
proposed, and this is advanced by the authors in [26, 27] with
wavelet packet transform and boundary wavelet, respectively. The
effectiveness of WT is based on the appropriate selection of mother
wavelet. Moreover, the technique is not immune to noise and the
effect of DC-offset. The most common physical characteristic of
HIFs is AC electric arc. Arcing most often follows the onslaught of
HIFs, and it's the arcing phenomena combine with among others,
parameters such as contact surface material and weather condition
that defines attributes of the HIF current. Most, if not all proposed
electrical methods attempt to extract features from the transients
present on the fault current induced by HIF for its classification.
The HIF current has a time varying frequency spectrum, which
makes the most frequency-based systems using Fourier transform
(FT) incapable of analysing. Advance techniques using Kalman
filters to estimate the frequency components have been proposed
[28]. Amongst the signal processing techniques, WT/dynamic time
warping holds the most promise. WT is a time-scaling technique
where both frequency information and point of fault inception are
captured and mapped in time. This makes WT effective in
analysing frequency spectrum with time-varying characteristics
[29, 30]. WT-based methods target transients induced by the fault
event. Since the transients due to HIF are subject to the damping on
the contact surface material, and if the fault input signals for
feature extract are taken at the DN substation, it could result in
availability of insignificant transients which will compromise the
effectiveness of WT-based methods. Moreover, Ghaderi et al. [2]
report that despite having significant advantages, WT-based
techniques are subject to (i) narrow frequency support, (ii) choice
of appropriate mother wavelet, and (iii) loss of feature resolution.
In [31] a technique based on MM is proposed where transients on
the fault voltage signal are analysed. However, the algorithm is
limited to detecting the transients occurring only at or near the +ve
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and −ve peaks. As the rate of appearance of transients depends on
the rate of change of the effective HIF impedance which is highly
random, there is no guarantee that transients will occur at the
points on the input signal thus robustness of the algorithm is
jeopardised. Moreover, the algorithm depends on slope detection,
this means the presence of harmonics and noise will cause spikes in
the output of the algorithm which can be easily confused with HIF,
and this has not been verified.
While all the proposed methods have shortcomings, they
contribute to the advancement of knowledge towards
understanding the complex nature of the HIFs. As more research
continues, a combination of different techniques and methods
could evolve into the development of a universal system for
reliable HIF detection and classification, hence the motivation for
the work presented in this paper.
The HIF detection and classification algorithm proposed in this
paper is based on MM, a non-linear image/signal processing
technique to extract features from the voltage and current signal for
HIF detection and classification. The algorithm targets two HIF
identifying characteristics, (i) randomness, due to randomly
changing the effective fault resistance, Rf giving the erratic fault
current and, (ii) arc extinguishing and re-ignition around the
fundamental period giving a shoulder-shaped unsymmetrical fault
current waveform. The proposed algorithm is a multistage
morphological filter, constructed from two non-linear MM filters
called the morphological median filter (MMF) and the alternating
sequential filters (ASFs). MM is a non-linear image/signal
processing technique that analyses the topography of the input
signals waveforms by means of a probing signal called the
structuring element (SE) in complete time domain. The SE is the
filtering signal that provides general functional attributes of the
MM signal processing technique. MM can detect seemingly
insignificant changes in the topography of the signal waveform
being investigated, thus making it convenient for the detection and
classification of HIFs. The remaining of the paper is organised as
follows: Section 2 introduces the proposed algorithm and its
mathematical derivations; Section 3 discusses the application of
morphological fault detector (MFD) algorithm in HIF detection
and classification, in Section 4, simulation and results, in Section 5
discussions are presented and conclusions in Section 6.
2 Proposed algorithm for HIF detection and
classification
In this section, the mathematical fundamentals of MM-based
techniques and the design of the proposed algorithm including the
mathematical derivation of the MM filters used are presented.
2.1 Preliminaries MM
The genesis of all MM filters is two primitive MM transforms
called ‘Dilation’ and ‘Erosion’. In MM processing of analogue
signals, grey-scale dilation and erosion are applied [32].
Supposing, i is the fault current signal input with length x, and g is
the SE with length s such that x > s, the grey-scale dilation and
erosion are obtained by algebraic addition and subtraction,
respectively, defined by the following equations:
iDIG = i ⊕ g(x) = max i(x − s) + g(s) (1)
s
iERG = i ⊖ g(x) = min i(x + s) − g(s) (2)
s
where iDIG and iERG represent, respectively, the maximum and
minimum sets within the neighbourhood of the SE obtained
through grey-scale dilation and erosion of the fault current signal
i(x). All other MM transformers that form the basis for any MM
filters are derived from these fundamental transforms.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
2.2 Design of the MFD algorithm and mathematical
derivations
The HIF detection and classification technique presented in this
paper proposes to use voltage and current signals measured at the
distribution network substation. The measured voltage and current
signals provide inputs to the HIF detection and classification
algorithm centrally located at the substation. The occurrence/
existence of HIFs is detected by continuously monitoring and
analysing the extracted voltage and current signals for changes in
current and/or voltage magnitude and the presence of the targeted
HIF characteristics.
In the proposed algorithm, two MM filters, namely MMF and
ASF are strategically combined, and with the use of the designed
SE to create the decomposed open-close alternating sequence
(DOCAS) to extract the HIF features from MFD signal output for
HIF detection and classification. The mathematical derivations for
the entire signal processing technique in creating the MFD output
are described herein. The MFD algorithm utilises 64 samples per
cycle. For a 50 Hz system, a sampling frequency, fs = 3200 Hz is
required giving a sampling rate, ΔT = 312.5 µs. Thus, based on this
this sampling rate, a sampled version of the input signal for a full
fundamental cycle can be represented by the following equation:
π
f (n) = F0rn + F1sin n+α−θ ∀n = 0, …, N − 1 (3)
N
where r = e−(ΔT/τ), and the first term, Iorn is the DC component
while the second term is the ac component. Instead of the full
cycle, a quarter cycle of the input cycle has found to be sufficient
for fault detection; hence a window size of 16 samples such that N  rise to two stages of MMF in the MFD algorithm called MMF-
= 16 is used. Therefore, let F{n1, n2, n3, …, nN} represent a
window in the domain of the fault signal f[n] to be processed by the
MFD algorithm as a sliding window with each window separated
by ΔT. The manner described herein alludes to the architecture of
the algorithm and the order in which the signal is processed to
create the MFD output signal.
2.2.1 Design of the SE: The design and/or selection of an
optimum SE is fundamental to the MM algorithm in enhancing its
effectiveness in extracting fault signal characteristics necessary for
the secure and reliable detection and classification of power system
faults. The SE can have different geometrical shapes such as line,
square, disk or ball-shaped and may also include others bee line,
curve, triangle and so on. The use of flat or line SEs has been
widely applied in a number of proposed MM algorithms in the
detection of power system disturbances. However, Shih [33]
implies that the use of flat SE in some situation may produce
ambiguous results. While no specific guideline exists for the
selection of appropriate geometry and size of the SE, the choice
depends on the particular application [34]. Thus, to detect the
occurrence of events in real-time applications, the design of the SE
should capture attributes of the signal to be processed. Factors that
determine the selection of an optimal SE for specific application
include type and dimension of the signal, the frequency of
interference and the sampling rate [35]. Moreover, the length of the
SE is defined by the sampling rate, thus, if the sampling rate is
increased or decreased, then the length of SE must be increased or
decreased accordingly to match the change. While any sampling
rate can be used, it is noted that the sampling rate dictates the
window size as well, and thus an intuitive selection of the sampling
rate to maintain an even number of samples in a window and to
perform real-time detection of power system conditions is
desirable. Thus, the general structure of the SE used in the MFD
algorithm that captures the variation in faults signal inputs is
defined by (2) [32].
SE = cos mϕ (4)
where φ = 2πf0ΔT such that is the fundamental frequency, ΔT is the
sampling rate as previously defined are key features in the design
of the SE for real-time detection of any power system disturbance.
m represents the number of points in the SE where m = ((N/2) − n)
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
∀n = 0, 1, 2, …, N/2, and m = 1 is the centre point with all other
values of m appearing symmetrically on both sides such that m ≤ n
must be observed. In the interest of maintaining computational
efficiency, and moreover; considering the sampling rate used, an
SE of five points is sufficient for the real-time application. Using
three, points of the new SE are determined by m = (2h + 1), ∀h = 0,
1, 2 such that m = 1 is the centre point, and points m = 3 and m = 5
located on both sides of the eccentrically decreasing SE with two
linear but unequal slopes. To further enhance computational
efficiency, the five points SE is decomposed into two separate SEs
with three points denoted A1 and A2 where A1 = [cos1ϕ, 1, cos1ϕ]
and A2 = [cos3ϕ, 1, cos3ϕ]. Decomposition of the SE suggests that
the two components must be sequentially applied where A1 must be
dilated and/or eroded by A2 to cover the length of the SE [36]. Two
other SEs designated B1 and B2, where B2 > B1 is composed with n 
= 2 for B2 = [cos3ϕ, cos1ϕ, 1 cos1ϕ, cos3ϕ] and n = 1 for B1 = 
[cos1ϕ, 1, cos1ϕ] are also derived from (3). A1 and A2 are used in
the MMF section and while B1 and B2 are used in the ASF section.
The general SE defined in (4) and its decomposition as
described results in a weighted SE. Moreover, the sampling of the
fault signal results in pointwise weighted dilation and erosion at
each sample by the elements of the SE. Weighted dilation and
erosion are implied in this application as shown in (5)–(8), and
thereafter.
2.2.2 Morphological median filter: The MMFs are averaging
filters that combine the dilation and erosion transforms
simultaneously with the same SE to produce an average version of
the input signal. The decomposition of the SE into A1 and A2 gives
Stage 1 and MMF-Stage 2 where A1 and A2 used, respectively;
such that the output of stage 1 is cascaded to stage 2. A window
segment in the fault signal f(n) is to be processed by the
decomposed SEs, defined by Ak = [ak,m] ∀k = 1, 2 and m = 1, 2, 3.
The point wise simultaneous dilation and erosion of the fault signal
window by A1 are given by (5) and (6), respectively,
DI1 = f ⊕ A1 = max f n − a1, m /a1, m , ∀m = 1, 2, 3
m
(5)
ER1 = f ⊖ A1 = min f n + a1, m /a1, m , ∀m = 1, 2, 3 (6)
m
where DI1 and ER1 are defined as intermediate sets created by the
dilation and erosion process in the MMF-Stage 1, and these are
cascaded to the MMF-Stage 2 where they are simultaneously
dilated and eroded create the final sets denoted DI2 and ER2,
respectively, and defined by the following equations:
DI2 = DI1 ⊕ A2 = max DI1 n − a2, m /a2, m , ∀m = 1, 2, 3 (7)
m
ER2 = ER2 ⊖ A1 = min ER2 n + a2, m /a2, m , ∀m = 1, 2, 3 (8)
m
where DI1 and DI2 contain maximum selections of sets of sums
from dilation operation while ER1 and ER2 contain the minimum
selections of set of differences from erosion operation within the
neighbourhood A1 and A2 in stages 1 and 2 of the decomposed
MMF, respectively. The physical transformation on the signal is
that, dilation increases the points on the signal while erosion
shrinks it. The processed signal can be reconstructed by taking the
average output of the decomposed MMF as defined by the
following equation:
DI1+ER1+DI2+ER2
AvMMF = (9)
4
where AvMMF represents the magnitude transformation of the fault
signal input. It is assumed that the phase angle is maintained. Let
fmmf(n) denote the transformed version of f(n) given by the
following equation:
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 π
f mmf (n) = F0mmf rn + F1mmf sin n+α−θ
N (10)
∀n = 0, …, N − 1
where F0mmf and F1mmf are the DC and AC components of the
MMF average output. The MFD algorithm is based on slope
detection to generate spikes in response to variation in the
topography of the fault signal waveform caused by the fault. The
distortion of the signal waveform from the transients following a
fault are emphasised by subtracting fmmf(n) from the original fault
input signal, f(n) to produce the initial fault detection signal given
in the following equation:
N−1
π
Δ f (n) = ΔF0rn + ∑ ΔF sin1
N
n+β (11)
n=1
where Δf(n) = f(n)–fmmf(n) is the differential fault, and ΔF0 = F0–
F0mmf, ΔF1 = F1–F1mmf and β = α–θ. ΔF0rn and ΔF1sin((π/N)n + β)
are the DC and AC components of ΔF(n) respectively. Δf(n) is
processed further to create the MFD output for fault detection and
classification.
2.2.3 Alternating sequential filter: The initial fault detection
signal in (11) is cascaded to the ASF layers to eventually create the
MFD output. The ASF layers are constructed from two other MM
operations called the ‘Open’ and ‘Close’ transforms derived from
dilation and erosion operations; such that
Δ f ○ B = ((Δ f ⊕ B) ⊖ B) and Δ f ● B = ((Δ f ⊖ B) ⊕ B) are
the open and close transforms, respectively. The open–close and
close–open ASFs are developed based these transforms. The open
and close transforms are effective in the reduction of small positive
and negative regions on the fault signal, respectively. These
characteristics are effective in the reduction of any noise and
ripples that may exist in the initial fault signal. Their effectiveness
is enhanced by simultaneously applying these filters in ASF mode.
The ASFs are hierarchical filters where the transformation is
performed iteratively in decreasing sequence starting with the
largest SE. The SEs used at the ASF layers are B1(u) ∀ u = 1, 2, 3
and B2(υ) ∀ υ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 such that B2 > B1. The transformation
of the difference fault signal, Δf at the ASF layers are, respectively,
defined by the following equations:
OCASF = Δ f ○ B2 υ ● B2 υ ○ B1 u ● B1 u
(12)
∀υ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and ∀u = 1, 2, 3
COASF = Δ f ∙ B2 υ ∘ B2 υ ∙ B1 u ∘ B1 u
(13)
∀υ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and ∀u = 1, 2, 3
where OCASF and COASF are sets created by the Open-close and
Close-open alternating sequential filters, respectively.
2.2.4 MFD output signal: The MFD signal is the sum of
differences between the Close and Open operations, defined as
stages of the ASF layers. The signal simultaneously transformed at
the ASF layers, and the transformed signal is extracted at each
stage of the ASF layer, where a stage is defined by a closing (●)
and (○) operator giving four stages in each ASF layer. Stages 1–4
go from left to right. Let's define the extracted signal at each stage
of the ASF layer as follows; OCASF layer: OCS(○) ∀S = 1, 3 and
OCS(●) ∀S = 2, 4, where S denotes the stage number. Similarly, for
the COASF layer: COS(●) ∀S = 1, 3 and COS(○) ∀S = 2, 4. Using
this definition, and from (12) and (13), the MFD signal is
constructed as given below:
CO1( ∙ ) − OC1( ∘ ) + OC2( ∙ ) − CO2( ∘ )
MFD = (14)
+⋯ + CO3( ∙ ) − OC3( ∘ ) + OC4( ∙ ) − CO4( ∘ )
where (CO1(●)–OC1(○)) = (Δf ●B2)–(Δf○B2), and (OC2(●)–
CO2(○)) = ((Δf○B2) ●B2)–((Δf ●B2)○B2) and so on.
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Fig. 1  Response of DOCAS MFD for a simple AC signal
(a) Fault signal and average MMF output, (b) Difference fault signal, (c) MFD output
showing fault windows, (d) Regions for MFD spikes due to target HIF features
A graphical illustration of the signal transformation to create the
MFD output can be demonstrated by considering a simple AC
signal as shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1a, the input signal and its
transformed version at MMF stages are shown. The average MMF
output shows the edge detection characteristic of the MMF filter,
where the edges of the data windows are visible. The edges are
fundamental to the fault detection functionality of the proposed
algorithm. The difference fault signal obtained by subtracting the
average MMF output signal from the original fault signal where the
edges are emphasised as shown in Fig. 1b. This signal provides
input to the ASF layers where it is further transformed according to
(12) and (13), and signals extracted at each stage of the ASF layers
to create the MFD output signal according to (14) and shown in
Fig. 1c.
2.2.5 Fault detection windows: The MFD output signal in Fig.
1c is segmented into Fault Detection Windows. The process of
summing the differences of closing and opening transformation at
each ASF stages resulted in the suppression of smaller spikes
within the fault window and giving visibility to the edge spikes.
The edge spikes defined the boundaries between the fault detection
windows. A fault detection window has a leading and tailing edge
spikes with one taller than other. The order in which they appear
depends on the fault inception angle and where (in time) the first
sample was taken for processing. The edge spikes are relative to
the instantaneous peak value of the fault signal. Both the tall and
the short edge spikes can be considered, for fault detection,
however, in this application we will consider tall edge spikes to
detect variation in the fault signal magnitude. Thus, any variations
in the height of the tall edge spikes directly correlate to the change
in the fault signal magnitude when subjected to any disturbances.
The designed parameters of 64 samples per fundamental cycle
and a window size of 16 samples gives four fault windows per
fundamental period each having a time duration of 6.6875 ms
based on ΔT = 312.5 μs. This time duration is defined as twin = (N 
− 1)ΔT. The ending and beginning spikes of two adjacent windows
appear consecutively and separated by ΔT. The tall edge spikes
then appear at an interval (2N − 1)ΔT = 9.6875 ms. This time
duration is denoted Tupdate in which the previous current magnitude
(maximum prefault MFD value of the tall edge spike) in the
memory is updated. The MFD value in the memory is used to
monitor the condition of the DN by comparing it with the current
value.
The fault detection windows further serve the purpose of
capturing transient information generated by the disturbances.
During faults, transients occur, and the MFD algorithm generates
spikes in response to the transient that grow inside the fault
windows within the time duration defined by Twin. These spikes are
used for classifying the fault based on the nature and duration of
the spikes as they span the fault windows. For HIF detection, the
MFD fault windows are partition into zones as shown in Fig. 1d to
extract information based on the appearance of the spikes that
correlate to the targeted HIF characteristics. This functionality of
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
Fig. 2  Flowchart of proposed HIF detection and declaration
the proposed HIF detection scheme is demonstrated by simulations
in Section 4.
3 Application of the DOCAS MFD output signal in
detection and classification HIFs
The DOCAS algorithm continuously monitors the network
condition by testing the current signal against a threshold matric.
The threshold matric has minimum and maximum, iThresholdmin
and iThresholdmax, respectively. If the increase in current
magnitude, denoted Iinc is such that, Iinc > iThresholdmin, a
disturbance detection (DD) flag is activated to alert the algorithm
of an abnormal condition. Iinc is further tested against such that, if
Iinc > iThresholdmax, then level 1, (L1) flag is activated to indicate
OC fault, and OC protection system is activated to act on this fault.
On the other hand, if Iinc < iThresholdmax, the level 2, (L2) flag is
activated to initiate the HIF detection and classification procedure.
The sequence of operation and description of each classification
process in the algorithm in HIF detection is described by the
flowchart in Fig. 2.
3.1 Threshold classifier
The Threshold Classifier is used to (i) detect any disturbances and
(ii) discriminate between fault normal operating conditions. A
threshold parameter based on the MFDTall edge spikes of the
DOCAS output from the current signal input is used to design the
threshold value. The corresponding MFD output is monitored for
sudden change in the current magnitude. Since two tall edge MFD
spikes appear in succession, Imax refers to the value of the taller
spike. Thus, let Imax(w) be the MFDTall output value corresponding
to the instantaneous prefault current magnitude in the present fault
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
detection window, and Imax(w + 1) be the MFDTall value
corresponding to the prefault current magnitude in the previous
window stored in the memory. The increase in fault current
magnitude is detected by comparing Imax(w) with Imax(w + 1). The
per unit increase in current magnitude is defined by the following
equation:
Imax(w) − Imax(w + 1)
Iinc = (15)
Imax(w + 1)
where Iinc is the per unit increase in current magnitude. Under
normal condition, Imax(w) = Imax(w + 1) such that Iinc = 0, the value
in the memory buffer is updated and the algorithm continuously
monitor the network for changes in the current magnitude. Suppose
a disturbance occurs at some time t, the parameter in (15) are
redefined as, Imax(w) = IFault, and Imax(w + 1) = IPrefault, such that
Iinc = (IFault–IPrefault)/IPrefault. It is assumed that under fault
condition, the current magnitude increases. In determining the
value of the Threshold metric, it is noted that not all fault
conditions generate large fault currents, hence a minimum and
maximum threshold values, respectively denoted iThresholdmin and
iThresholdmax must be determined. Based on (15), Iinc can have
minimum and maximum values of 0 and 1.0 pu, respectively.
Considering that overcurrent threshold is set about two to three
times the prefault load current, the OC threshold is iThreshold = 
IFault/2IPrefault, such that iThresholdmin and iThresholdmax are 0.5
and 1.0, respectively. To compare Iinc with iThreshold, the
following scaling, iThresholdmin(1 + Iinc) is applied to Iinc, such
that, Iinc_min = 0.5(1 + 0) = 0.5 and Iinc_max = 0.5(1 + 1) = 1.0. The
iThresholdmin in consideration of noise is set at 15% giving, 0.5(1 
3703
+ 0.15) = 0.575 pu. Thus, the threshold limits in the Threshold
Classifier are 0.575 > iThreshold > 1.0.
Referring to the flowchart, if Iinc ≤ 0.575, no disturbance exists,
and the MFDTall value in the memory is updated and the algorithm
continues monitoring the network. It must be noted that the
memory update occurs every Tupdate = 9.6875 ms. If the increase in
current magnitude corresponds to Iinc > 0.575 the activate DD flag
to put the algorithm on alert that a disturbance has occurred. Then
Iinc is checked against iThresholdmax, and if Iinc > 1.0, the L1 flag is
activated to initiate OC protection. The OC protection part is not
discussed in this paper. On the other hand, if Iinc < 1.0, then initiate
the Tdmax timer and keep checking until Tdmax is timed out. While
on alert, the prefault MFDTall value in memory is held, and
subsequent MFDTall values are tested against this value. The
memory is only updated after the alert is cancelled by means of
resetting the DD flag.
It must be mentioned that the periodical updating of the MFD
value in the memory makes the threshold parameter adaptive to
changing network as well as load conditions. Hence, the threshold
parameter defined through this process can be used in any system.
3.2 Timer classifier
The timer classifier is defined by two time constrains denoted, Tini
and Tr, where Tini is the minimum time constrain to initiate HIF
feature extraction and classification using the MFDv signal output
from the fault voltage signal input while Tr is the reset time, also
the maximum time constrain of the algorithm and occurs at 1.0 s
after Tini. The timer classifier is activated if 0.575 > Iinc < 1.0, and
the time delay from the point of fault inception to Tdmax defined as
the waiting time and denoted Tw must lapse before HIF
classification using the MFDv output can be initiated, thus Tini =  MFDShort and MFDWindow spikes.
Tdmax = 15.3125 ms. The waiting time delay, Tw is used to time out
any MFD spikes generated by switching transients from common
power system equipment and loads as these spikes could be
confused for spikes relating to HIF, thus, a timer is set to allow
these spikes to naturally extinguish before initiating HIF feature
extraction and classification.
The timing for the timer classifier, defined as Tdmax is based on
¾ cycles +1 sample, which is also the time delay for the OC
protection system to respond to any OC. The Tdmax time delay is
based on the sampling rate used in the design of the algorithm.
Considering that the sampling rate, ΔT = 312.5 μs and a fault
window is size, N = 16, then ¾ cycles +1 sample gives Tdmax = (3N 
+ 1)ΔT = 15.3125 ms. This can also be determined in terms of
MFD edge spikes. Let tf = nfΔT ∀nf = 0, …, N − 1 denote the fault
inception point, where nf is the faulted sample within a fault
window. The first point of fault level detection, denoted t1 is the
beginning edge spike of the next consecutive window such that, t1 
= (N − nf + 1)ΔT ∀nf = 0, …, N − 1. Since there are five edge spikes,
the last point of detection is the beginning edge spike of the fourth
consecutive window after fault inception, denoted t5 = (3N − nf +  The AC arc extinguishes and re-ignites twice every have cycle. The
1)ΔT∀nf = 0, …, N − 1, such that Tdmax = t5.
Thus, the total time delay in HIF detection from the time of
point inception is Tw + Tr = 15.3125 ms + 1.0 s = 1.0153125 s.
3.3 HIF classification using feature extraction from MFD
output signal
The L2 flag is activated to initiate the HIF feature extraction from
the MFD output from the voltage signal input, denoted MFDv after
Tdmax timer times out. The targeted HIF feature characteristics are
the randomness and HIF AC arc extinction and re-ignition resulting
in the shoulder-shaped unsymmetrical fault current waveform.
These HIF characteristics cause the variation MFD value of the
edges as well as cause spikes to grow in specific regions of the
MFD output signal.
3704
3.3.1 Randomness: The randomness feature is extracted from the
edge spikes, MFDTall and MFDShort spikes as well as the random
spikes in the fault windows denoted MFDWindow and indicated as
Win spikes in Fig. 1d. The edge spikes randomly vary in height due
to transients closer to the zero-crossing of the fundamental cycle
and +ve and −ve peaks, respectively, while the window spikes
randomly appear within the fault windows defined by Twin in Fig.
1c. The edge spikes can be separated from the other spikes to
observe the variation. The edge spikes are defined by the following
equations:
2kNΔT
MFDTall = ∀k = 0, …, ∞ − 1 (16)
2k N + 1 ΔT
kNΔT
MFDShort = ∀k = 1, …, ∞ (17)
k N + 1 ΔT
The appearance of the elongated edges spikes is non-uniform and
random, and can occur at any point from k = 0 to ∞ − 1 and k = 1,
…, ∞, while HIF persists.
The third class of MFD spikes considered in HIF randomness
characteristic are the MFDWindow spikes. The MFDWindow spikes
are generated by those transients occurring away from the zero-
crossing and the +ve and −ve peaks. The MFDWindow spikes appear
randomly inside the fault windows, and unlike MFD spikes due to
transients from device switching and/or short-circuit faults, the
MFDWindow spikes from HIF will prolong and span the entire
length (in time) of the MFD output so long as the HIF persists. The
HIF feature extraction/classifier for the HIF randomness feature
shown in the flowchart targets the regions defined in Fig. 1d to
extract the randomness feature by observing the MFDTall,
3.3.2 HIF arc extinction and re-ignition: The arc-extinction and
re-ignition feature of the AC arc due to HIF is extracted by
observing the MFD output around the region defined by Arc
Spikes in Fig. 1d. The HIF feature extraction/classifier for the HIF
arc extinction and re-ignition feature shown in the flowchart targets
this region to extract the arc extinction and re-ignition feature by
observing the MFDArc spikes. The MFDArc spikes are naturally
generated by the intersection of the current and voltage waveform
once every half cycle. If the voltage and current signal waveforms
are in phase then this happens at zero magnitude of each signal. If
they are not in phase, then at the point of intersection, the
instantaneous voltage and current values are equal. In a 50 Hz
system, this repeats every 0.01 s. A spike is generated in the MFD
output at the point of intersection that correlates to this
phenomenon. Let's denote the point of intersection as Tθ, then the
MFD spikes can be defined by the following equation:
MFDArc = T θ + 2kNΔT ∀k = 0, …, ∞ − 1 (18)
arc remains extinguished for a short period of time while waiting
for the voltage to regain until it reaches the restriking level to
overcome the gap separation break down voltage for arcing to
happen again. This phenomenon impacts the fault voltage at
specific and fixed period defined in (18). The arc extinction and re-
ignition thus causes the MFD spikes defined as MFDArc to grow in
height when HIF occurs. Hence, the MFDArc spikes can be
separated to observe the for the arc extinction and re-ignition HIF
characteristics.
3.3.3 Decision logic: Decision logic is used to test the existence
of the target HIF features. The flowchart shows the conceptualised
HIF feature classifiers for the detection of HIF. The classifiers
operate simultaneously to extract the randomness and arc
extinction and re-ignition features of the HIF from the target MFD
spikes. The HIF features must be detected within the upper time
limit constraint defined as Tr in the timer classifier. A decision
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
Fig. 3  Simulation systems
(a) IEEE 13 bus distribution feeder test system, (b) High impedance Arc model used in the simulations
Table 1 Contact surfaces in HIF simulations
Contact surface Vp, V
1 750
2 1000
3 1200
4 1300
5 1400
6 1500
Contact surfaces: 1 – wet sand, 2 – dry sod, 3 – dry grass, 4 – wet sod, 5 – wet grass and 6 – reinforced concrete.
logic is used to test if the randomness and arc extinction and re-
ignition HIF features exist. HIF can only be declared if both
features exist. The proposed decision logic is based on Boolean
logic and a set of if then rules. The following rules constitute the
decision logic:
Rule 1: if randomness;{MFDvTall AND MFDvShort AND
MFDvWindow} AND arc extinction/re-ignition{MFDvArc} are
present, then initiate HIF alarm.
Rule 2: elseif randomness;{MFDvTall AND MFDvWindow} AND
arc extinction/re-ignition{MFDvArc} are present, then initiate HIF
alarm.
Rule 3: elseif randomness;{MFDvShort AND MFDvWindow} AND
arc extinction/re-ignition{MFDvArc} are present, then initiate HIF
alarm.
Rule 4: elseif no HIF alarm, then reset, Tr, DD flag and L2 flag.
HIF is only declared if both features are present. The condition
for HIF must be detected and declared within the time limits, thus
it takes 1.0153125 s from the point of fault inception to reach a
decision if HIF exists or not.
4 Simulations and results
The IEEE Power Systems Relaying Committee recommends HIF
studies to be conducted at voltage levels at 15 kV or below. Test
and performance verification of the proposed algorithm were
conducted through simulation studies using the IEEE 13 bus test
system which was modelled in MATLAB/Simulink. The IEEE 13
bus system shown in Fig. 3a is a heavily loaded unbalance system
operating at 4.14 kV. Several cases of common power system loads
including capacitor and induction motor switching, a case of single
line-to-ground (SLG) fault and cases of HIFs were simulated at
different points on the test system. Voltage and current
measurements were taken at the substation via the secondary
windings of the VT and the CT, respectively. The efficiency of the
CT and VT have not been modelled, and included in the
simulations. However, it is assumed that the VT and CT have
similar saturation characteristics and operate within their linear
region as the fault current is very small, and both having turns
ratios of 1:500. This property is accounted for in the algorithm by
diving each quantity by a factor of 500.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
Vn, A ΔV, V Rp = Rn, % IHIF, A
900 150 138 ± 10 15
1175 175 98 ± 10 20
1400 200 70 ± 10 25
1550 250 43 ± 10 40
1750 350 33 ± 10 50
2000 500 23 ± 10 75
4.1 HIF model
The HIF model used in the simulation is shown in Fig. 3b. A line
voltage of 4.16 kV on the LV side represented by Vph is connected
between the faulted phase and ground. The DC voltage sources, Vp
and Vn connected in series with respective diodes model the arc
voltage, and have unequal magnitudes. The resistance Rp and Rn
represent the arc resistance, and vary randomly to model the arcing
phenomena of HIF giving an erratic unsymmetrical positive and
negative half cycle of the fault current.
4.1.1 Contact surfaces: In the HIF model used, the parameters
Vp and Vn model the contact surfaces. It was experimentally shown
by Emanuel et al. [6] that during HIF, the HIF current is
unsymmetrical with the positive half cycle having higher value
than the negative half cycle, [37]. Hence, to model this
phenomenon, Vn must be greater than Vp(Vn > Vp), and Vn–Vp = 
ΔV, where ΔV is unsymmetrical voltage. Moreover, it was shown
that, less densely packed contact surface (soil) yields a higher arc
voltage than contact surface with high density. Using this as the
guide, contact surfaces in [38] were modelled to obtain the
specified current magnitudes. Furthermore, the values for Rp and
Rn are specified in Table 1. These parameters randomly vary
between +10% of the specified steady-state values and represent
the effective fault resistance for positive and negative half cycles,
respectively. Moreover, the rate of variation of the resistance used
for surface is 40ΔT, 35ΔT, 30ΔT, 20ΔT, 15ΔT and 10ΔT going
from contact surfaces 1 to 6.
The unequal positive and negative arc voltages and the
randomly changing arc resistances generate non-linear V–I
characteristics in each of the contact surfaces. This phenomenon is
graphically illustrated in Fig. 4 where the V–I characteristic curves
for each contact surface are shown.
4.2 Simulation results
Simulation cases were performed to demonstrate the different
classification process illustrated in the flowchart in Fig. 2.
4.2.1 Threshold classification: Several power system conditions,
including 100 kVar capacitor switching, 100 kW induction motor
switching, 50 kW step load increase and a case of SLG fault were
simulated at various points on the test system of Fig. 3a at different
inception time, Ts. The results of an increase in fault current
3705
Fig. 4  V–I characteristic curves of the simulated contact surfaces

Table 2 Time duration for the existence of the MFD spikes due to non-HIF transients
Event Node Phase Ts, s MFDiTall edge MFDvWindow
Value IInc, pu Tdw, ms
SLG 632 A 0.030 0.4066 1.8299 —
0.4279 1.9257
100 kVar cap switching on 611 A 0.030 0.1364 0.6058 4.6875
0.1111 0.5000
646 B 0.035 0.0821 0.5782 9.6875
0.0721 0.5077
652 C 0.037 0.1110 0.6160 12.031
0.0901 0.5000
675 ABC 0.033 0.1212 0.5455 7.0312
0.1111 0.5000
100 kW IM switching on 632 ABC 0.035 0.1936 0.8713 9.6875
0.1942 0.8740
675 ABC 0.037 0.1942 0.8740 7.0313
0.1950 0.8776
50 kW step Load Inc. 645 AB 0.037 0.1184 0.5329 2.4375
0.1179 0.5306
675 ABC 0.030 0.1328 0.5977 2.4375
0.1313 0.5910

magnitude and the existence of the window spikes for each
condition are tabulated in Table 2. The increase in fault current
magnitude was computed using the process described in Section
3.1 using the MFDiTall edge spikes from the current signal input.
The prefault MFDiTall values used computing the increases for each
phase are 0.1111, 0.0710 and 0.0901, respectively, for phases A, B
and C. Note that, in three-phase switching cases, the values in
Table 2 are phase A result.
The results of the increase in fault current magnitude show that
SLG sustained the highest increase of Iinc > 1.0. This is an
overcurrent fault, and hence, HIF detection mechanism will not be
triggered. The alert will be removed when the fault is cleared by
the OC protection mechanism. All other conditions resulted in Iinc 
< 1.0 which shows that there are not OC conditions. However, the
following conditions including, capacitor switching at node 611 on
phase A, node 646 on phase B, node 652 on phase C, all cases of
induction motor switching and three-phase step load increase at
node 675 resulted in Iinc > 0.575 which would activate the DD flag.
The waiting in the Threshold Classifier defined by Tdmax must time
out before HIF classification can be initiated. The time duration
denoted Tdw is the time delay of the existence of the MDFvWindow
spikes for each condition as shown in Table 2. It can be noted from
these results that the time duration for the MFDvWindow spikes for
each case does not surpass Tdmax = 15.3125 ms which means all
MFDvWindow spikes will be extinguished by the time HIF
classification using the MFDv is initiated. Moreover, the none
existence of the MFDvWindow spikes will not satisfy any rule for the
detection of HIF based on the Decision Logic Rules in Section
3.3.3. Therefore, the disturbances detected are not HIFs.
A graphical illustration of the existence of the MFDvWindow
spikes for a case of capacitor switching, induction motor switching,
step load increase and SLG fault are shown in Fig. 5. In can be
observed that in each of these cases, the MFDvWindow spikes do not
surpass the ¾ cycles +1 sample (15.3125 ms) limit. The longest
time duration of 12.031 ms is for the MFDvWindow spikes for
capacitor switching which exists for about two fault windows
translating to half a cycle. Thus, the Time Classifier ensures that,
any non-HIF related MFDvWindow spikes are naturally extinguished
within the time delay Tw = Tdmax.
4.2.2 HIF randomness and Arc extinction and re-ignition
features classification: Several cases of HIFs on different contact
surfaces defined in Table 1 were simulated at various locations
(Lines) on the test system at a different fault inception time (Ts) to
test the Randomness and the Arc extinction and re-ignition HIF
features extraction/classifications. In all cases, the Threshold
Classification to initiate HIF feature extraction/classification was
satisfied. The results from these simulations are tabulated in
Table 3 which show the time of appearance of MFDvTall,
MFDvShort and MFDvArc spikes of the faulted phases that went
above the prefault value of each category of the MFDv spikes
according to the procedure defined in Section 3.1, however, applied
to MFDv output values. The prefault MFDvTall, MFDvShort, and
MFDvArc values for phases (Ph) A, B and C are, respectively, listed
below:
MFDvTall: 0.4951, 0.5327, 0.4027
MFDvShort: 0.1512, 0.0633, 0.3035
MFDvArc: 0.01090, 0.0130, 0.0109

3706 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
Fig. 5  MFDvWindow spikes
(a) SLG fault condition, (b) 100 kVar cap switching, (c) 100 kW induction motor switching, (d) 50 kW step load increase

Table 3 Time of appearance of the MFDv spikes due to HIF transients

Contact surface Line Ph Ts, s MFDv Spikes Time of appearance of MFDv spikes, s
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
wet sand (1) 602 A 0.37 MFDTall — — — — — — —
MFDShort 0.7147 0.7647 0.9647 — — — —
MFDArc 0.3984 0.4184 0.4384 0.4584 0.5384 0.6984 —
dry sod (2) 603 B 0.35 MFDTall 0.3947 0.4247 0.4947 — — — —
MFDShort 0.3797 0.4097 0.4397 0.4797 — — —
MFDArc 0.3663 0.3863 0.4063 0.4263 0.4463 0.4863 0.5063
dry grass (3) 605 C 0.35 MFDTall — — — — — — —
MFDShort — — — — — — —
MFDArc 0.3784 0.3984 0.4184 0.4384 0.4684 0.4984 0.5184
wet sod (4) 602 A 0.37 MFDTall — — — — — — —
MFDShort 0.4447 0.4647 0.7477 0.8647 0.9447 — —
MFDArc 0.3984 0.4184 0.4384 0.4484 0.4684 0.4784 0.4884
wet grass (5) 605 C 0.30 MFDTall — — — — — — —
MFDShort 0.3250 0.3450 0.3750 0.4050 0.4250 — —
MFDArc 0.3784 0.3984 0.4084 0.4184 0.4484 0.4584 0.4784
concrete (6) 602 A 0.37 MFDTall 0.4997 0.5800 0.5997 7997 — — —
MFDShort 0.3947 0.4050 0.4247 0.5950 0.7950 — —
MFDArc 0.4684 0.4884 0.5084 0.5284 0.5484 0.5684 0.5884

It must be noted that Table 3 only contains the time of
appearance of the first seven MFDv spikes that went above the
lower threshold value within the upper time constrain (Tr). It must
be stated that, there is no Counter Classification to determine the
minimum number of MFDv spikes to determine if HIF exists. The
first seven MFDv spikes are recorded to show the random time
sequence of appearance of the spikes. Moreover, any assumptions
of HIF detection for each test scenario are based on the recorded
data in Table 3. It was noted during the simulation that in all cases,
the random MFDvWindow spikes appeared and sustained for the
duration of the HIF. As defined, the random appearance of the
MFDvTall, MFDvShort and sustained appearance of MFDvWindow
spikes indicate the HIF randomness characteristic. The randomness
is signified by the non-uniform time of appearance of the MFDvTall
and MFDvShort spikes. The non-uniform time sequence can be
easily observed in the time data recorded in Table 3 for all cases.
The HIF arc extinction and re-ignition characteristic is signified by
the MFDvArc, and it can be observed that in all cases, the arc
extinction and re-ignition characteristic is consistently present.
This feature will be present in the presence of arcing.

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710 3707
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
Fig. 6  DOCAS MFD response to HIF
(a) (i) HIF current signal, (ii) fault voltage, (iii) MFDv output; (b) (i) MFDvTall(1), (ii) MFDvTall(2); (c) (i) MFDvShort(1), (ii) MFDvShort(2), (iii) MFDvWindow and (d)
MFDvArc
The results in Table 3 must be tested cases by the case against
the Decision Logic to determine if the HIF condition has been
detected. Referring to the Decision Logic in Section 3.3.3, all cases
except HIF phase C of line segment 605 contacting with dry grass
surface is not detected based on the first seven random MFDv
spikes. While dispersed sustained MFDvWindow spikes were
observed in this case, however, these by themselves with MFDvArc
is insufficient to declare HIF.
The following can be observed from the result in Table 3.
Contact surfaces resulting in higher HIF current (refer Table 3)
resulted in more transients with the inception of HIF thus
generating more random MFDv spikes. This is visible in the results
for wet sand where no MFDvTall spikes are shown. In the case of
line 605, the point of fault is further away from the substation
where the measurements were taken thus resulting in that HIF
condition not being detected. Furthermore, the dry grass contact
surface is overdamped, resulting in almost no transients to generate
the MFD spikes.
In order to make these observations, and record the data,
MFDvTall, MFDvShort and MFDvArc spikes defined in (16), (17) and
(18), respectively, were extracted. Moreover, by separating these
spikes, the random MFDvWindow spikes extracted as well. The
target regions on the MFDv output for the extraction of HIF
randomness and arc extinction and re-ignition characteristics are
specified in Fig. 1d.
Extraction of features for HIF randomness characteristic: The
random variations in the heights of the MFDvTall, and MFDvShort
spikes and the random appearance of the MFDvWindow spikes are
observed in the regions defined as, Tall Edge Spikes, Short Edge
Spikes and Win Spikes, respectively, for the randomness
characteristic. Equation (16) shows the sequence of appearance of
the two consecutive MFDTall spike. These spikes are separated by
3708
ΔT and repeat at an interval of 2NΔT. In (17), the sequence of
appearance of the two consecutive MFDShort edge spikes is shown
where these spikes are separated by ΔT and repeat at an interval of
2NΔT as well. The MFDTall edge spikes and MFDShort edge spikes
are separated by the time delay of Twin (refer Fig. 1c).
Extraction of features for HIF arc extinction and re-ignition
characteristic: The random variations in the heights of the
MFDvArc, spikes are observed in the regions defined as, arc spikes
for the arc extinction and re-ignition characteristic. The sequence
of appearance of the MFDvArc spikes is defined in (18).
The parameter Tθ represents the point of intersection in the
current and voltage waveforms, and under the network and load
conditions in which the simulations were conducted, the time delay
is Tθ = 0.0084375 s from T0 = 0 s was recorded for phase A in the
system.
The extracted MFDvTall, MFDvShort, MFDvWindow and MFDvArc
spikes from the MFDv output are graphically illustrated in Fig. 6.
In Figs. 6a(i)–(iii), the HIF current signal, the faulted phase voltage
and MFDv output are shown, respectively. Figs. 6b(i) and (ii) show
the MFDvTall(1) and MFDvTall(2) spikes, respectively, and Figs.
6c(i)–(iii) show the MFDvShort(1), MFDvShort(2), and the random
MFDvWindow spikes, respectively. The MFDv output shows the
random variation in the heights the edge spikes as the well
sustained random appearance of the MFDvWindow spikes after the
onslaught of HIF at Ts = 0.37 s. The target MFDv spikes must be
detected over the entire time duration defined by Tr must, then
apply the threshold to determine if HIF randomness feature is
present or not. The arc extinction and re-ignition feature can be
visual in Fig. 6d where the MFDvArc spikes are shown. These
spikes will also randomly increase in height due to the HIF AC arc
extinction and re-ignition about the zero-crossing of the
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
Fig. 7  DOCAS MFD response to HIF
(a) (i) HIF current signal, (ii) fault voltage, (iii) MFDv output; (b) (i) MFDvTall(1), (ii) MFDvTall(2); (c) (i) MFDvShort(1), (ii) MFDvShort(2), (iii) MFDvWindow, and (d)
MFDvArc
fundamental cycle. The random increase in the height of the
MFDvArc signifies the occurrence of arcing, and must be observed
for the duration of Tr, then determine by means of the decision
logic if both the disturbance is HIF.
4.3 Noise consideration
A noise signal was injected on phase A at node 672 giving a signal-
to-noise ratio of 46.42 dB on the voltage signal. A case of HIF on
the concrete surface was initiated at 0.37 s on phase A on line 602.
The effect of noise on the target MFDv spikes for HIF feature
extraction are graphically illustrated in Fig. 7. In Fig. 7a, the HIF
current, the fault voltage and MFDv output are shown. The HIF
current is impacted by the noise as shown in Fig. 7a(i), thus adding
more randomness which generate spikes on the MFD output in Fig.
7a(iii) even before the occurrence of the HIF. The two tall edge
spikes (MFDvTall(1) MFDvTall(2)) in Fig. 7b show no significant
difference in height after the HIF, thus it is not possible to
determine if HIF exists. However, considering the short edge
spikes, (MFDvShort(1) and MFDvShort(2)), the increase in MFD
values is profound and easily distinguishable from the noisy
prefault condition. The short edge spikes increased in the height
above the prefault noise MFD values as shown in Figs. 7c(i) and
(ii). The same effect is also observed at the window spikes in Fig.
7c(iii), where the level of random MFD spikes increased from the
prefault noisy condition. This is generally because the short MFD
spikes target transients at the +ve and −ve peaks. Observing Fig.
7a(1), the +ve and −ve peaks are impact by noise heavily than
about the zero-crossing. This shows that the onslaught of HIF
creates more chaos, thus the increased in the height of the short
MFD spikes and random window spikes. The arc extinction and re-
ignition spikes do exist in the presence of the noise as shown in
Fig. 7d. However, their rate of appearance is not regular. Thus,
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 15, pp. 3699-3710
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2018
despite the presence of noise, the target HIF features are still
present.
5 Discussions
Through the simulated cases, it was observed that those contact
surfaces resulting in low HIF current had low level of transients.
Moreover, the distance of fault from the point of measurement, as
observed from the HIF case at line segment 605 on dry grass
resulted lower transients as well. Lower level of transients resulted
in less MFDv spikes. In all simulated cases, it was observed that
MFDv spikes were present. While it is not possible, based on the
decision logic rules to declare HIF based on this feature alone, the
DOCAS MFD algorithm detected variation in the MFDvArc spikes
in all cases.
In considering the performance of the proposed algorithm under
noise condition, it was observed that, while the method can be
effective in HIF detection under low noise condition, at higher
noise level it could be difficult to clearly distinguish the impact of
HIF from noise. Thus, to improve detection under the noisy
condition, the detection delay must be increased until more HIF
characteristics become apparent. Moreover, filtering to remove
higher frequency noise above the frequency spectrum of 2–10 kHz
could improve the performance of the algorithm.
In considering the practical implementation of the algorithm, it
is necessary to maintain precise timing to extract the target MFDv
spikes for the randomness the arcing characteristics of HIF.
Moreover, the phase angle between the voltage and current must be
monitored to determine their point of intersection for the extraction
of the MFDvArc spikes. Thus, phasor measure units at the point of
measurement need to be installed to extract the information.
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6 Conclusion
The DOCAS MFD algorithm presented in this paper utilises the
MMF and the Open-close and Close-open alternating sequential
filters, and enhanced by a decomposed eccentrically decreasing
convex SE designed using power system signal properties to detect
and distinguish between very small, seemingly insignificant
changes in the input signal waveform to extract the target HIF
randomness and arc extinction and re-ignition signature
characteristics. The algorithm has been tested under several cases
of power system operating and disturbances including several
scenarios of HIFs on different contact surfaces and noise injection,
and the results promise in HIF detection. However, it is concluded
that, further improvement can be made by incorporating effective
noise filtering. Moreover, further tests considering the efficiency of
the measurement VT and CT will improve the profile of the
algorithm.
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