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SOLUTIONS
Solubility
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components and its composition and
properties are uniform throughout. The two components of a solution are solvent and solute.
Solubility
Henry’s law states that, “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to
the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution.”
p = KH.x
where KH is Henry’s constant.
Greater the value of KH, lower is the solubility of the gas at a particular temperature. The
value of KH increases with the increase in the temperature. Indicating that the solubility of the
gas decreases with increase in temperature.
Solution of solids in solids.
(i) Substitutional solid solutions are obtained when some particles of one solid present at
the lattice sites are replaced by the particles of the other similar solid e.g. Alloys.
(ii) Interstitial solid solutions are those in which the particles of some solid occupy the
interstitial sites or voids of other solids. E.g. WC, steel etc.
Raoult’s law for a solution containing volatile solute (vapour pressure of liquid-liquid
solutions)
In a solution, the vapour pressure of a particular component at a given temperature is equal to
the mole fraction of that component in the solution multiplied by its vapour pressure in the
pure state.
For a binary solution containing two volatile components,
pA = pA0xA ad pB = p0BxB
The total vapour pressure P of the solution
P = pA + pB = p0AxA + p0BxB
Raoult’s Law for solution containing non-volatile solute (vapour pressure of a solution of
solid in liquid)
The vapour pressure of solution containing a non-volatile solute at a given temperature is
equal to the product of the vapour pressure of the pure solvent and its ole fraction.
∴ P = pA = p0AxA
Ideal solutions
Those solutions in which solute-solute (B – B) and solvent-solvent (A – A) interactions are
nearly equal to solvent-solute (A – B) interactions are called ideal solutions. These solutions
satisfy the following requirements:
(i) ΔmixH = 0
(ii) ΔmixV = 0
(iii) They obey Raoult’s law for all range of concentrations and temperature.
Examples of Ideal solutions.
Hexane + Heptane, Ethyl bromide + Ethyl chloride, Chlorobenzene + Bromobenzene,
Benzene + Toluene etc.
Non-Ideal solutions
i.e., Relative lowering in vapour pressure of the solution is equal to mole fraction of
non-volatile solute.
Osmosis. It is the process of flow of pure solvent from the solvent to the solution side or
from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution through a semipermeable
membrane.
Pig bladder, lining of egg and cell membrane are natural semipermeable membranes while
gelatinous precipitate of calcium phosphate, nickel silicate, copper ferrocyanide are artificial
semipermeable memberanes.
(a) Exosmosis is the outward flow of water from a cell containing an aqueous solution
through a semipermeable membrane e.g., grapes in a concentrated sugar solution.
(b) Endosmosis is the inward flow of water from a cell containing an aqueous solution
through a semipermeable membrane e.g., dried grapes in water.
Osmotic pressure. It is the excess pressure which must be applied to the solution to prevent
osmosis.
Biological Significance of Osmosis
Various processes taking place due to osmosis are:
(a) Absorption of water from soil through the cell walls of roots.
(b) Movement of water from roots to the upper parts of plants and trees.
(c) Various types of movements in plants like stretching of leaves, opening of flowers etc. are
also based on osmosis.
(d) Germination is also caused due to osmosis as water moves into the seeds through cell
walls.
(e) People taking a lot of salt or salty food develop swelling or puffiness of their tissues a
disease called edema. It is due to water retention in tissues and intracellular spaces
because of osmosis.
Reverse osmosis
When external pressure applied on the solution is more than the osmotic pressure, the pure
solvent flows from the solution to the pure solvent. This phenomenon is called reverse
osmosis. It is used in the desalination of sea water to obtain fresh drinking water.
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry :- The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of production of
electricity from energy released during non-spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of
electrical energy to bring about non-spontaneous chemical transformations is known as
electrochemistry.
Strong Electrolytes :- Those electrolytes which disassociate completely into ions are called
strong electrolytes. Eg. NaCl,HCl,NaOH.
Degree Of Ionization :- It is the ratio of number of ions produced to the total number of
molecules of electrolyte.
Ohm’s Law :- It states that , the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference(V) applied across the two ends of the conductor.
Mathematically, V = IR(R Resistance)
Conductance :- The ease with which current flows through the electrolyte. It is reciprocal of
resistance. [ C = 1/R ]. The unit of conductance is Siemens (S) [ i.e. 1S = 1 ohm-1(Ω-1) ].
Molar Conductivity :- It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by one gram
mole of an electrolyte in a solution. It is denoted by (Λm) and its unit is S cm2 mol-1.
Equivalent Conductance :- It is the conductance of all ions produced by one gram equivalent of
electrolyte in solution and it is denoted by (Λeq ).
Cell Constant :- It is the ratio of distance between electrode(l) to the cross-sectional area between
them. [ Cell Constant = l/A in cm-1 or m-1 ].
Debye Huckel Onsager Equation :- It gives a relation between molar conductivity (Λm) at a
particular concentration and molar conductivity (Λm) at infinite dilution.
Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283
Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283
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[ Λm = Λ m - A√C ]
Koulrausch’s Law :- Acc. To this law, molar conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is
the sum of the limiting molar ionic conductivities of the cations and anions each multiplied by the
number of ions present in one formula unit of the electrolyte.
e.g. , AxBy. [Λ0m = x λ0+ + y λ0-].
Electro Chemical Equivalent :- It is the amount of substance deposited when 1 Ampere current
is passed for 1 Second, i.e. when 1 coulomb of charge is passed. Its unit is g C-1.
Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis :- The amount of substance deposited during electrolysis is
directly proportional to quantity of electricity passed.
Faraday’s Second Law Of Electrolysis :- It states that when same amount of electricity is
passed through different electrolytes, the amount of different substances deposited at the
electrodes is directly proportional to their equivalent weights.
Types Of Cells :-
1. Daniell Cell :- It consists of a zinc rod dipped in zinc sulphate solution acts as the
oxidation half cell. In the Reduction half cell, the copper vessel itself acts as the cathode
while the saturated solution of copper sulphate acts as electrolyte. Both the solutions are
kept apart by taking zinc sulphate in a porous pot and putting it in a copper sulphate
solution containing bath.
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Cell Potential or EMF :- The Difference between the electrode potential of the two electrodes of
a galvanic cell is called cell potential and is measured in volts. It is called the cell electromotive
force (E.M.F) when no current is drawn through the cell.
Nernst Equation :- It gives a relationship between the electrode potential and ionic
concentration of the electrolytic solution.
Primary Cells :- Primary cells are those cells in which electrode reactions cannot be reversed by
external energy source. These become dead after use over a period of time.
E.g. :- Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell , mercury cell
Secondary Cells :- Secondary cells are those cells which can be recharged by passing current
through it in opposite direction so that they can be used again .
E.g. :- Ample, Lead Storage Battery, Nickel-Cadmium cell.
Fuel Cells :- These are voltaic cells in which the reactants are continuously supplied to the
electrodes. These are designed to convert the energy from combustion of fuel such as H2 ,
CH3OH, CH4 etc. directly into electrical energy.
Corrosion :- It is the deterioration of a metal as a result of it reaction with air or water
surrounding it. Corrosion of iron is called rusting.
Galvanisation :- It is the process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect it from rusting.
Cathodic Protection or Sacrificial Protection :- In this method, the exposed iron surface is
protected by connecting it to some more reactive metal like zinc or aluminium. The more reactive
metal acts as anode and loses electrons to in preference to iron.
Cell Equations :-
1. Dry Cell :-
Anode: Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e–
Cathode: MnO2+ NH4++ e– MnO (OH) + NH3
2. Mercury Cell :-
Anode: Zn(Hg) + 2OH– ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e–
Cathode: HgO + H2O + 2e– Hg(l) + 2OH–
4. Nickel-Cadmium Cell :-
Cd (s)+2Ni(OH)3 (s) CdO (s) +2Ni(OH)2 (s) +H2O(l)
Electrical energy is converted into chemical Chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy. energy.
Anode positive electrode. Cathode negative Anode negative electrode. Cathode positive
electrode electrode.
Ions are discharged on both the electrodes. Ions are discharged only on the cathode
If the electrodes are inert, concentration of the Concentration of the anodic half-cell increases
electrolyte decreases when the electric current is while that of cathodic half-cell decreases when
circulated the two electrodes are joined by a wire
Both the electrodes can be fitted in the same The electrodes are fitted in different
compartment compartment
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Rate of reaction. It is the change in concentration of the reactants or products in unit time. It
is expressed in mol L-1s-1 or M s-1 units.
Factors on which rate of reaction depends
(i) Concentration (ii) Temperature (iii) Nature of reactants (iv) Presence of a catalyst and (v)
Exposure to radiations.
Law of Mass action (LMA)
According to the law of mass action, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to
the each term raised to the power of its stoichiometric co-efficient e.g. consider
aA + bB Products
Rate [A] . [B]b
a
1-Bromo-1-chloroethane
Light which have all its oscillations in the same plane is called plane polarised light.
Compounds which rotate the plane polarised light in a characteristic way are called optically
active compounds.
Specific rotation–The angle through which the plane of the polarised light is rotated after
passing through the given sample is called observed rotation, αobs. The rotating power of an
optically active substance is generally expressed in terms of specific rotation.
Angle of rotation depends upon concentration, nature of solvent used, length of tube,
temperature and wavelength of light used.
Optical isomerism – Different forms of a compound which resemble in their chemical and
most physical properties but differ in their behaviour towards the plane polarised light are
called optical isomers and the phenomenon is called optical isomerism.
BIOMOLECULES
Carbohydrates
Classification of Carbohydrates:
Sugars and non-sugars: Carbohydrates which are sweet in taste are called sugars while others are
called non-sugars.
(i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide.
(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis,
are called oligosaccharides.
(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis are called polysaccharides. Some common example are starch, cellulose,
glycogen, gums, etc.
Reducing and non-reducing sugars: All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling;s solution and
Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are
reducing sugars.
In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e., aldehydic or ketonic groups are
bonded, these are non-reducing sugars e.g. sucrose. On the other hand, sugars in which these
functional groups are free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose.
Significance of D and L in the name of a compound: The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any
compound indicate the relative configuration of a particular stereoisomer. This refers to their relation
with a particular isomer of glyceraldehydes. Glyceraldehydes contains one asymmetric carbon atom
and exists in two enantiomeric forms. All those compounds which can be chemically correlated to (+)
isomer of glyceraldehydes are said to have D-configuration whereas those which can be correlated to
(-) isomer of glyceraldehydes are said to have L-configuration. For assigning the configuration of
monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon atom (as shown below) which is compared. As
in (+) glyceraldehydes, so it is assigned D-configuration. For this comparison, the structure is written
in a way that most oxidized carbon is at the top. It should be noted that the symbols ‘D’ and ‘L’ have
no relation with the optical activity of the compound.
Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283
Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283
Pyranose structure of glucose: The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in
the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C-1, called anomeric carbon (the aldehyde
carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., α-form and β-form, are called anomers. The
six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure (α – or β – ), in
analogy with pyran.
Importance of Carbohydrates
(i) Carbohydrates form a major portion of our food in the form of glucose, sucrose
starch (wheat, rice, potato etc.).
(ii) Carbohydrates, especially cellulose, in the form grass etc., form a major
portion of food for grazing animals like cow, sheep etc.
(iii) Cellulose in the form of wood is used for making furniture, houses etc. by us.
(iv) Cellulose in the form of cotton is used for making clothes etc.’
(v) Carbohydrates have an important role in living organisms (plants and animals)
as discussed below:
(i) As structural material. Cellulose is the chief structural material of plant cell
walls.
(ii) As a biofuel. Carbohydrates such as glucose, starch, glycogen etc., provide
energy for functioning of living organism.
(iii) As reserve food material. Starch is the reserve food material of plants and
glycogen is the reserve food material of animals.
(iv) In nucleic acid RNA and DNA. RNA contains ribose (a carbohydrate) and
DNA contains 2-deoxyribose (a carbohydrate).
PROTEINS
Classification of amino acids
(i) Acidic, basic and neutral amino acids. Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic
or neutral depending upon the relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in
their molecule. Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more
number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more carboxyl groups
makes it basic and more carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it
acidic.
(ii) Essential and non-essential amino acids. The amino acids, which can be
synthesized in the body, are known as non-essential amino acids. On the other
hand, those which cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through
diet, are known as essential amino acids. The 10 essential amino acids are; Valine,
Leucine, Isoleucine, Arginine, Lysine, Threonin, Methionine, Pherylalanine,
Trytophan and Histidine. The 10 non-essential amino acids are Glycine, Alnine,
Glutamine. Asparagine, Serine, Cysteine, Tyrosine and Proline.
o Denaturation of proteins: Protein found in a biological system with a unique
three-dimensional structure and biological activity is called a native protein.
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change
in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are
disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses
its biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein. During
In the ring structures of monosaccharides if – OH group at C1 is to the right (or below the
plane of the ring) it in assigned α –configuration and if the – OH group at C1 is to the left
(or above the plane of the ring) it is assigned β-configuration.
POLYMERS
Antibiotics which ill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said to
be broad spectrum antibiotics.
Those effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram negative bacteria are narrow spectrum
antibiotics. If effective against a single organism or disease, they are referred to as limited spectrum
antibiotics.
Chemical are added to food for (i) their preservation (ii) enhancing their appeal, and (iii) adding
nutritive value in them.
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