Reviewer in General Chemistry II

3RD GRADING PERIOD

CHEMISTRY: the branch of science dealing with the composition of matter and the changes in composition of
matter and the changes in composition which matter undergoes.

1PLASMA BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE - It is a state of matter of dilute gas of bosons cooled to temperature
very closed to absolute zero1

Kinetic Theory states that the tiny particles in all forms of matter are in zero motion.

3 Principles of Kinetic Theory

1. All matter is made of tiny particles (atoms)

2. These particles are in constant motion

3. When particles collide with each other or the container, the collisions are perfectly elastic (no energy is lost)

Phase - A homogeneous part of a system in contact with other parts of the system, but separated from these
other parts by welldefined boundaries.

Condensed phases - Liquids and solids.

Intermolecular forces – are attractive

forces between molecules.

Intramolecular forces - hold atoms

together in a molecule.

KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL- It explains

the properties of solid, liquid in terms of
intermolecular forces of attraction and the
kinetic energy of the individual.

11. All matter is made of tiny particles.

2. These particles are in constant motion.

3. The speed of particles is proportional to

temperature. Increased temperature
means greater speed.

4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in

distances between particles, in the
freedom of motion of particles, and in the extent to which the particles interact.

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INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

1.DIPOLE – DIPOLE FORCES

- exist between polar and non polar. Each polar molecule Has unequal electron, densities, resulting in a dipole – a
partial positive end and a partial negative end. Thus when two polar molecules are brought close together, the
partial positive charge of one molecule will be attracted to the partial negative charge of neighbouring molecule.

2.HYDROGEN BONDS

- Is a special type of dipole – dipole interaction that exist only in molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded
to a small, highly electronegative such as N, O, F. 2

3. ION DIPOLE FORCES

- ACTS BETWEEN AN ION AND POLAR MOLECULE.

- The degree of ion dipole interaction depends on the size and charge of the ion and on the size and dipole
moment of the polar molecule.

2Two types of ions

CATIONS – positively charge

ANIONS – negatively charge

- Cations interact more strongly with dipoles than anions

- Ion dipole attraction becomes stronger either as the charge of the ion increases, or as the magnitude of the
dipole moment of polar molecule increases.

4.2LONDON DISPERSION FORCES

These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of molecules, whether ionic or
covalent—polar or nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London dispersion forces are.

2Properties of Liquids And Intermolecular Forces

1. Surface Tension- is the measure of the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of energy
required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Two types of forces are involved in surface tension:

1. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid molecules).

2. Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water and in the particles that make up
the glass tube).

2. Capillary Action - the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small openings.
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3.Viscosity- is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.3

4. Vapor- A gaseous substance that exist naturally as a liquid or solid at normal temperature3.

5. Vapor Pressure of a Liquid- The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid.

6. Boiling Point- The temperature at which a liquid boils.

- The boiling point of a liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm is called the normal boiling point.

MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: The amount of heat necessary to boil (or condense) 1.00 mole of a substance
at its boiling point.

Note the two important factors:

1) It's 1.00 mole of a substance

2) there is no temperature change

 Every substance has its own molar

heat of vaporization.

 The unit for the molar heat of

vaporization is kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol). Sometimes the unit J/g is
used. In that case, it is referred to as
the heat of vaporization, the term
'molar' being eliminated.

 The molar heat of vaporization

equation looks like this:

q = (ΔHvap) (mass/molar mass

Note: The molar heat of vaporization for water is 40.7 kJ/mol. To get the heat of vaporization, you simply divide
the molar heat by 18.015 g/mol. (40.7 kJ/mol) = (2259 J/g)3

Properties of Solid and Intermolecular Forces 3

2 TYPES OF SOLIDS

1. Amorphous solids

Have a random orientation of particles. They are considered super-cooled liquids where molecules are arranged
in a random manner similar to the liquid state. 3

Examples of amorphous solids are glass, plastic, coal, and rubber3

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2. Crystalline solids

Are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices. The ordered arrangement of their units maximizes the space
they occupy and are essentially incompressible. 4

Examples of crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite, and
sugar (C12H22O11). 4

4 Types of Crystals

 1. METALLIC CRYSTALS

The crystal is held together by electrostatic interactions between the cations and delocalized electron.
These interactions are called metallic bonds. 4

 Dense

 High melting point

 Good electrical conductor

 Malleable and ductile

 2. IONIC CRYSTALS

Ionic crystals are made of ions (cations and anions). These ions form strong electrostatic interactions that hold
the crystal lattice together. 4

 Hard

 High melting point

 Poor electrical conductor in the solid state

 Good electrical conductor in the molten state.

 3. MOLECULAR CRYSTALS

Molecular crystals are made of atoms, such as in noble gases, or molecules, such as in sugar (C12H22O11), iodine
(I2), and naphthalene (C10H8). The atoms or molecules are held together by a mix of hydrogen bonding/ dipole-
dipole and dispersion forces, and these are the attractive forces that are broken when the crystal melts. Hence,
most molecular crystals have relatively low melting points.4

 Sof

 Low melting point

 Poor electrical conductor

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  Poor heat conductor

 Brittle

 4. COVALENT NETWORK CRYSTALS

Covalent network crystals are made of atoms in

which each atom is covalently bonded to its
nearest neighbors. The atoms can be made of
one type of atom or can be made of different
atoms. 5

 High

 Very high melting points

 Poor electrical conductor

 Poor heat conductor

 Brittle

Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

Phase Changes- are transformations of matter from one physical state to another.5

Physical Properties of Solutions; Types of

Solutions and Energy of Solution Formation 5

How Does a Solution Form

If an ionic salt is soluble in water, it is because the

iondipole interactions are strong enough to
overcome the lattice energy of the salt crystal.5

Factors Affecting Solubility

• Chemists use the axiom “like dissolves like."

–Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.

–Nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar solvents5

- The more similar the intermolecular attractions, the more likely one substance is to be soluble in another.5

 Gases in Solution

• The solubility of liquids and solids does not change appreciably with pressure.

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 • The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its pressure6

 Temperature

Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in liquid solvents increases with increasing temperature.6

 Colligative Properties

• Changes in colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles present, not on the identityof
the solute particles.

• Among colligative properties are

– Vapor pressure lowering

– Boiling point elevation

– Melting point depression

– Osmotic pressure

 Vapor Pressure
Because of solute-solvent intermolecular attraction, higher concentrations of nonvolatile solutes make it
harder for solvent to escape to the vapor phase.6
 Osmosis
In osmosis, there is net movement of solvent from the area of higher solvent concentration (lower solute
concentration) to the are of lower solvent concentration (higher solute concentration).6

Boiling Point Elevation- The change in boiling point is proportional to the molality of the solution:

- Tb = Kb • m • i6

Freezing Point Depression- The change in freezing point can be found similarly:

- Tf = Kf • m • i