PROJECT FILE

PMS PUBLIC SCHOOL

Name of the Candidate-Aditya Trivedy

Class – X-E
Roll No. – 02
Lessons Covered – Introduction to Internet,
Applications of Internet, Cyber Ethics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In this file we’ll be talking about the chapters of our textbook. We’ll
be learning about the world of internet in short. We’ll first talk about
Introduction to Internet which is our first topic, secondly we’ll get to
know about the Applications of Internet and last but not the least
we’ll learn about what precautions should we take while using the
internet in the topic the Cyber Ethics. Here we’ll be discussing all
these topics in short just like a summary of any long story.

INDEX
S. NO. CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

2. APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET

3. CYBER ETHICS
 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET
HISTORY OF INTERNET
The rapid development of Internet started at the early 1960, paralleled with the
developments of the computers. Those scientists and researcher started to realize a great
vision, a future that everyone will be able to communicate by using their computers.
J.C.R. Licklider of MIT, first proposed a global network of computers in 1962 and followed
by Leonard Kleinrock from MIT, who published the first paper on packet switching theory.
ARPANET, which is the former of Internet, was a project launched by Military Department
of USA. It was brought online at Oct 29, 1969 by Charley Kline at UCLA, when he
attempted to perform a remote login from UCLA to SRI. In order to get attentions from
public, they made the first public demonstration of ARPANET at an international
conference at October 1972.
The initial ARPANET was a single, closed network. In order to communicate with an
ARPANET, one had to be attached to another ARPANET IMP (interface message
processor). Hence, the disadvantages of single network were realized and lead the
development of open-architecture network and also different protocols of
internetworking, which enable multiple networks can be joined together. E-mail was
adapted for ARPANET by Ray Tomlinson of BBN in 1972. The telnet protocol, enabling
logging on to a remote computer, was published as a Request for Comments (RFC) in
1972. RFC's are a means of sharing developmental work throughout community. The FTP
protocol, enabling file transfers between Internet sites, was published as an RFC in 1973,
and from then on RFC's were available electronically to anyone who had use of the FTP

protocol.
Before the TCP/IP protocol was introduced by Bob Kahn, the networking protocols used
for the ARPANET was NCP, Network Control Protocols. NCP did not have the ability to
address networks further downstream than a destination IMP on ARPANET. By 1980, the
Internet had reached a certain level of maturity and started too exposed to public usage
more and more often. At the same time, French launched the Minitel project to bring
data networking into everyone’s home by gave away a free terminal to each household
requested.
At the 1990s, the Internet predecessor, ARPANET finally came to an end, and replaced by
the NSFNET which serve as a backbone connecting regional networks in USA. However,
the most significant changes of Internet at 1990s was the World Wide Web (WWW)
application which truly brought Internet to our daily life. Various technologies such as
VoIP, HTML, web browsers with graphical user interfaces, P2P file sharing, and instant
messaging which is very familiar to us nowadays.
GOVERNANCE OF INTERNET
The Internet is a global network that comprises many voluntarily interconnected
autonomous networks. It operates without a central governing body. The technical
underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated
international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical
expertise. To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces of the Internet are
administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet
technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. ICANN
coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain
names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port numbers in the transport
protocols, and many other parameters. Globally unified name spaces are essential for
maintaining the global reach of the Internet. This role of ICANN distinguishes it as perhaps
the only central coordinating body for the global Internet.

Regional Internet registries (RIRs) where established for five regions of the world.
The African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa, the American Registry for
Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America, the Asia-Pacific Network Information
Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific region, the Latin American and Caribbean
Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America and the Caribbean region, and
the Réseaux IP Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe,
the Middle East, and Central Asia were delegated to assign Internet Protocol address
blocks and other Internet parameters to local registries, such as Internet service providers,
from a designated pool of addresses set aside for each region.
The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of
the United States Department of Commerce, had final approval over changes to the DNS
root zone until the IANA stewardship transition on 1 October 2016.The Internet
Society (ISOC) was founded in 1992 with a mission to "assure the open development,
evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world". Its
members include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations, organizations,
governments, and universities. Among other activities ISOC provides an administrative
home for a number of less formally organized groups that are involved in developing and
managing the Internet, including: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet
Architecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research
Task Force (IRTF), and Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). On 16 November 2005, the
United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis established
the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.
INFRASTRUCTURE
The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components
and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. As with
any computer network, the Internet physically consists of routers, media (such as cabling
and radio links), repeaters, modems etc. However, as an example of internetworking,
many of the network nodes are not necessarily internet equipment per se, the internet
packets are carried by other full-fledged networking protocols with the Internet acting as
a homogeneous networking standard, running across heterogeneous hardware, with the
packets guided to their destinations by IP routers.

ACCESS

Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a

computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optics or
copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular telephone technology (e.g. 3G, 4G). The Internet
may often be accessed from computers in libraries and Internet cafes. Internet access
points exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms are
used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many
hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely
accessed for various usages, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment. Wi-
Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks. Hotspots providing
such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where users need to bring their own wireless devices such
as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-
based.

MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) estimated that, by the end of 2017, 48%
of individual users regularly connect to the Internet, up from 34% in 2012. Mobile
Internet connectivity has played an important role in expanding access in recent years
especially in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa.[The number of unique mobile cellular
subscriptions increased from 3.89 billion in 2012 to 4.83 billion in 2016, two-thirds of the
world's population, with more than half of subscriptions located in Asia and the Pacific.
The number of subscriptions is predicted to rise to 5.69 billion users in 2020. As of 2016,
almost 60% of the world's population had access to a 4G broadband cellular network, up
from almost 50% in 2015 and 11% in 2012. The limits that users face on accessing
information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of fragmentation of
the Internet. Fragmentation restricts access to media content and tends to affect poorest

users the most.

Zero-rating, the practice of Internet service providers allowing users free connectivity to
access specific content or applications without cost, has offered opportunities to
surmount economic hurdles, but has also been accused by its critics as creating a two-
tiered Internet. To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in
the concept of 'equal rating' and is being tested in experiments
by Mozilla and Orange in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content
and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. A study published by Chatham
House, 15 out of 19 countries researched in Latin America had some kind of hybrid or
zero-rated product offered. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to
choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered
as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans.
A study of eight countries in the Global South found that zero-rated data plans exist in
every country, although there is a great range in the frequency with which they are
offered and actually used in each. The study looked at the top three to five carriers by
market share in Bangladesh, Colombia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Peru and
Philippines.</ref> Across the 181 plans examined, 13 per cent were offering zero-rated
services. Another study, covering Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa,
found Facebook's Free Basics and Wikipedia Zero to be the most commonly zero-rated
content.

INTERNET PROTOCOL
The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP). IP
enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself. Two versions of the
Internet Protocol exist, IPV4 and IPV6.

IP ADDRESSES
The Internet provides addressing systems, including IP addresses, for computers on the
network. IP addresses are used by the Internet infrastructure to direct internet packets to
their destinations. They consist of fixed-length numbers, which are found within the
packet.
Users generally enter domain names (e.g. "en.wikipedia.org") instead of IP addresses
because they are easier to remember, they are converted by the Domain Name
System (DNS) into IP addresses which are more efficient for routing purposes.
IP addresses are generally assigned either automatically via DHCP, or are configured.

IPV4

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. Internet

Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and
is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ≈4.3 billion (109) hosts. However,
the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its
final stage in 2011, when the global IPv4 address allocation pool was exhausted.

IPV6
Because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a
new version of IP IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger
addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 uses 128 bits for
the IP address and was standardized in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since
the mid-2000s. IPv6 is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet
address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and
conversion.
IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel
version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. Thus, translation facilities
must exist for internetworking or nodes must have duplicate networking software for both
networks. Essentially all modern computer operating systems support both versions of the
Internet Protocol. Network infrastructure, however, has been lagging in this development.
Aside from the complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the
Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts, e.g., peering
agreements, and by technical specifications or protocols that describe the exchange of
data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing
policies.

TCP (TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL)

It is responsible for breaking the data down into small parts called as packets before they
can be sent over a network. It also takes care of assembling the packets again at the
destination. If a data in a packet is garbled, then the TCP requests the sender to resend
the packet. The different packets may or may not take the same route to the destination.

HTTP (HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

It takes care of the communication between a web server and a web browser. HTTP is
used for sending requests from a web client to a web server, returning data from the
server back to the client.

FTP (FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

FTP takes care of transmission of files between different computers. FTP can transfer files
between any computers that have an Internet Connection and also transfers files
between computers using totally different operating systems. FTP is the language that
computers use to transfer or share files to and from each other on a TCP/IP network. You
can use FTP client to log into an FTP server and navigate the server’s folder structure to
exchange files. You can modify or delete files at the server.

SSH (SECURE SHELL)

A Secure Shell Protocol is a method for secure remote login from one computer to
another. It was originally developed by Tatu Ylonen in 1995 in response to the hacking
incident in the Finnish university network. It provides several alternative options for strong
authentication. It uses strong encryption to protect the security and integrity of the data
being transferred.

SFTP (SECURE FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

SFTP is also known as Secure File Transfer Protocol. It runs over the SSH protocol. It supports
the full security and authentication functionality of SSH. It is quickly replacing FTP/s for file
transfers. It provides all the functionality offered by these protocols, but in a more secure
and reliable manner and with easier configuration.

SCP (SECURE COPY PROTOCOL)

The SCP is a network protocol, based on the BSD RCP (remote copy program) protocol,
which supports file transfers between hosts on a network. SCP uses Secure Shell (SSH) for
data transfer and uses the same mechanisms for authentications, thereby ensuring the
authenticity and confidentiality of the data in transit.

TELNET (TERMINAL NETWORK)

Telnet is a network protocol used with TCP/IP networks such as the internet to connect to
connect to remote computers. Telnet was created and launched in 1969.

WEB ADDRESS
An internet is network which has millions of computers are connected together. Each
computer on the network is called a node. Each node needs an identification for proper
communication on the internet. An internet address uniquely identifies a node on the
internet without which it can’t be reached by other computers. Internet address may also
refer to the name or IP address of a web site (URL).

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

There are millions of websites and it is difficult to remember the 12 digit IP address for
each. Hence, a character based naming system, Domain Name System (DNS) is used.
When you enter a domain name, its IP address will be resolved by Domain Name
Resolvers (DNR). They locate the IP address of the required domain and the process is
known as Domain Name Resolution.

URL

Uniform Resource Locator is the unique address of each web page. You can access the
webpage quickly if you know its URL.

APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET
 Communication by e-mail, chatting, video conferencing etc.
 Research by students, doctors, scientists and teachers
 Entertainment-listening to music, watching movies, playing games etc.
 Social Networking using Facebook, Twitter etc.
 E-commerce through various shopping sites, ticket booking etc.
 Online banking and payment of bills.

THE SECURITY FACTOR

Internet resources, hardware, and software components are the target of criminal or
malicious attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause interruptions, commit fraud,
engage in blackmail or access private information.

MALWARE
Malware is malicious software used and distributed via the Internet. It includes computer
viruses which are copied with the help of humans, computer worms which copy
themselves automatically, software for denial of service attacks, ransomware, botnets,
and spyware that reports on the activity and typing of users. Usually, these activities
constitute cybercrime. Defence theorists have also speculated about the possibilities
of cyber warfare using similar methods on a large scale.
SURVEILLANCE

The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on
the Internet. In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance for
Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic,
instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring
by Federal law enforcement agencies. Packet capture is the monitoring of data traffic on
a computer network. Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up
messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called
"packets", which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their
destination, where they are assembled back into a complete "message" again. Packet
Capture Appliance intercepts these packets as they are traveling through the network, in
order to examine their contents using other programs. A packet capture is an
information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool. That is it gathers "messages" but it
does not analyse them and figure out what they mean. Other programs are needed to
perform traffic analysis and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful
information. Under the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act all U.S.
telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniffing technology to allow
Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to intercept all of their
customers' broadband Internet and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) traffic.

CENSORSHIP
Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, Mainland China, Saudi
Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, restrict access to content on the Internet within their
territories, especially to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword
filters.
In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service providers have
voluntarily agreed to restrict access to sites listed by authorities. While this list of forbidden
resources is supposed to contain only known child pornography sites, the content of the
list is secret. Many countries, including the United States, have enacted laws against the
possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography, via the Internet,
but do not mandate filter software. Many free or commercially available software
programs, called content-control software are available to users to block offensive
websites on individual computers or networks, in order to limit access by children to
pornographic material or depiction of violence.
 APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET
The internet with its cutting edge technology to connect people and computers
throughout the world has taken the world by a storm. The internet is a network of networks
that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks.
These networks range from local to global. They are linked to each other by various
electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. Internet uses the standard
Internet Protocol suite called TCP/IP to serve billions of users worldwide, as you have learnt
in the previous lesson. The internet is a store house of a huge range of information
resources and services such as the inter-linked hypertext documents on the range of
information resources and services such as the inter-linked hypertext documents on the
World Wide Web (WWW). It also has the infrastructure to support e-mail and many other
services.

INFORATION RETREIVAL
It is the process of accessing information that is stored on the Internet. The process of
exploring and retrieving the information from the Internet is known as net surfing. When
your PC is connected to the Internet, you are ready to retrieve information from it. You
need a particular software called Web browser to retrieve information.

When you type the URL of a particular Website in the address bar of the Web browser and
press Enter key, the browser retrieves the Web page from the Internet and stores its
content.
Some useful sites to visit are as follows:

 http://www.netscape.com it contains useful information including the latest versions

of Web browser Netscape Navigator, list of Internet directories etc.
 http://www.ftinbrain.com it contains many educational games, math problems etc.,
for children. It also provides helpful stuff for teachers and parents.
 http://www.britannica.com it refers to the world famous encyclopaedia that is now
available online.
 http://www.enwikipedia.org it refers to free encyclopaedia using wiki software.
 http://www.crayola.com it contains creativity tips for students, parents and
educators.
CONNECTING YOUR PC TO INTERNET

To set-up an Internet connection, do the following steps:

Step 1 – Connect the necessary hardware like modem, Ethernet cable etc. and run
necessary software such as LAN driver.
Step 2 – Make a preliminary connection using Ethernet cable or a wireless connection.
Step 3 – Go to the router’s default IP address, e.g. 192.168.0.1.
Step 4 – Set-up the Internet connection using login name and password, which is provided
by the ISP.
Step 5 – Save your settings.

SEARCH ENGINE
It is a Website that provides the required data on specific topics. It turn the Web into a
powerful tool for finding information on any topic. Search engine allows users to enter
keywords (queries or terms) related to particular topics and retrieve information about the
Websites containing these keywords. It is a program designed to search for information on
the Web through a database of Web pages queries or keywords.

When search query is submitted in the search engine by user, the software used for
search algorithm scans the index to find Web pages over the Internet.
Some of the most popular search engines are as follows:

Google http://www.google.com

AltaVista http://www.altavista.com

Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com

Hotbot http://www.hotbot.com

Lycos http://www.lycos.com
Excite http://www.excite.com

WORKING OF A SEARCH ENGING

1. Web Crawler It is a software that browse the Internet in a systematic manner. It

retrieves the information, which follows every link on the site that are stored by Web
search engines. It is also known as spider, ant, automatic indexer or Web scutter.
2. Indexing Software It is a software that receives the list of Web documents and
addresses collected by Web crawler. Some search engines provide proximity search
which allows users to define the distance keywords.
3. Search Algorithm It is a concept based searching, where the research involves using
statistical analysis on pages containing the words or phrases you are searching for.

LOCATING SITES USING A SEARCH ENGINE

A search engine is an information retrieval system designed to find information stored on

the WWW.
For searching any particular information, following steps are to be taken:

Step 1 – Go to the home page of the search engine.

Step 2 – On the home page, a textbox will appear somewhere.
Step 3 – In that textbox, type a keyword that you want to search.
Step 4 – After that, there will be a button that looks like an image and has the word (such
as Google Search, Web Search etc.) search written on it. Clicking on that button, search
will start and will bring up a new Web page with a list of Websites related to that topic.
Step 5 – Clicking on one of the links in the list will access that Website.

Many search engines also have directories or lists of topics that are organised into
categories. A list of Websites that contains the information are known as hits. The words
typed in search box are called keywords. Browsing these directories is also a very efficient
way to find information on a given topic. To effectively search for desired information, you
must learn the art of framing search queries.
The following table provides a number of operators for doing advanced searches on most
search engines:

Operator What it does Example

Indicates a series of words that must “Good day sunshine” returns pages
“”
appear next to each other. with this exact phrase.

Computer + architecture will return

Indicates that all the words must
+ pages that include both words
appear in the Web page.
computer and architecture.

Computer -architecture will return

Searches for pages that include first
– pages with word computer but not
term but, not the second.
with an architecture.

Sing * will return pages that include a

Use the wildcard (*) to search for
* string starting with sing. Such as singing
plurals or variations of words.
and sings.

Can be used in some search engines Sports AND hockey, ‘baseball OR

AND, OR and NOT
to specify your search. basketball.

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)

It is a set of rules that enables a user to transfer files between those computers that have
Internet connection. It is a protocol through which Internet users can upload files from
their computer to a Website or download files from a Website to their PC.

FTP is the easiest way to transfer files between computers via Internet and utilities TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol)/IP (Internet Protocol) systems to perform uploading and
downloading tasks.
Objectives of FTP are as follows:

 To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).

 To encourage indirect or implicit (via programs) use of remote computers.
 To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among hosts.
 To transfer data reliably and efficiently.

Some freely available FTP software are FileZilla, Kasablanca, gFTP, konqueror etc.

WORKING OF FTP
FTP works on the principle of a client/server model. A FTP client program enables the user to
interact with a FTP server program in order to access information and services on the server
computer. To access FTP server program, users must be able to connect to the Internet or interact
with FTP client program.
FTP based communication makes use of the following two channels:

1. Control channel (A channel for commands) remains open for the entire session between the
client and the server.
2. Data channel (A channel for data) Open and close only when data has to be transferred
between the client and the server.

ADVANTAGES OF FTP

1. FTP is the fast and efficient way of transferring bulk of data across the Internet.
2. It has an automatic backup. Whenever you edit your files in your local system you
can update the same by copying it to the host system in your site.
3. FTP gives you control over transfer. The data can be transferred either in text files or in
the binary form.
4. You can work with the directories on the remote systems, delete or rename the
remote files while transferring data between two hosts.
 5. While using FTP, tools like macros can also be used to make your work more efficient
and easier.

DISADVANTAGES OF FTP

1. FTP was not designed to be a secure protocol.

2. Encryption of data can’t be done in FTP.
3. FTP causes spoof attacks during the transfer of data.
4. Filtering active FTP connections is difficult.

DOWNLOADING AND UPLOADING FILES FROM/TO REMOTE SITES

Downloading is the transmission of a file from server or remote computer system to user’s
computer. From the Internet-user’s point-of-view, downloading a file means request for a
file from server computer and to receive it. Downloading images, articles and
applications from the Internet has become a snap with text (like Download, Click Here
etc.) links on Web pages.
The only thing is that, users must know how to find the downloaded files in the computer. If
the downloaded file is an application, it must be installed, which can be an automatic
operation or require the user to take one more step for running the installed program.
Uploading is the transmission of a file from local system to a server or remote computer.
From an Internet-user’s point-of-view, uploading is sending a file to a computer that is set-
up to receive it. The most common type of uploading is when a user uploads a digital
image to an Internet site.
The uploaded files are stored on the Website’s servers and can be seen by anyone who
has the Internet connection and it is necessary to use the right software for viewing it.
CHAT
It is the online textual or multimedia conversation. It is a real-time communication
between two users via computer. It is widely interactive text-based communication
process that takes place over the Internet.
Chatting is a virtual means of communication that involves the sending and receiving of
messages, share audios and videos between users located in any part of the world.
In chatting, you type a message in your chat box, which is immediately received by the
recipient, then the recipient types a message in response to your message, which is
instantly received by you.

In addition, there are many browser based services that do not require downloaded chat
program, e.g. Facebook has a built-in chat feature and Gmail allows you to chat with
your contacts whenever you are logged into your Gmail account.
There are two basic modes for chatting on the Internet as follows:

1. Text-based chat Enables communication through sending and receiving text

messages.
2. Multimedia chat Enables communication through audio and video transmission.

A chat room is the hub of Internet chatting. Chat rooms (virtual room) are actually chat
servers that allow several users to login to them simultaneously. After joining a room, you
can read the messages of other users and send your own messages to them or to anyone
else.

ADVANTAGES OF CHAT

1. Photos can be sent using an instant messaging.

2. Emotions can be expressed easily when communicating with a person.
3. It is almost same as talking to someone face-to-face.
4. You can also chat in a group.
5. It makes it possible for user to keep in contact and chat to each other even if, they
are in different countries without having to pay a lot of money.

DISADVANTAGES OF CHAT

1. Viruses can be easily spread via texting.

2. Children tend to spend more time in chatting with friends instead of bonding with
their family and studies.

EMAIL
It is an electronic version of sending and receiving letters. The E-mail is transmitted
between computer systems, which exchange messages or pass them onto other sites
according to certain Internet protocols or rules for exchanging E-mail. You can send E-
mail from your computer at any time to any address around the world and your
electronic letter or E-mail will arrive at its destination in seconds after you send it, even if
the receiver is not online.
For sending and receiving an E-mail, you must have an E-mail account, which is either a
Web based online E-mail account or an E-mail account on your ISP server.
Web based online E-mail account can be created through many sites like Gmail, Yahoo
mail, Rediffmail etc.
ELEMENTS OF EMAIL ACCOUNT

Some important elements or folders that are used to organise your E-mail messages are as
follows:
Inbox it contains all incoming messages.
Outbox The message is stored in the outbox until, it is successfully sent to the recipient.
Sent mail it contains all sent messages.
Draft It contains the draft messages, which are ready to be sent.
Trash It contains deleted messages.
Spam It contains junk E-mails.

FORMATS OF AN EMAIL MESSAGE

There are two formats of an E-mail message, which are as follows:

1. Plain text (txt) E-mail It can be read by anyone type of E-mail application. It does not
support text formatting options Such as bold, italic, coloured fonts etc. It can have
attached pictures or graphics, but they cannot be inserted.
2. Rich text (rtf) E-mail It cannot be read by any type of E-mail application. It supports
text formatting options such as bold, italic, coloured fonts etc. Pictures or graphics
can be inserted.

STRUCTURE OF AN EAIL MESSAGE

The general structure of an E-mail message has the following components:

Components Description

To This field contains the E-mail address of recipient.

 Cc stands for Carbon copy. This contains the address of recipients

Cc to whom you want to send a copy of an E-mail

message. .

Bcc stands for Blind carbon copy. This field also contains the list of

Bcc recipients. Bcc recipients can see the To and Cc addresses but Bcc

recipients name is not visible to others.

Subject This field contains the title of a message.

Body It includes text of an E-mail message.

Attachments You can attach any document with E-mail message.

Formatting Using the formatting tab, you can edit the message.

Other options like emoticons, bold, italic, hyperlinks etc, are used to
Other options
make message more interactive.

Send button You have to click the send button to send the mail.

ADVANTAGES OF AN EMAIL

1. E-mail speeds up the workflow process, documents can be sent for comments, and
corrections can be made quickly.
2. E-mailing saves papers and printing costs.
3. Multiple copies of a message can be sent to a group of people.
4. Messages can be prepared in advance and save until you are ready to send them.
 5. File and images can be attached to an E-mail.

DISADVANTAGES OF AN EMAIL

1. E-mail attachments can carry viruses.

2. Limited size of data file can be sent.
3. Hasty medium to convey emotions.
4. No guarantee that the mail will be read until the user logs on and check E-mail.

VIDEO CONFERENCING
It is a communication technology that integrates videos and audios to connect users
anywhere in the world, as if they are in the same room. This term usually refers two way
communication between two or more users who are in at least two different locations,
rather than one-to-one communication and it often includes multiple people at each
location.

Each user or group of users who are participating in a video conference typically must
have a computer, a camera, a microphone, a video screen and a sound system.

Basically, this is a system that allows you to conduct meetings or trainings in different
places simultaneously. So, this technology is most popular in the field of business because
it allows meetings or conferences to be held without the need for all the participants to
travel to a single location and thus, it saves time and money. Many people can hear and
see each other, share whiteboard and other applications through video conferencing.

ADVANTAGES OF VIDEO CONFERENCING

1. It reduces your travel costs by working remotely and also increases productivity
through collaborative working.
 2. Many people can share their videos with each other at the same time.
3. PowerPoint and other visual displays can be shared with everyone attending the
conference at the same time.
4. Virtual whiteboard allows people from different locations to add their own thoughts
or ideas into one collaborative space.
5. With more advanced services, a document can be changed and typed directly
from other computers connected to the conference.

DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEO CONFERENCING

1. In the middle of an important meeting, you may be disconnected at any time and
have to wait to be reconnected.
2. There is no substitute for a face-to-face meeting in getting to know someone.
3. For a long time, video conferencing equipment have been expensive and out of the
reach of smaller businesses.
4. Senders and receivers must be online at the same time.

E-LEARNING
E-Learning is the learning connected via electronic media, typically on the internet. It
utilizes electronic technologies to access educational curriculum outside a traditional
classroom where the professor is teaching. In most cases, it refers to a course, program or
degree which is delivered completely online.

ADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING
1. You don’t have to dedicate an entire to the classes.
2. As e-learning can be done on laptops, tablets and phones-it is a very mobile
method.
3. As just mentioned, e-learning can be done wherever you have a device capable
of doing so.
4. Since a trainer’s time is not being used nor any room or equipment, e-learning is
must cheaper.
5. The same content is provided to all regardless of their location or nationality.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING
 1. Learners with low motivation tend to fall behind when using e-learning as the
deadlines set by the students themselves.
2. It doesn’t appeal to all and those who prefer classroom learning won’t enjoy it.
3. The physical appearance of a trainer provides more support and the absence of
trainer, may demotivate some students.
4. All learners need to have a device that is able to support the training modules. A
poor internet connection can interrupt learning.
5. The students have to be computer literate otherwise using the software can be
daunting.

E-COMMERCE
Commerce is the activity of buying and selling of goods and services, especially for
money. E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the transmitting of
funds or data, over an electronic network mainly the internet. E-commerce is also called
as e-business. E-commerce is conducted using a variety of applications. It could be done
through e-mail, fax, online catalogues and shopping carts.

ONLINE SHOPPING OR E-SHOPPING

E-shopping is a form of electronic commerce which allows consumers to directly buy

goods or services from a seller over the internet. It has been gaining popularity over the
last few years because people find it convenient and easy to shop from the comfort of
their homes. They don’t have to wait in long queues or search from store to store for a
particular item. They can compare the products easily and get good bargains online.

HOW E-COMMERCE WORKS

1. A customer searches for products online and then orders the product over the
internet.
2. He pays using a credit/debit card or can opt for COD.
3. The order is processed electronically and the product is dispatched from the
warehouse using the services of some courier company.
 4. Finally the product is delivered directly to the customer’s home.

ADVANTAGES FOR THE CUSTOMER

1. All details of the products are often listed on websites.
2. The customer can shop whenever it is convenient.
3. It becomes easy to search for the right product.
4. Even people with mobility problems can shop easily from their homes.
5. Shopping by e-commerce is fast and a lot of time is saved.

DISADVANTAGES FOR THE CUSTOMER

1. A customer can only see an image of the product and is unable to touch or feel it.
2. Products may not exactly match the images shown on the site.
3. A salesperson is unavailable to answer the queries of the customer.
4. If the customer wants to return a product, the process may be quite tedious.
5. Customers should be careful while doing online transactions. There are chances of
online frauds and so they must take appropriate security measures.

ADVANTAGES FOR SELLER

1. E- Commerce opens new markets for businesses.
2. No need for a physical store.
3. Saving on one the overhead cost that retailers have to bear.

DISADVANTAGES FOR SELLER

1. Due to competition, high discounts are offered online which is a disadvantage for
the seller.
2. Initial cost of creating/building E-commerce application in-house may be very high.
3. Special types of web server or other software is required by the vendor.
4. Many sites get filtered out due to comparison of shopping website.

E-BANKING
Online banking is also known as internet banking, e-banking, or virtual banking. It is an
electronic payment system that enables customers of a bank or other financial institution
to do financial transactions through the website.

ADVANTAGES OF E-BANKING
1. It is secure.
2. You have twenty four hour access on all days.
3. You can access your account from anywhere thus making it global access.
4. Long teller lines can be availed online, for example, you can apply for loans easily,
check account statements etc.
5. Helps banks to reduce their overhead costs.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-BANKING
1. Though online banking is generally secure, but there are still some security issues.
2. Some banks completely operate in cyberspace without having a physical branch.
So you need to be sure that they exist, before doing any transactions with them.
3. Customer service may not be of the quality that you are used to. Major Banks
employ a dedicated customer service department specifically for online users.
Many users find the telephone menu quite irritating.
4. All online transactions are not immediate. Some transactions may take a little time
before they are completed. Therefore you should print and keep the receipts while
making online payments.

E-RESERVATIONS
There are many other application areas which include travelling, where you can gather
information about the place you want to visit and book your Holiday tours, hotels, trains
and flight tickets online.

Some popular sites are:-

 www.Booking.com
 www.MakeMyTrip.com
 www.Expedia.com
 www.irctc.co.in

E-GOVERNANCE
E-governance is the application of information and communication technology (ICT) for
delivering government services, exchange of information, integration of various stand-
alone systems and services between government-to-customer (G2C), government-to-
business (G2B).

DISADVANTAGES
 1. Lack of equality in public access to the internet and reliability of information on the
web.
2. Hyper-surveillance-lack of privacy for civilians as their government obtains
information on them.
3. A huge amount of money has been spent on the development and
implementation of e-government sites.
4. An e-government site may not reach many users who live in remote and have low
literacy.

ADVANTAGES
1. E-governance aims to empower people by giving them access to information.
2. E-governance allows for government transparency as it informs the public about
the policies they are trying to implement.
3. It increases voter awareness, leading to an increase in citizen participation in
elections.
4. It helps simplify processes and reduces red tapeism.
5. There is more transparency and accountability.

COMPUTER VIRUS
 CYBER ETHICS

SOFTWARE LICENSES
Software licenses can be defined as a legal document which defines the guidelines for
the use and redistribution of the software. They provide the users with the rights to the
usage of the software without violating the copyrights. The end-user may have the rights
to more than one copy of the software. The license also states the restrictions on the use
of the software. The license specifies how the software can be used, the responsibilities of
the parties who enter in an agreement, its warranties, disclaimers, limitations of liability
and protection, if its use causes an infringement on the intellectual property rights of the
owner of the software.

PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

It doesn’t give the user the rights to modify, re-use or distribute the software. It is owned by
an individual or a company who develops it and who retains the intellectual property
rights. So the source code is not openly available. For ex Google Earth, Mac OS, etc.

FREE OR OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

It gives its users the rights to modify, re-distribute the software. It usually provides the
source code to its users along with the software so that the user can fix bugs, improve
functions, or adapt the software to suit their own needs. For ex Mozilla’s Firefox web
browser, Thunderbird e-mail client, etc.

A SOFTWARE IS CONSIDERED FREE IF THE USER HAS FREEDOM TO:

 Run the program for any purpose.

 Modify the program, which means the source code is available.
 Redistribute copies of the software.
 Distribute the modified versions, so that the community can benefit from the
improvements.

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

It is one of the most commonly used licenses for open-source projects. Its main features
are:-

 You can copy the software. There’s no limit to the number of copies you can make.
 You can distribute the software however you want.
 You can charge a fee to distribute the software. But, you must give them a copy of
the GNU GPL, which states that the software is also available.
 You can make modifications to the software as per your need.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) – These are the rights given to persons over the
creations of their minds which include inventions, literary and artistic works and
symbols, names and images used in commerce. They usually give the creator an
exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.
  Patents – A patent is a right granted by the government to an inventor, giving the
owner the exclusive right for making, using, selling an invention for a limited period
of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention.
 Trademarks – A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which
distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or
services of other traders.
 Copyright – A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it,
usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative,
intellectual, or artistic forms, or “works”. It is a legal device that gives the creator of
a literary, artistic, musical, or other creative work, the sole right to publish and sell
that work. Copyright owners have the right to control the reproduction of their work.
 Industrial Design Right – An industrial design right protects the visual design of
objects including its shape, configuration or composition of pattern or colour.
 Trade secrets – A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument,
pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known. Public
disclosure of such trade secrets is illegal.

PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism can be defined as presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own
without the consent of the owner.

THE FOLLOWING ARE CONSIDERED AS ACTS OF PLAGIARISM:

 Stealing someone else’s idea and passing them as your own.
 To use someone else’s work without acknowledging it.
 Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks.
 Not giving correct information about the source of a quotation.

TO AVOID PLAGIARISM YOU SHOULD TAKE CARE OF THE FOLLOWING:

 Acknowledge the authors of any work you reuse.
 Proper use of quotation marks and credits.
 Take the permission wherever required.
SOFTWARE PIRACY
Software Piracy can be defined as the illegal copying of software for distribution within
the organisation, or to friends, clubs and other groups, or for duplication and resale.

 This could be in form of downloading music and videos from the Internet.
 Duplication of a licensed copy of the software for use by others.

DIGITAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

Digital Property or assets include data, internet accounts, and other rights in the digital
world which also include contractual rights and include contractual rights and intellectual
property rights.

 Data are the files and information stored and used by computers including e-mails,
word processing documents, spreadsheets, pictures, audio files, and movies.
 Internet accounts include e-mail accounts, accounts on shopping web sites, blogs,
social networking accounts, online gaming accounts and all such accounts.
  Different kinds of hardware also qualify as digital property because they contain
digital information that you created.
 IPR could include-
 Copyrighted digital materials
 Registered trademarks
 Patents
 Many people own domain names which could also have some monetary value.

Digital property rights thus refers to the access and control of all types of digital
information which is available.

FREEDOM OF INFORMATION
Freedom of information refers to a citizen’s right to access information that is held by the
government. It was established for the purpose of transparency, government
accountability, education and general public protection against mismanagement and
corruption.

 The Right to Information (RTI) act was passed by the parliament on 11 May 2005. It
came into effect on 12 October 2005.
 Information and communication technologies (ICT) are becoming the drivers of the
knowledge society. They are providing new and faster ways of delivering and
accessing information, innovative ways for real-time communication, and new
ways to do business and create livelihood opportunities.

DIGITAL DIVIDE
The socioeconomic and other disparities between those people who have opportunities
and skills enabling them to benefit from the digital resources, especially the Internet, and
those who don’t have these opportunities or skills is called as digital divide.

DIGITAL UNITY

Digital unity is the idea that some information and communication technologies are vital
for quality civic life, for education and job opportunities and that these should be
provided to all sections of people.
INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMNT TO ENSURE DIGITAL UNITY ARE:

 Every Indian will have a digital identity and a mobile connection linked to it.
 Putting integrated services for citizens that allow single-window interface.
 At least one person in every family will be digitally empowered.
 Broadband highways and digital lockers.
 The government has already introduced a 20-hour basic learning course in IT.

E-COMMERCE
It is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the transmitting of funds or data, over
an electronic network, mainly the internet. This can lead to infringement of our privacy
and a risk that our data may be used for fraudulent activities.

PRIVACY

Online privacy is essential for e-commerce visitors and customers. With frequent reports of
data being misused, it is of utmost importance that e-commerce sites must have a
privacy policy to specify what is to be done in terms of their practice of collecting,
managing, and using data from site visitors. The consumers have become wary of sharing
data online and look for the privacy policy before they do so.

The sites must research about which systems and software collect personal data and
understand procedures about where and for how long the data is stored and with whom
it is shared.

The major privacy concerns of a consumer can be divided into three.

 1. They need to know about the type of information which is being collected from
them.
2. They need to know that they have some control over the information being
collected.
3. They need to be assured that their personal information will be secure and will not
be stolen or misused.

STEPS E-COMMERCE SITES MUST FOLLOW:

 They should research on what data collection to minimum. They should collect and
store the information they absolutely need, to deliver their product or service.
 It is essential to protect the data collected. It can easily be lost or stolen by hackers.
 The privacy policy should be transparent about what data is being collected and
there should be communication with the user about any changes in the policy, if
any.

E-COMMERCE FRAUDS

FRAUDLENT ACTIVITIES IN E-COMMERCE ARE:

 Unauthorised purchases – personal information such as purchase history and

delivery details are stored online which can be hacked.
 Identity theft – if the customer information stored on the servers is not kept safely,
hackers can gain access to it and misuse the information.
 Chargeback – can happen when the customer denies having received the order
and requests for refund.
SECURE DATA TRANSMISSION

 Credit card details can be safely sent with SSL, but once stored on the server they
are vulnerable to outsiders hacking into the server. A PCI (peripheral component
interconnect) hardware card is often added for further protection.
 Sensitive information has to be protected through at least three layered
transactions-
 Credit card details supplied by the customer, either to the company or
payment gateway should be handled by the server’s SSL.
 It is then passed to the bank where it is handled by the complex security
measures of the payment gateway including a security code or OTP
 Order and Customer details supplied to the company, either directly or from
the payment gateway/credit card processing company, are handled by SSL,
server security, digital certificates.
 Delivered packages should be signed by the customer on receipt
 Customer’s previous history can be checked.

SOME OTHER MEASURES TO TACKLE INFORMATION SECURITY DURING A TRANSACTION-

 Privacy is handled by encryption of data so that unauthorised users can’t read it.
 Firewalls protect a server, a network and an individual PC from attack by viruses
and hackers.
 Digital signatures meet the need for authentication and integrity.

 Secure Socket Layers (SSL) uses secret session keys and digital certificates to ensure
privacy and authentication.