PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

IN 1887, Hertz in his experiment of production of electromagnetic waves found that electric spark between the electrodes is
easily produced in the presence of ultraviolet light rays.

His observation was noticed by Halawachs, Righi and Stoletaw and Phillip Lenard (who studied the P.E.E extensively and sent
the observations in 1899 to Einstein) and studied by them. Then Stoletaw found the relation between numbers of ejected
photoelectrons and intensity of incident radiation. His relation between number of photoelectrons ejected and intensity of
radiation is called “Stoletaw law”.

1. PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

It is the phenomenon of ejection of electron from the surface of metals when radiation of some
suitable frequency is incident on the surface of metal.***( further study and experiments also show
that this phenomenon also occurs in liquids and gases).

For every given metal there is “a minimum suitable frequency “at which the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect takes place. This minimum suitable frequency for a given is called
“threshold frequency” the energy corresponding to thresh hold frequency is called “work function or
threshold energy”.

2. THRESHOLD FREQUENCY

It is the minimum suitable frequency for a given metal at which the phenomenon of photoelectric
effect takes place from metal surface. It is denoted by 𝛎0.

3. THRESHOLD ENERGY (WORK FUNCTION)

It is the minimum energy required to just eject out electron from a given metal surface. It is denoted
by 𝛟0 or by h𝛎0.

4. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS REGARDING PHOTOELLECTRIC EFFECT

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The right side experimental setup is shown above consists of a quartz tube an emitter (cathode
which emits the electrons on incidence of U.V radiation) and a collector (anode which captures the
photoelectrons and ammeter give corresponding reading of photocurrent) a voltmeter connected
across the quartz tube gives the reading of potential across the collector.

(1). When emitter is exposed to radiations and the frequency of the incident radiation is varied. Then
it is noted that certain minimum frequency, photo current occurs which is measured by ammeter. This
minimum frequency is unique for given metal surface. When frequency of incident radiation is
decreased below this minimum frequency no photoelectric effect occurs even though intensity and
exposition time of metal surface is increased for considerably large amount. From this experimental
observation the conclusions are:

*** For every metal there is a specific minimum frequency for which the metal shows the
photoelectric effect.

*** If the frequency of the incident radiation is lesser than this frequency the photoelectric effect does
not occur, whatever be the intensity of incident radiation and how so long be the time of exposition of
metal surface.

(2). When suitable radiation is incident and photo electric effect occurs. Then on increasing the
potential of the collector the photo current increases and becomes constant for a given intensity of
incident radiation, on further increasing the potential of collector plate there is no change in the
current. If the potential of collector plate is made negative then photo current decreases. On making
the collector plate more and more negative current decreases. At certain negative potential given to
collector plate for a given frequency of incident radiation the photo current becomes zero. This
potential is called “stopping potential”. The stopping potential does not change with varying the
intensity of incident radiation keeping the frequency of radiation constant. The stopping potential is
that negative potential which stops even the fastest electron ejected from metal surface. From this
experimental observation the conclusions are:

*** The variation in photo current with collector plate potential shows that photoelectrons ejected
from the emitter (metal) are coming with different kinetic energies these electrons are coming from
the different interior parts of metal with respect to metal surface. The electrons coming from interior
of metal face more collisions with other electrons and lattice ions so they have less energy.

*** The stopping potential for a given frequency is constant whatever be the intensity of incident
radiation.

(3) When the frequency of incident radiation is increased and the same above experiment is repeated.
There is increase in stopping potential found. This indicates that that increasing frequency results the
increase in kinetic energy of electrons.

Following graphs explain this observation

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(Below graph shows the variation in photocurrent with the intensity of incident radiation)

5. LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

(1) For every metal there is a minimum frequency at which the ejection of electrons from the surface
of metal takes place. Below this frequency the ejection of electrons do not take place whatever be the
intensity of light and time of exposition of metal surface.

(2) The number of electrons ejected from metal surface is proportional to the intensity of incident
radiations.

(3) The maximum kinetic energy of ejected electron depends upon frequency of incident radiation
directly.

(4)The photo electric effect is instantaneous process.

6. CLASSICAL APPROACH (WAVE THEORY) TO EXPLAIN PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

According to wave mechanical approach when wave front of light is incident on the surface of metal,
its energy is distributed among the electrons. After “considerable” time the continuous incidence of
wave fronts on metal surface provide the sufficient amount of energy to electrons. This would make
the photoelectric effect possible. This theory does not put any restriction on “frequency”. For every
frequency the photoelectric effect is possible. The intensity of light would affect the kinetic energy.

In experiment the whole observations are against the wave theory. So some new theory approach was
needed to explain this effect. Moreover classical theory violate conservation of linear momentum.

7. QUANTUM MECHANICAL APPROACH

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In the end of 19th centaury the eminent physicists Rayleigh, Jeans and Wien failed to explain the radiation energy distribution by a black body. In 1900
Max Planck suggested a revolutionary idea of emission and absorption of radiation energy by black body in the form of “packet (called quantum)”. This
was in good agreement with all distribution theories suggested by the eminent physicists of the time. Planck suggested the energy to be in discrete form,
the minimum amount of energy was given by universal constant “h” (Planck’s constant). This approach was adopted by Niels Bohr to give quantized
angular momentum for electron in its orbit (stationary orbit).
When wave theory failed to give the explanations of ejection of electrons from metal surface. Einstein adopted the idea of “quantum” of energy. He
suggested that radiation is not only absorbed or emitted in terms of quantum but also it travels as quantum.

In 1905 Einstein explained the P.E.E on the basis of quantum theory. According to him when a
quantum (photon)* of energy, “h𝛎” which is greater than work function is incident on metal surface, a
part “h𝛎0 (𝛟0)” is used to just eject out the electron from metal surface and rest part of energy is used
to provide the kinetic energy to the ejected electron.

And he gave the following equation, which is the consequence of law of conservation of energy.

h𝛎 = h𝛎0 + (1/2) m v2 . This equation is called Einstein’s equation of P.E.E. in this

equation (1/2) m v2 is the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electron. The graph between kinetic
energy and frequency of incident radiation is as follow:

R. A. Millikan verified Einstein’s equation by

applying negative potential to stop the electrons. The graph of stopping potential and frequency of
incident radiation is also shown below in adjacent diagram

*in 1923 A.H. Compton studied the scattering of X-ray by lighter elements and found the modification in the wavelength after scattering he gave in 1928
,the name “photon” to” discrete energy packet” of electromagnetic wave
The photoelectric effect gave wave, particle nature. And there were some more phenomena which were not explained by
wave theory. Like (a) Compton effect (b) Raman effect

The failure of wave theory to explain some phenomenon led the quantum theory to evolve more deeply.

8. DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS & MATTER WAVE

In 1923 Louis de Broglie, on account of particle nature of wave and basic symmetry in nature proposed that “a wave
showing the particle nature then particle should also show wave character”. So Broglie hypothesised that “every wave
possesses the particle character then every particle should possesses the wave character”. This hypothesis generalised the
wave – particle duality and introduced “matter wave” or “de Broglie wave”. Then he derived a relation to correlate wave
and particle behaviour in an equation. This equation is called de Broglie equation.

Let us consider a light “quantum” of frequency “𝛎” using Planck’s law its energy is given by “h𝛎”. The dynamical mass of
the quantum can be given by using Einstein’s mass energy equation, E = mC2. On combining these two equations we get

E = h𝛎 = m C2 ⟹ h𝛎 = m C 𝛎𝛌 ⟹ 𝛌 = h/(m C)

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Wave length = h/ (momentum)

De Broglie wavelength in case of particle having kinetic energy E and mass m is given by

𝛌 = h/ √ (2 m E)

De Broglie wavelength in case of charge particle accelerated at voltage “V” and having charge “q”

𝛌 = h/ √ (2 q V)

De Broglie wavelength of a particle at temperature “T”

𝛌 = h/√ [(3/2) k T]. Here k is Boltzmann constant.

De BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF ELECTRON ACCELERATED AT POTENTIAL “V”

𝛌 = (12. 247 A0)/√V (the graph of variation of λ with √(voltage))

9. DAVISSON & GERMER EXPERIMENT

Louise de Broglie gave his hypothesis about dual nature of wave and particle in 1923. Davisson and Germer two American physicists
were already trying the experiments of “diffused reflection of electrons” from the surface of metals around since 1920. In 1927 the
couple of scientists performed this experiment and noted the “diffraction pattern” of slow electrons as X-rays pattern noticed by de –
Bragg.
The schematic diagram of Davisson Germer experiment is shown below. Electrons produced by a
heated tungsten filament are accelerated through a potential difference V by an anode, which
collimates the electrons. Accelerated beam of electrons were made to incident on a “diagonally cut”
nickel crystal. The scattered electrons in various directions were collected by movable “Faraday’s
galvanometer”. The intensity of scattered electrons in various directions is noted and graph between
intensity and scattering angle is plotted. This is also shown below. It was noted that at “54” volt. The
maximum intensity of scattered light is collected at “50 0” angle with direction of incident beam of
electron.

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Using de Bragg equation and considering first order diffraction we

get, 2d Sin 𝛟 =𝛌. Here “d” is the distance between two crystal planes for
nickel it is 0.91 A0 and 𝛟 is angle of incident beam with the crystal plane
which is shown in the figure and mentioned as Bragg’s plane. This angle is
650. On evaluating it we get 1.66 a0.

On using de Broglie equation we get wavelength 𝛌 = 1.65 A0 at 54 volt. The

results obtained by both agreed so wave character of particle was proved
and de Broglie hypothesis was justified.

After Davisson and Germer many experiment like Y.D.S.E. have been done
to prove wave character associated with particle (electron) and dual nature
has been established.

Now there are following phenomena which are the evidence of wave character of light

(a) Interference (b) diffraction (c) polarisation

There are following phenomena which are the evidence of particle character of light

(a) Photoelectric effect (b) Compton effect (c) Raman effect

10. COMPTON EFFECT

After the discovery of X –rays , J.J.Thomson used scattering of x – rays to study the crystal structure of crystal. At that time x – rays scattered showed
no change in the wavelength just like ordinary electromagnetic waves show the scattering by molecules (Rayleigh scattering). However, later the x –
rays of shorter wavelength lesser than 1 A 0 was discovered then A.H Compton in 1923 studied the scattering of x –ray by lighter elements. And he
found the scattered x –ray was of different wavelength. Then change in wavelength of x –ray was described by him by same concept that was given by
Einstein.
Compton studied the scattering of x -ray photons by electrons and by applying law of conservation
energy and momentum found the change in the wavelength of scattered photon. If 𝛌i is the wavelength
of original incident photon and 𝛌f is the wavelength of scattered photon and 𝛉 is the angle made by
scattered photon with the direction of incident photon then change in the wavelength of scattered
photon(it is called Compton shift) is given by
△𝛌 = 𝛌f – 𝛌i = (h/m0C)( 1 – Cos 𝛉).
Where “h” is Planck’s constant m0 is the rest mass of electron and “C” is the speed of light. Here
quantity (h/m0C) is called Compton wavelength its value is 2.42 x 10-12m.

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Questions for practice

Q. 1. What was the purpose of Davisson – Germer experiment?

Q. 2. How will the photo electric change with change in the intensity of incident light for a given photo sensitive material?

Q. 3. How will the de – Broglie wavelength of electron wave will change if accelerating voltage is changed to 4 V from V?

Q. 4. Find the de Broglie wavelength of the electron accelerated at 100 V.

Q. 5. A photosensitive surface gives photo electric effect with green light but not with yellow. Will it show the effect with red light?

Q. 6. Does the stopping potential in photoelectric effect depend upon?

(1) the intensity of the incident radiation (2) the frequency of the incident radiation

Q. 7. U.V. radiation is incident on the two photosensitive materials of the work functions W 1 and W2 (W1 > W20. In which case the kinetic energy of ejected
electron will be greater?

Q. 8. Show graphically the variation of stopping potential with the frequency of incident radiation? What does the slope of stopping potential versus
frequency give?

Q. 9. How does the kinetic energy of ejected electrons change with increasing the intensity of incident radiation?

Q. 10. Two metals have work function 2 eV and 4 eV. Which of them will have higher threshold wavelength?

Q. 11. A metal gives photo electric effect with green and blue light. Which of the two colours will eject the electrons with higher kinetic energy?

Q. 12. Why do alkali metals suitable for photoelectric effect?

Q. 13. What is the momentum of a wave of frequency 𝛎 and wavelength 𝛌?

Q. 14. When light is incident on wood surface no electrons are emitted. Why?

Q. 15. Are matter waves electromagnetic in nature?

Q. 16. Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold, is incident on a metal surface. Now intensity is doubled and frequency is halved will the photo electric
effect occur?

Q. 17. The kinetic energy of ejected electron is 3 eV. Find the stopping potential.

Q. 18. The stopping potential for ejected electron is 2 V. find the kinetic energy of the electron.

Q. 19. A radioactive nucleus of uranium 238 emits alpha particle of mass 4 unit. What is the ratio of de Broglie wavelength of alpha particle and daughter
nucleus?

Q. 20. Electron and proton have same de Broglie wave length which one has high kinetic energy?

Q. 21. Two metals have work functions 2 eV and 5 eV respectively. If a wavelength of 400 nm is incident on them which one will emit the photo electron?

Q. 22. Work functions of three elements A, B and C re as follow A : 5.0 eV, B : 3.8 eV, and C : 2.8 eV. A radiation of wavelength 4125A 0 is made to incident
on them. Which one metal will show photo electric effect?

Q. 23. An alpha particle and proton are accelerated at same voltage. Which one will have larger de Broglie wavelength? Give the ratio of their kinetic
energies?

Q. 24. Draw the graph of variation of stopping potential and kinetic energy with frequencies of incident radiation?

Q. 25. When radiations of wavelength 3000A 0 and 4000A0 fall on a certain metal surface the photoelectrons emitted have maximum K.E. of 2 eV and 1 eV.
Find the threshold wavelength for the metal.

Q. 26. Find the energy of photons of red 760 nm and violet 390 nm in Joule and eV.

Q. 27. Why do photo electrons have variable kinetic energy?

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Q. 28. An electron, an alpha particle and a proton have same kinetic energy. Which one has the shortest de Broglie wavelength?

Q. 29. A laser beam of frequency 6.0 ×10 14 Hz is produced by 2mW source. Find the energy of photon and number of photons ejected per second by laser
source?

Q. 30. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14e V. Find the threshold wavelength and frequency for caesium. If the stopping potential for a photo
electron is 0.60 eV, then find the wavelength of incident radiation for this stopping potential.

Q. 31. An electron and proton have same kinetic energy find the ratio of de Broglie wavelengths of them.

Q. 32. Plot a graph of frequency of incident radiation and kinetic energy for following data. Critical frequency 10 ×10 14 and kinetic energy corresponding
to 30 × 1014Hz is 8 eV.

Q. 33. The energy flux of sun light reaching the surface of earth is 1.388 × 10 3 W/m2. Find the number of photons incident in a square metre of earth, if the
wavelength of incident photons is 550 nm.

Q. 34. In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut off voltages versus frequency of the incident radiation is found to be 4.12 × 10 -15 Vs.
Calculate the value of the Planck’s constant.

Q. 35. The threshold frequency for a metal is 3.3 × 10 14 Hz. If the light of frequency 8.2 × 10 14 Hz is incident on the metal surface, find the cut off voltage.

Q. 36. The light of 7.21 × 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. The photo electron is ejected with maximum velocity 6.0 × 10 5 m/s. find the threshold
frequency for the metal.

Q. 37. Find the momentum and de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated with 56 V.

Q. 38. A particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of de Broglie wavelength of the particle to that of the electron is 1.813 × 10-4.
Calculate the mass of the particle.

Q. 39. An electron is accelerated at 500 V. Find the velocity and specific charge of the electron.

Q. 40. The threshold frequency of a metal is f 0. When radiation of 2f0 is incident on the metal surface, the velocity of the ejected electron is v 1. If the
frequency of the incident radiation is 5f 0 and the velocity of the ejected electron is v2. Find the ratio of v1 and v2.

Q. 41. When a graph is plotted between de Broglie wavelengths and 1/√V for two particles A and B then the slope for particle A is tan 30 and for B is tan
60. Find which one is heavier. Also find the ratio of the masses of A and B. Or

Plot the graph between de Broglie wavelength and 1/√V. for two charged particles of same charges and different masses.

Q. 42. X ray of wavelength ‘𝛌’ is incident on a metal of negligible work function. Show that de Broglie wavelength of ejected electron is √(𝛌h/2mc). Here
’h’ is Planck’s, m is the mass of the electron and ‘c’ is the speed of light.

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