Notes

Review of vector notation and vector operations

1. Coordinate system and vector representation

Vectors such as wind, acceleration and force, are quantities having both a magnitude
(e.g. 5 m s-1) and a direction (e.g. from the SW or 225°). This is in contrast with scalars
such as temperature which only have a magnitude. In order to define direction a
coordinate system must be used. Many coordinate systems can be defined, but a
frequently used system in three-dimensional space is the Cartesian coordinate system
(Figure 1). It consists of three orthogonal directions (x, y and z), orthogonal meaning that
these directions are perpendicular to one another. Along each direction we define
vectors with unit length (length =1): i, j and k in the x, y and z-direction, respectively.

Figure 1 A Cartesian coordinate system with

unit vectors i, j and k in the x, y and z
directions.

Consider a vector a in a Cartesian coordinate system (Figure 2). We can write:

a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k (1)

where a1, a2 and a3 are the x, y and z components of the vector a. The components of a
vector are scalar quantities (hence they can be positive, negative or zero) and represent
the multiplications factors of the unit vectors i, j and k in order that Equation (1) holds.
The vector a can then also be represented by

a = (a1, a2, a3). (2)

The magnitude or length of a is indicated by a and can be calculated as follows:

a = a12 + a 22 + a 32 (3)

1
 Figure 2 The vector a projected on each of the
coordinate directions of the system. The three
components of a are the multiplication factors a1, a2
and a3 of the vectors i, j and k .

2. Vector operations

The addition of vectors is commutative

a+b = b+a (4)

and associative

a + (b + c ) = (a + b)+ c . (5)

For the sum of a = (a1, a2, a3) and b = (b1, b2, b3) we have (see Figure 3):

a + b = (a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ) . (6)

Figure 3 Vector addition a + b in two dimensions. Addition of

the components a1+b1 and a2+b2 using head-to-tail construction
(left); construction using a parallelogram (right).

2
The dot product ( a • b ) of two vectors a and b is a scalar:

a • b = a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 = a b cosθ , (7)

where θ is the angle between a and b. In particular a • b = 0 if a and b are

perpendicular. Dot products are also commutative:

a•b = b•a. (8)

The scalar projection s of any vector a in the direction of a nonzero vector b is the dot
product of a with a unit vector in the direction of b:

a•b
s = = a cos θ (9)
b
where θ is the angle between a and b.

Figure 4 The dot product a • b of vectors a and b is a

scalar quantity that is equal to the product of the length of
a projected along b times the length of b.

The cross product ( a × b ) of a and b is a vector:

i j k
a×b = a1 a2 a3
(10)
b1 b2 b3
= i(a 2 b3 − a 3 b2 ) − j(a1b3 − a 3 b1 ) + k (a1b2 − a 2 b1 )
with

a×b = a b sinθ . (11)

The cross product of a and b is perpendicular to both a and b and its direction can be
found with the “right hand rule” (see Figure 5).

3
The cross product is not commutative:

a×b = − b×a (12)

Figure 5 The cross product a x b can be found by turning a to b over the

smallest possible angle (θ) and using the “right hand rule” (left). The length
of a x b is equal to the area of the parallelogram spanned by a and b (right).

3. Special operators

The nabla operator (∇) is used in many applications, it is defined by:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = i+ j+ k (13)
∂x ∂y ∂z

The gradient of a scalar s, or a scalar field s (x, y, z), (∇s or grad s) is given by:

∂s ∂s ∂s
∇s = i+ j+ k. (14)
∂x ∂y ∂z

In two dimensions the gradient vector is perpendicular to isolines defined by s = constant

and it points from low values of s to high values of s (Figure 6). In three dimensions the
gradient vector ∇s is perpendicular to the surface defined by s = constant and points in
the direction of increasing values of s. The magnitude of ∇s is equal to the derivative of
s along the direction in which s varies most rapidly.

The divergence of a vector a is (using Equation 7):

∂a1 ∂a 2 ∂a3
∇•a = + + (15)
∂x ∂y ∂z

4
 Figure 6 The gradient ∇s of a scalar s is a vector
which is perpendicular to the isolines of s and points
in the direction of increasing values of s.

The curl of a vector a is (using Equation 8):

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×a =
∂x ∂y ∂z
a1 a2 a3 (16)

∂ a3 ∂ a 2 ∂a ∂a ∂a ∂a
= i( − ) − j( 3 − 1 ) + k ( 2 − 1 )
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y

A special operator is the Laplacian ( ∇ 2 s ) of a scalar field s:

∂2s ∂2s ∂2s

∇ s = 2 + 2 + 2.
2
(17)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Figure 7 The 1-dimensional scalar s and its first and second derivatives.
The Laplacian (bottom curve) at point 2 is negative value where s has its
maximum value. In 1 and 3 the second derivative equals 0.

5
The Laplacian indicates the presence of “humps” or “dips” is a scalar field. In Figure 7
this is demonstrated using, for obvious reasons, a 1-dimensional version of the
Laplacian. Note that a negative value of the Laplacian indicates a “hump” and a positive
value indicates a “dip”.

4. Vector identities

There are many relations between a vector a, a scalar s and the nabla operator ∇. The
following ones are often used.

∇ • (s a ) = s ∇ • a + a • ∇ s

∇ × (s a ) = s ∇ × a + ( ∇ s) × a

∇ × ( ∇ × a ) = ∇( ∇ • a ) − ( ∇ • ∇ )a

∇×∇s = 0

∇ •(∇×a ) = 0

Many more relations are possible, but the reader is referred to the mathematical
textbooks for those.