Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade Calculus Lecture

MA 105 : Calculus
Division 3, Lecture 02
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade

IIT Bombay
Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade, IIT Bombay MA 105 Calculus: Division 3, Lecture 02

Recap of the previous lecture
Generalities about the course
Text and References
Basic notations: N, Z and Q.
The set R of real numbers as a set containing Q and
satisfying the
Algebraic Properties
Order Properties
Completeness Property
Upper bound, lower bound, supremum,and infimum
Consequences of the Completeness Property:
Existence of infimum of a nonempty set bounded below;
Archimedean Property;
Existence and uniqueness of positive nth roots of
positive real numbers;
Existence of a rational as well as an irrational between
any two real numbers a < b.
Intervals
Given any a, b ∈ R, we define
(a, b) := {x ∈ R : a < x < b} [open interval]
[a, b] := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} [closed interval]
Semi-open intervals (a, b] and [a, b) are defined similarly.
It is also useful to consider symbols ∞ and −∞ and
define the infinite intervals
(a, ∞) := {x ∈ R : x > a}, [a, ∞) := {x ∈ R : x ≥ a},
(−∞, a) := {x ∈ R : x < a}, (−∞, a] := {x ∈ R : x ≤ a}.
Also, one writes R = (−∞, ∞) and refers to this as an
infinite interval, or sometimes, a doubly infinite interval.
In general, a subset I of R is an interval if
x, y ∈ I , x < y =⇒ [x, y ] ⊆ I .
One can show that every interval in R is open, closed,
semi-open, or infinite interval.
Absolute Value
For x ∈ R, the absolute value or the modulus of x is
(
x if x ≥ 0,
|x| :=
−x if x < 0.
Basic Properties: For any x, y ∈ R,
|x + y | ≤ |x| + |y | [Triangle Inequality]
||x| − |y || ≤ |x − y |.
Optional Exercises: (i) Show that for any a, b ∈ R with
a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, and n ∈ N,
√ √n
p
a − b ≤ n |a − b|.
n
(ii) For any n ∈ N and any nonnegative real numbers

a1 , . . . , an , prove the AM-GM inequality:
a1 + · · · + an √
≥ n a1 · · · an .
n
Functions
Given sets D, E , a function f : D → E assigns to each
x ∈ D, a unique element of E , denoted f (x). We refer to
D as the domain of f and E as the co-domain of f . The
set {f (x) : x ∈ D} of all values taken by the function is
called the range of f . [For a formal definition, see [GL-1].]
A function f : D → E is said to be:
one-one (or injective) if for any x1 , x2 ∈ D,
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 .
onto (or surjective) if its range is E .
If f : D → E is bijective, then it has an inverse
g : E → D with the property that the composites g ◦ f
and f ◦ g are identity functions, i.e.,
g (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ D and f (g (y )) = y for all y ∈ E .
Examples and Types of Functions
Example/Exercise: Consider f1 , f2 , f3 : R → R and
f4 : R \ {0} → R defined by
1
f1 (x) = 2x+1, f2 (x) = x 2 , f3 (x) = x 3 , and f4 (x) = .
x
Are these one-one/onto/bijective?
Functions that mainly arise in Calculus are usually of
following types.
Polynomial functions
Rational functions
Algebraic functions
Transcendental functions (this includes logarithmic,
exponential and trigonometric functions).
Besides these, we can construct functions by pieceing
together known functions (such as those belonging to the
above classes). A good example is the absolute value
function x 7−→ |x|.
Sequences
Definition
Let X be any set. A sequence in X is a function from the set
N of natural numbers to the set X .
The value of this function at n ∈ N is denoted by an ∈ X , and

an is called the nth term of the sequence.
We shall use the notation (an ) to denote a sequence.
Note: {an : n ∈ N} is the set of all terms of the sequence (an ).
Thus if X := R and an := (−1)n for n ∈ N, then the sequence
(an ) is given by −1, 1, −1, 1, . . ., but {an : n ∈ N} = {−1, 1}.
Initially, we let X := R, that is, we consider sequences in R.
Later, we shall consider sequences in R2 and in R3 .

Examples
Examples:
1 an := n for n ∈ N: 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
2 an := 1/n for n ∈ N: 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .
3 an := n2 for n ∈ N: 1, 4, 9, 16, . . .
√ √ √
4 an := 2 for n ∈ N: 2, 2, . . . This is an example of a
constant sequence.
5 an := 2n for n ∈ N: 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .
6 an := (−1)n for n ∈ N: −1, 1, −1, 1, . . .
7 a1 := 1, a2 := 1 and an := an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 3:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . . This sequence is known as
the Fibonacci sequence.
8 an := 1/2 + · · · + 1/2n for n ∈ N. Check: an = 1 − (1/2n ).

Bounded sequences
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded
above if the set {an : n ∈ N} is bounded above, that is, if
there is a real number α such that an ≤ α for every n ∈ N.
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded below
if the set {an : n ∈ N} is bounded below, that is, if there is a
real number β such that β ≤ an for every n ∈ N.
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded if it is
bounded above as well as bounded below, that is, if there are
real numbers α, β such that β ≤ an ≤ α for every n ∈ N.
If a sequence is not bounded, it is said to be unbounded.
Let us check which of the sequences mentioned earlier are
bounded above and/or bounded below.

Examples of bounded and unbounded sequences:
an := n for n ∈ N: β = 1.
an := 1/n for n ∈ N: β = 0, α = 1.
2
an := n for n ∈ N: β = 1.
√ √
an := 2 for n ∈ N: β = 2 = α.
an := 2n for n ∈ N: β = 2.
n
an := (−1) for n ∈ N: β = −1, α = 1.
a1 := 1, a2 := 1 and an := an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 3: β = 1.
an := 1/2 + · · · + 1/2n for n ∈ N: β = 1/2, α = 1.
Note: The sequence given by an := n for n ∈ N, is not

bounded above by the Archimedean property of R.

Toward convergence of a sequence
Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let a be a real number.
Convergence of a sequence (an ) to a real number a
should mean that the term an is as close to a as we like
for all sufficiently large n.
How to make this precise? We require for every fixed
positive real number , the term an is within distance of
a for all sufficiently large n. In other words, we require
an ∈ (a − , a + ) or equivalently, |an − a| <
to be satisfied for all sufficiently large n.

The phrase “for all sufficiently large n” can be made
precise by saying that there exists some n0 ∈ N such that
the above condition holds for all n from n0 onward, that
is, it holds for all n ≥ n0 .
Definition of convergence of a sequence
Definition
Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers. We say that (an ) is
convergent if there is a ∈ R such that the following condition
holds. For every > 0, there is n0 ∈ N such that
|an − a| < for all n ≥ n0 .
This is known as the -n0 definition of convergence of a

sequence.
In this case, we say that (an ) converges to a, or that a is a
limit of (an ), and we write
lim an = a or an → a (as n → ∞).

n→∞
If a sequence does not converge, we say that the sequence

diverges or it is divergent.
The convergence of a sequence is unaltered if a finite number
of its terms are replaced by some other terms.
Examples:
(i) Let a ∈ R and an := a for all n ∈ N. Then an → a. We

can let n0 := 1.
(ii) an := 1/n for all n ∈ N. Then an → 0.
Let > 0 be given. We want to find n0 ∈ N such that
|(1/n) − 0| < for all n ≥ n0 .
Choose any n0 ∈ N which is greater than 1/. This is
possible because of the Archimedean property of R.
For example, we can let n0 := [1/] + 1.

(iii) an := 2/(n2 + 1) for n ∈ N. Then an → 0. Now

2 2 2
n2 + 1 − 0 = n2 + 1 < n2 for all n ∈ N.

√ √
Choose√n0 ∈ √ N such that n 0 > 2/ . For example, let
n0 := [ 2/ ] + 1. Then |an − 0| < for all n ≥ n0 .
(iv) an := 5/(3n + 1) for n ∈ N. Then an → 0. Now
5 5
< for all n ∈ N.
3n + 1 3n
Choose n0 ∈ N such that n0 > 5/3. For example, let
n0 := [5/3] + 1. Then |an − 0| < for all n ≥ n0 .

Prof. Sudhir R. Ghorpade Calculus Lecture

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MA 105 : Calculus