RESISTORS in SERIES and PARALLEL

Resistor
In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to
divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.
Overview
 Most circuits have more than one component, called a resistor, that limits the flow of
charge in the circuit.
 A measure of this limit on charge flow is called resistance.
 The simplest combinations of resistors are the series and parallel connections.
 The total resistance of a combination of resistors depends on both their individual
values and how they are connected.
Resistors in Series
Resistors are in series whenever the flow of charge, called the current, must flow
through devices sequentially.
Resistors in Series

shows resistors in series connected to a voltage

source. The total resistance in the circuit is equal
to the sum of the individual resistances, since the
current has to pass through each resistor in
sequence through the circuit.

Using Ohm ‘s Law to Calculate Voltage Changes in Resistors in Series

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage drop, V, across a resistor when a current flows
through it is calculated by using the equation V=IR, where I is current in amps (A) and R is the
resistance in ohms (Ω).
So the voltage drop across R1 is V1=IR1, across R2 is V2=IR2, and across R3 is
V3=IR3. The sum of these voltages equals the voltage output of the source; that is,
V=V1+V2+V3
Using Ohm ‘s Law to Calculate Voltage Changes in Resistors in Series
If we substitute the values for individual voltages, we get:
V=IR1+IR2+IR3 or V=I(R1+R2+R3)
This implies that the total resistance in a series is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances. Therefore, for every circuit with N number of resistors connected in series:
V=IR1+IR2+IR3 or V=I(R1+R2+R3)
RN(series)=R1+R2+R3+…+RN.
Resistors in Parallel
The total resistance in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the inverse of each
individual resistances.
Each resistor draws the same current it would if it were the only resistor connected to
the voltage source. This is true of the circuitry in a house or apartment. Each outlet that is
connected to a appliance (the “resistor”) can operate independently, and the current does not
have to pass through each appliance sequentially.
Ohm ‘s Law and Parallel Resistors
Each resistor in the circuit has the full voltage.
According to Ohm’s law, the currents flowing through the individual resistors are

Conservation of charge implies that the total current is the sum of these currents:
Ohm ‘s Law and Parallel Resistors
Substituting the expressions for individual currents gives:

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field.
The capacitor is made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a
dielectric material. The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power source.
One plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates negative charge.

WHO DISCOVERED
 EWALD GEORG VON KLEIST
o In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that
charge could be stored by connecting a high voltage electrostatic generator by a
wire to are volume of water in a hand-held glass jar
 PIETER VAN MUSSCHENBROEK
o The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a
similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden
where he worked.

WHAT ARE THE TYPES?

CERAMIC CAPACITOR
The ceramic capacitor is a type of capacitor that is used in many applications from
audio to RF. The actual performance of the ceramic capacitors is highly dependent upon the
dielectric used.

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
Electrolytic capacitors are a type of capacitor that is polarised. They are able to offer
high capacitance values - typically above, uF (micro Farad). And are most widely used for low
frequency applications - power supplies, decoupling and audio coupling applications as they
have, a frequency limit if around 100/kHz.

TANTALUM CAPACITOR
Like electrolytic capacitors, tantalum capacitors are also polarised and offer a very high
capacitance level for their Volume. However this type of capacitor is very intolerant of N being
reverse biased often exploding when placed under stress. This type of capacitor must also not
be subject to high ripple currents or voltages above their working voltage. They are available in
both leaded and surface mount formats.

SILVER MICA CAPACITOR

Silver mica capacitors are not as widely use these days, but they still offer very high
levels of stability, low loss and accuracy where space is not an issue. They are primarily used
for RF applications and they are limited to maximum values of 1000 pF or so.
POLYSTYRENE FILM CAPACITORS
A Polystyrene capacitors are a relatively cheap form of capacitor but offer a close
tolerance capacitor where needed. They are tubular in shape resulting from the fact that the
plate / dielectric sandwich is rolled together, but this adds inductance limiting their frequency
response to a few hundred kHz. They are generally only available as leaded electronics
components

POLYESTER FILM CAPACITOR

Polyester film capacitors are used-where cost is a consideration as they do not offer a
high tolerance. Many polyester film capacitors have a tolerance of 5% or 10% which is
adequate for many applications. They are generally only available as leaded
electronics/components.

METALLISED POLYESTER FILM CAPACITOR

This type of capacitor is essentially a form of polyester film capacitor where the
polyester films themselves are metalized. The advantage of using this process is that because
their electrodes are thin, the overall capacitor can be contained within a relatively small
package. The metalized polyester film capacitors are generally only available as leaded
electronics components."

POLYCARBONATE CAPACITOR
The polycarbonate capacitors had been used in applications where reliability and
performance are critical. The polycarbonate film is very stable, and enables high tolerance
capacitors to be made which will hold their capacitance value over time. In addition they have
a low dissipation factor, and they remain stable over a wide temperature range.

POLYPROPYLENE CAPACITOR
The polypropylene capacitor is sometimes used when a higher tolerance type of
capacitor is necessary than polyester capacitors offer. As the name implies, this capacitor uses
a polypropylene film for the dielectric. One of the advantages of the capacitor is that there is
very little change of capacitance with time and voltage applied.

GLASS CAPACITOR
As the name implies, this capacitor type uses glass as the dielectric. Although expensive,
these capacitors offer very high levels or performance in terms of extremely low loss, high RF
current capability, no piezo-electric noise and other features making them ideal for many
performance RF applications.

BOOSTCAP
Also known as a supercapacitor or ultracapacitor as the name implies these capacitors
have very large values of capacitance, of up to several thousand Farads. They find uses for
providing a memory hold-up supply and also within automotive applications.

CAPACITANCE IN SERIES

Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1.000, 5.000, and 8.000 µF.
 1 1 1 1
= + + ……
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1 1 53 1.325
= 1.00µ𝐹 + 5.00µ𝐹 + 8.00µ𝐹 = 40.00µ𝐹 =
𝐶𝑠 µ𝐹

1 1.325
=
𝐶𝑠 µ𝐹

1µ𝐹
1.325

0.75 µF
CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL

Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1.000, 5.000, and 8.000 µF.

Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ….
Cp = 1.000 µF + 5.000 µF + 8.000 µF = 14.000 µF
Cp = 14.000 µF