Chapter IV

HEXAGONAL, OCTAGONAL AND

HEPTAGONAL NUMBERS

Part of this work contained in this chapter has resulted in the following
publications:
Gopalan, M.A. and Jayakumar, P. "On hexagonal numbers", International
Journal Acta Ciencia Indica, 32M(3) (2006) 1217-1219.

Gopalan, M.A. and Jayakumar, P. "On octagonal numbers". Accepted on

13.10.2005 for publications in The Mathematics Education, 42(1)
(2008).
Gopalan, M.A. and Jayakumar, P. "On heptagonal numbers", Accepted on
13.10.2005 for publications in Applied Science Periodical, 10(3) (2008).
 Chapter IV
HEXAGONAL, OCTAGONAL AND
HEPTAGONAL NUMBERS

Hexagonal, Octagonal and Heptagonal numbers have

fascinated mathematicians as they provide non-routine and
challenging problems. For a review on Hexagonal, Octagonal and
Heptagonal numbers and their properties one may refer [7] and
[18]. This chapter presents tvra results of interest relating to
hexagonal, octagonal and heptagonal numbers. A few relations
among hexagonal, octagonal, heptagonal and triangular numbers
are also presented.

4.1. Hexagonal numbers

A hexagonal number is a figurate number. The n*
hexagonal number will be the number of points in a hexagon
with n regularly spaced points on a side. The formula for the n^^
hexagonal number is:
h„ = n{2n -1) .
The first few hexagonal numbers are: 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66,
91, 120, 153, 190, 231,-276, 325, 378, 435, 496.

Every hexagonal number is triangular number, but not

every triangular number is a hexagonal number. Like a triangular
number, the digital root in base 10 of a hexagonal number can
only be 1, 3, 6, or 9.
 64
Any integer greater than 1791 can be expressed as a sum of
at most four hexagonal numbers, a fact proven by Adrien-Marie
Legendre (1830).
Hexagonal numbers can be rearranged into rectangular
numbers n long and 2n-l tall (or vice verse).
Hexagonal numbers should not be confused with centered
hexagonal numbers, which model the standard packaging of
Vienna sausages.
To avoid ambiguity, hexagonal numbers are sometimes
called "cornered hexagonal numbers".

Test for hexagonal numbers

One can efficiently test whether a positive integer x is an
hexagonal number by computing
VSx + l + l
n= .
4
If n is an integer, then x is the n^^ hexagonal number. If n is not
an integer, then x is not hexagonal.

In this section,two results of interest relating to hexagonal

numbers are presented. A few relations among hexagonal and
triangular numbers are also given [27]. First proves the following
theorem.

Theorem 4.1.1
There exists an infinite pairs of hexagonal numbers (H„, H^) such
that their ratio is equal to a non-zero square - free integer.
 65
Proof
Let (H^,H^)he a pair of hexagonal n u m b e r s s u c h t h a t

H. = a .(4.1.1)

where a is a n o n - zero square-free integer. Using t h e s t a n d a r d

definition of hexagonal n u m b e r s , equation (4.1.1) is written a s
m{2m-\) = ak{2k-\).

2(m'-~) = 2a(k'-~).
7- 1'

By writing complete squares, we get

(m—) 2a
4 16 4' 16

16 ^ ^ 16 ^
If we t a k e X= 4 k - 1 , ...(4.1.2)
Y = 4m-1, ...(4.1.3)
t h e n we get

r - a X ^ = l - a = - ( a - l ) = -7V, ...(4.1.4)

•where N = a-l

The above equation (4.1.4) is well- known Pell's equation

a n d it h a s a n infinite n u m b e r of integral solutions. The general
solutions of the equation (4.1.4) are given by

X„=X,y„+Y,x„, ...(4.1.5)

Y„ =Y,y„+ aX,x„, ...(4.1.6)

whereFg,+V«Xo is t h e fundamental solution of (4.1.4) and

Jo + 4OCXQ is the fundamental solution of the Pellian

7^-0^'=!. ...(4.1.7).
 66
The infinite n u m b e r of solutions of (4.1.7) is given by

y„+y[^x„=(y,+x,J^r\n= 0,1,2, ...(4.1.8)

F u r t h e r we have,

yn-^[ax„=(yo-xo-Ja.y^\n=^ 0,1,2, ...(4.1.9)

Adding a n d s u b t r a c t i n g t h e above equations (4.1.8), (4.1.9), we

get

J«=-[(jo+Vaxo)"^'+(3^o-Vaxo)"^^] ...(4.1.10)

Xn=-^[(yo+^faxo)"^'-{yo-y[axoT^^] ...(4.1.11)

Using (4.1.10), (4.1.11) in the general solutions of (4.1.4), we get

= -^[{yo+4^x,y^\X,^ + Y,) + iy, -4^x,r\X,4^-Y, )]

2^a

2 - 2v«

-^-[{y,+4^xX\X,4^ + Y,) + {y,-^x,r\Y, -X,4^)\.

In view of e q u a t i o n s (4.1.2) a n d (4.1.3), t h e r a n k s of t h e respective

hexagonal n u m b e r are given by

m=^[(>^o + V ^ ^ o ) " ' ( ^ o + V«'^o) + iy. - ^x.r'iY, - ^XJ + 2],

o

...(4.1.12)

k =-^[(y,+4^x,r\Yo+4^X,) + {y,-^f^xX\^o^-Yo) + 2^],

...(4.1.13)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 , . . .
 67
Some particular cases
When a = 3, the equation (4.1.4) leads to the Pell's equation
Y2 - 3X2 = _2.
In view of (4.1.12) and (4.1.13), the ranks of the hexagonal
numbers are given by

m=U(2 + Sy' (1 + V3) + (2 - V3)"^' (1 - V3) + 2],

8

A: = - ^ [ ( 2 + V 3 r ' ( l + V3) + ( 2 - V 3 r ' ( V 3 - l ) + 2V3].

The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when

n = 4 r + 1 , r = 0, 1, 2, 3...
Some examples are presented in the table 4.1.1.
Table 4.1.1
s. Values Rank Rank Hexagonal Hexagonal
No ofn m k numbers H „ numbers H ^
1 1 5 3 45 15
2 5 923 533 1702935 567645

3 9 179009 103351 64088265153 21362755051

4 13 34726775 20049513 2411897769074475 803965923024825

5 17 6736815293 3889502123 90769360577260536405 30256453525753512135

When a = 7, the equation (4.1.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2 _ 7X2 = .6.
In view of (4.1.12) and (4.1.13), the ranks of the hexagonal
numbers are given by

w =-[(8 + SVT")""'(1 + V?) + (8 - SV?)""'(1 - VV) + 2],

8

A: = ^ [ ( 8 + sVvr'(1 + V?) + (8 - sVrr'(-7? -1) + 2^7].

8V7
 68
The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when
n = 4 r + 1 , r = 1, 2, 3...
Some examples are presented in the table 4.1.2.

Table 4.1.2
s. Values Rankm Rankk Hexagonal numbers H ^ Hexagonal numbers H ^^
No ofn
1 1 116 4 26796 3828

2 5 7467548 2822468 111528538797060 15932664399580

3 9 481761375428 182088684380 464188045708074962990940 66312577958296423284420

When a = 11, the equation (4.1.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2 _ 9X2 = _8.
In view of (4.1.12) and (4.1.13), the ranks of the hexagonal
numbers are given by

OT=-[(10+sViT)"" (1+VTT) + (10 - sViT)"^'(1 - VrT)+2],

8

[(10+3 VTTr^ (1+ViT)+(10 - 3 VTIr'(Vn -1)+2 ViT].

8V11
The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when
n = 4 r + 1 , r = 0, 1, 2, 3...
Some examples are presented in the table 4.1.3.
Table 4.1.3

s. Values Rankm Rankk

Hexagonal numbers Hexagonal numbers
No ofn
1 1 215 65 92235 8385

2 5 34016945 10256495 2314305060249105 210391369113555

Theorem 4.1.2
The general form of the rank of square hexagonal number
{HJis given by
 69

m = - [(3 +V8)2r+i + (3 -V8)2r+i + 2)], where r = 0, 1, 2...

8
Proof
Let H^ be a s q u a r e hexagonal n u m b e r . We write

H„ = t 2 , ...(4.1.14)

where t is a non-zero integer.

Using the definition of hexagonal number the above

equation (4.1.14) is written as
m(2m-\) = t^.

By writing complete s q u a r e , we get

2[(„-i)^ _ ! , = ,= .

16 16
{Am-\f-\ = %t\
Ifwetakey = 4m-l, ...(4.1.15)
t h e n we get
7 ' - l = 8r^(0r) r ' - 8 / ' = l , ...(4.1.16)

which is t h e well-known Pell's equation .

The values of t a n d y satisfying t h e equation (4.1.16) are given by

y n = | [(3+ V8)n+i+ (3-V8)'^+i],

t n = ^ [(3 + V8)'i+i - (3 -V8)n+i], where n = 0,1,2,3

2V8

In view of the equation (4.1.15.), the r a n k m is given by

m = - [(3 + 78)11+1 + (3 _V8)n+i+ 2].

o
 70
It is noted t h a t t h e values of m will be a n integer w h e n n is
taking even values. T h u s the r a n k m of t h e s q u a r e hexagonal
n u m b e r / / ^ is given by

m = - [(3 + V8)2r+i + (3 _V8)2r+i + 2], w h e r e r = 0, 1, 2....

8
Some examples are presented in the table 4.1.4.
Table 4 . 1 . 4

Values of Rank Hexagonal number

r rn Hm
0 1 1
1 25 1225
2 841 1413721
3 28561 1631432881
4 970225 1882672131025

It is interesting to note t h a t the r a n k s of t h e s q u a r e hexagonal

n u m b e r s are also s q u a r e s .

Theorem 4 . 1 . 3
The r a n k mr satisfies the recurrence relation:
mr+2 - 34 mr+i + mr + 8 = 0,
where m ris t h e r a n k s of the r"' square hexagonal n u m b e r s .

Proof
The r a n k s m^of t h e s q u a r e hexagonal n u m b e r H^ are given

by

m , = - [(3 + V8)2r+i + (3 _V8)2r+i + 2], .(4.1.17)

8
where r = 0, 1, 2, 3.
 71
The above equation (4.1.17) can be written a s
8 m , - 2 = [(3 + V8)2r+i + (3 -V8)2r+i ...(4.1.18)

Replacing r by r + 1 , r +2 successively in (4.1.18), we get

8 m ,^,-2 = (3 + V8)2(r+i)+i + (3 -V8)2(r+i)+i

= (3 + V8)2r+3 + (3_V8)2r+3

= (3 + V8)2r+1(3 + V8)2 + (3 -V8)2r+1 (3 -V8)2.

= (3 + V8)2r+i(17 + 6V8) +(3-V8)2r+i ( 1 7 - 6 V 8 ) .

= 17[(3+V8)2r+l+(3-V8)2r+l]+6V8[(3+V8)2r+l-(3-V8)2r+l],

...(4.1.19)
8m ,^2-2 = (3 + V8)2(r+2)+l + (3 ._7^)2(r+2)+l

= (3 + V8)2r+5 + (3_78)2r+5.

= (3 + V8)2r+i (3 + V8)4 + (3 -V8)2r+i (3 -V8)4.

= (3 +V8)2>-+i (577+204 V8)+ (3 -V8)2r+i (577-204 Vs).

= 577[(3 +V8)'^"' + (3 -yfsy' ]

+204 Vs [(3+ VS)'"' - (3 - VS)""^'].

...(4.1.20)
Multiplying (4.1.19) by 24, subtracting from the (4.1.20)
a n d u s i n g (4.1.18), we get
[8m^,, -2]-34[8w,,, - 2 ] = - [ ( 3 + V8)2r+i + (3 -V8)2r+i]

=---[8mr-2].
8 w,^2 - 2 - 272 w,.^, + 68 = - 8OT,+ 2.
8w,^2-272w,^,+8w, = 2 + 2 - 6 8 = - 6 4 .
8 (m^^2 - 34 m„i + m,) = -64
Dividing by 8, we get m^^^ ~34m,^j +m, +8 = 0.
This is t h e recurrence relation for t h e r a n k s of the s q u a r e
hexagonal n u m b e r s .
 72
Observation
A few i n t e r e s t i n g relations a m o n g Hexagonal numbers
Let H„ and T^ denote the hexagonal, and triangular

n u m b e r s respectively. It p r e s e n t s below a few interesting relations

among t h e hexagonal n u m b e r s .

Recurrence relation 4 . 1 . 1
Hexagonal n u m b e r s satisfies the following recurrence relation
H^^x + H^_^ - 2H^ = 4.

Proof
By t h e s t a n d a r d definition of hexagonal n u m b e r ,
if„=m(2m-l) ...(4.1.21)

Replacing m by m - 1 , m +1 successively in (4.1.21), we get

H„_,=(m-l)[2(m-l)-l].

= (m-1) ( 2 m - 3 ) , ...(4.1.22)

= (m+1) (2m+l). ...(4.1.23)

From t h e equation (4.1.23), we get
//„,, =(m + l ) [ 2 w - l + 2].

= m (2m-l) + 2 m - l + 2 m + 2
= //„+4m+l. ...(4.1.24)

From t h e equation (4.1.22), we get

//„_, = ( m - l ) [ 2 m - l - 2 ] .

= m (2m-l)-(2m-l)-2m + 2
= if„-4m + 3 ...(4.1.25)

Adding t h e equations (4.1.24) a n d (4.1.25), we get

^ . . . + ^™-. = 2 H „ + 4
 73
This is the recurrence relation for the hexagonal numbers.

Identity 4.1.1
The sum of the hexagonal numbers can be expressed as a
polynomial in s.

Thatis, X ^ . = ^ 7 V ( ^ + 1).
^ 3 ^
Proof
The m"' hexagonal number is given by
//„=m(2m-l).

Hence ^ if „ = J^ m (2/« -1) = J ] (2OT^ - m).

m=\ m=l m=\

^(5 + l)(2^ + l) s{s + \)

= llLnr - Lm = 2-

= ^ ^ [ 2 ( 2 5 + l)-3] = ^ ( 4 . - l )
6 i

= 1^2(^ + 1).
3 s

Hence X / ^ . = % 2 ( ^ + l)-
m=l ^ ^

Identity 4.1.2
The sum of the squares of the hexagonal numbers can be
expressed as a polynomial in s.

That is, tHj =^[24s' +6s' -I6s + 1].

"=' 15
Proof
The m"" hexagonal number is given by
// = m ( 2 m - l ) .
 74

Hence Y,Hj =j;,[H2m-l)r

m=l

= 4 Z w - 4 Zm + Zm
m=l /n=l m=l

=4 J^(5 + l)' 5(5 + l)(2^ + l)

-4
30

= s(s+l)
15 6

= — s ( s + l ) [ 4 ( 6 5 ' + 9 5 ' + 5 - 1 ) - 3 0 5 ( 5 + 1)+ 5(25 + 1)}

= — [ 2 4 / + 6 5 ' - 1 6 ^ + 1]
15

Thus Y,Hl=^i24s'+6s'-I6s + l).

m=\ 15
Identity 4.1.3
The sum of the cubes of the hexagonal numbers can be
expressed as a polynomial in s.

That is, Y,^l =—^(240^' -2405" - 9 6 / - 9 / +399^-84)

m=\

Proof
The m"' hexagonal number is given by

H^ = m(2m -1)

Hence HJ =m\2m-lf.

= ^.^rQ^i j_<=;
w'(8m'+ 6m-12w-l),

(Sm'+em-Um-m')
 75

Thus iHm^ 8 Z w - 1 2 Sm^ + 6 Z m - Im'

m=\

3 ^„2
5(5 + l){6s' +\5s' + 6s -6s' -5-h 1) r (5+ i r (25^+25-1)
=8 •12
42 12

sis + l)i6s'+9s'+s-l) ^yX-y + l ) '

+6
30

= ^^^^^^^[40(65^ 155" + 65^ - 6^2 - 5 +1)-420(5^ + 5)(25'+ 25 - 1 )

420

+ 84(65^ + 9 5 ' + 5 - 1 ) - 1 0 5 ( 5 ^ +5)1

Hence, J ] / / ^ = - ^ ( 2 4 0 5 ^ - 2405" --965^ - 95' + 3995 - 84)

m=l 210

4 . 2 . OCTAGONAL NUMBERS
An octagonal n u m b e r is a figurate n u m b e r s t h a t represents
a n octagon. The octagonal n u m b e r for n is given by t h e formula
0„ =n(3n-2),with n > 0.
The first few octagonal n u m b e r s are: 1, 8, 2 1 , 4 0 , 6 5 , 9 6 , 1 3 3 , 1 7 6 ,
2 2 5 , 280, 3 4 1 , 4 0 8 , 4 8 1 , 560, 6 4 5 , 736, 8 3 3 , 936.

The generating function for the octagonal n u m b e r is

(l-xf
Octagonal n u m b e r s can be formed by placing triangular n u m b e r s
on t h e four sides of a s q u a r e . To p u t it algebraically, the n^h
octagonal n u m b e r is
n-l

«'+4^A:

which simplifies to the formula given above.

 76

The octagonal number for n can also be calculated by

adding the square of n to twice the (n-l)"" pronic number, or, to
put it algebraically,
0„=n^ + 2(n^ - n) .
Octagonal numbers consistently alternate parity.

Confusingly, octagonal numbers occasionally referred to as

"star numbers," though that term is more commonly used to refer
to centered dodecagonal numbers.

A centered octagonal number is a centered figurate number

that represents an octagon with a dot in the center and all other
dots surrounding the center dot in successive octagonal layers.
The centered octagonal number for n is given by the formula
87;_,+i
where T is a regular triangular number, or much more simply, by
squaring the odd numbers:
(2« + l ) ^
The first few centered octagonal numbers are:
1, 9, 25, 49, 8 1 , 121, 169, 225, 289, 361, 4 4 1 , 529, 625, 729,
8 4 1 , 9 6 1 , 1089.
All centered octagonal numbers are odd, and in base 10
one can notice the one's digits follow the pattern 1-9-5-9-1.

Calculating Ramanujan's tau function on a centered

octagonal number yields an odd number, whereas for any other
number the function yields an even number.
 77
In this section, two results of interest relating to octagonal
number are presented. A few relations among octagonal,
hexagonal and triangular numbers are also given [29]. First
proves the following theorem.

Theorem 4.2.1
There exists an infinite pairs of octagonal numbers (0„, O^) such
that their ratio is equal to a non-zero square - free integer.
Proof
Let {O^, O4) be a pair of octagonal numbers such that
0„
= a, ...(4.2.1)
O,
where a is a non- zero square-free integer. Using the standard
definition of octagonal numbers, the equation (4.2.1) is written as
m(3m-2) = ak{3k-2).

By writing complete squares, we get

31('"-^)'-i] = 3a[(i-i)'-^].

Ifv/etakeX = 3 k - l , ...(4.2.2)
Y = 3m-1, ...(4.2.3)
then we get
Y^ -\ = a{X^ -\) = aX^ -a
Y'-aX^=\-a = -{si-\) = -N, ...(4.2.4)
where N -a-l
 78
The above equation (4.2.4) is well- known Pell's equation
and it has an infinite number of integral solutions. The general
solutions of the equation (4.2.4) are given by
X„=X,y„+Y,x„, ' ...(4.2.5)

Y„ =Y,y„+ aX,x„, ...(4.2.6)

where7^ + Va-X'o is t h e fundamental solution of (4.2.4) and

y^ + 4axQ is the fundamental solution of the Pellian

r'-ay'=l. ...(4.2.7)
The infinite number of solutions of (4.2.7) are given by
y„ + V^x„ = {y^ +x^4^y'\,,n = 0,1,2, ...(4.2.8)
Further we have,
y„-4^x„={y,-x,^y'\n = Q,\,l, ...(4.2.9)
Adding and subtracting the above equations (4.2.8), (4.2.9), we
get

yn=-\{y^+4axo)^^^ +(.yo-Vaxo)"^M ...(4.2.10)

Xn=^rA{yo +4axof^^ -{yo -4axoy^^\ ...(4.2.11)

Using (4.2.10), (4.2.11) in the general solutions of (4.2.4), we get

X„ = — b o + V ^ x o r ' +(>^o - V ^ x o ) " " ' ] + ^ b o +4^x,y''-{yo - Vo^xo)""']

2 2va

= - i = [ ( j ; o + Vaxo)"''HXoVa+ Fo) + (>^o - V^xo)'"-'(XoV^-Fo)]

2Va
 79

•^ ' 2-\/oc

= - b o + Vaxo )"*' (Xo Va + 7o) + (yo - Vax„ )"^' (7o - Xo Va)].

In view of equations (4.2.2) and (4.2.3), the ranks of the respective

octagonal number are given by

m = -[(yo + ^XO)"^\YO + ^Xo) + (yo - ^XO)"^\YO - VorXo)] + 2].

6
...(4.2.12)

k - -4=[(yo + Vaxo)"^'(Fo'+ VaXo) + (>;o -^xo)"^'\Xo^fa - Yo) + 2Va],

6Va
...(4.2.13)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3. . .

Some particular cases

When a = 2, the equation (4.2.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2_2X2= -1.
In view of (4.2.12) and (4.2.13), the ranks of the octagonal
numbers are given by

m=-[(3 + 2V2)"^' (1 + V2) + (3 - 2V2)"^' (1 - V2) + 2],

6

k = -^[(3 + 2V2)""' (1 + ^/2) + (3 - 2V2)""'(V2 -1) + 2V2].

6V2
The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when
n = 4 r + 1 , r = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
 80
Some examples are presented in the table 4.2.1.

Table 4.2.1

Values Rank Rank- Octagonal number Octagonal number

ofn m k
a
1 14 10 560 280

5 15774 11154 746425680 373212840

9 18202798 12871322 994025528680816 497012764340408

13 21006012734 14853494050 1323757712900898431800 661878856450449219900

When a = 3, the equation (4.2.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2 _ 3X2 = _2.
In view of (4.2.12) and (4.2.13), the ranks of the octagonal
numbers are given by

m-! = ^[(2 + V s r ' ( 1 + V3) + (2 - VS)""'(1 - VS) + 2],

k = -^[(2+Vs)"^' (1+Vs)+(2 - Vs)"^' (Vs -1)+2V3]

6V3
The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when
n = 6 r - 4 , r = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
Some examples are presented in the table 4.2.2.
Table 4.2.2

Octagonal number Octagonal number

s. Values Rank Rank
No ofn m k 0,
1 2 24 14 1680 560

2 8 63954 36924 12270214440 4090071480

3 14 172802784 99767734 89582406128846400 29860802042943800

4 20 466913057514 269572379444 654023409830281789465560 218007803276760596488520

 81

When a = 5, the equation (4.2.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2 - 5X2 = -4.

In view of (4.2.12) and (4.2.13), the ranks of the octagonal

numbers are given by

w=-[(9 + 4V5)"^'(l + V5) + (9-4V5)"^'(l-V5)+2],

6

k = - ^ [ ( 9 + 4V5)""'(1 + VS) + ( 9 - VS)""'(VS -1) + 2V5]

The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when

n = 4 r - 3 , r = 0, 1, 2, 3...

Some examples are presented in the table 4.2.3.

Table 4.2.3

vS. Values Rank Rank Octagonal number Octagonal number

No of n m k m 0.

1 1 174 78 90480 18096

2 5 18006174 8052606 972666870342480 194533374068496

Theorem 4.2.2
The general form of the rank of square octagonal
number (<9„) is given by

m = - [(2 + V3)2r+i + (2 -V3)2r+i + 2)], where r = 0, 1, 2 . . .

6
Proof
Let 0„ be a square octagonal number. We write
0„ = t2, where t is a non-zero integer. ...(4.2.14)
 82
Using the definition of the octagonal number the above equation
(4.2.14) can be written as
m(3m-2) = t^.
^, 2 2/W- 2

By writing complete square, we get

9 9
(3m-1)^^1 = 3?'
Ifwetakey = 4m-l, ...(4.2.15)
then we get
y2-3t2=l. ...(4.2.16)
The above equation (4.2.16) is the well-known Pell's equation.

The values of t and y satisfying the equation (4.2.16) are

given by

y„=]^ [(2+V3)n-i + (2~V3)n-i],

/„ = ^ [(2 + V3)«^i - {2 -V3)^+i].

In view of the equation (4.2.15), the rank m is given by

m = - [(2 + V3)n+i + (2 -V3)"^' + 2].

6
It is noted that the values of m will be an integer when n is
taking even values. Thus the rank m of the square octagonal
number Om is given by

m = - [(2+ V3)'^"' +(2-V3)'^"'+2], wherer = 0, 1,2,....

6
 83

Some examples are presented in the Table 4.2.4.

Table 4.2.4

Values of Rank Octagonal number

r m Om
0 1 1

1 9 225
2 121 43681
3 1681 8473921

4 23409 1643897025

It is interesting to note that the ranks of the square

octagonal numbers are also squares.

Theorem 4.2.3
The rank m^ satisfies the recurrence relation:
w,^2 ~ 14w,^,+m^+4=0, where m^is the rank of the r""square
octagonal number.
Proof
The ranks m^of the square octagonal number O^ are
given by

m , = - [(2 +V3)2r+i + (2 -v^)2r+i + 2], ...(4.2.17)

6
where n = 0, 1, 2...
The above equation (4.2.17) can be written as

6 m , - 2 = [(2 + ^^)2r+i + (2 -V3)2r+i ] ...(4.2.18)

 84
Replacing r by r + 1 , r +2 successively in (4.2.18), we get

6 m ,^,-2 = (2 + V3)2(r+i)+i + (2 _V3)2(r+i)+i

= (2+ V3)2r+3 + (2-V3)2r+3)

= (2 + V3)2r+1(2 + V3)2 + (2-V3)2r+l (2-V3)2

= (2+ V3)2r+i(7 + 4 ^ 3 ) + (2 -V3)2r+i (7 - 4V3)

= 7[(2 +V3)2r+i+ (2_V3)2r+i] + 4Vs [(2+V3)2r+i-(2 -V3)2r+i],

...(4.2.19)
6m,,, -2 = (2 + VS) ^(^"2)+i + (2 - V3) ^^'"2)"'

= (2 + V3)2r+5 + (2-V3)2r+5

= (2 + V3)2r+1 (2 + V2l)4 + (2-V3)2r+l (2 -V3)4.

= (2+V3)2r+i (97+56^/3)+ (2-V3)2r+i (97-56 Vs).

= 9 7 [( 2 +V3)2r+1 + (2 -V3)2r+1]

+ 5 6 ^ 3 [( 2 +A/3)2r+l - (2-^/3)2r+l]

...(4.2.20)
Multiplying (4.2.19) by 14, subtracting from t h e (4.2.20) a n d u s i n g
(4.2.18), we get
[6m ,,2-2] -14 [6m,^,-2] = - [(2 + V3)2r+i + (2-V3)2r+i]

= - [6m r -2]

6m,^2-2 -84m,.^1+28 = - 6m,+ 2

6m^^2 ~84/«^^i +6m^ =24

6{mr+2 ~l4mr+l + Mr) = - 2 4

Dividing by 6, we get
^r+2 ~14w^^, +m^ +4 = 0.
This is t h e recurrence relation for t h e r a n k s of the s q u a r e
octagonal n u m b e r s .
 85

Observation
A few i n t e r e s t i n g relations a m o n g octagonal numbers
Let 0„, Ts a n d Hs denote octagonal, triangular and

hexagonal n u m b e r s respectively. First p r e s e n t s below a few

interesting relations.

Recurrence relation 4 . 2 . 1
The octagonal n u m b e r satisfies the following r e c u r r e n c e
relation
Om+l + Om-l - 20m = 6
Proof
By t h e s t a n d a r d definition of octagonal n u m b e r ,
0„=m(3m-2) ...(4.2.21)

Replacing m b y m - 1 , m +1 successively in (4.2.21), we get

0„-, = ( m - l ) [ 3 ( m - l ) - 2 ] .

= (m-l)(3m-5), ...(4.2.22)
0„,, =(m + l)[3(m + l ) - 2 ] .

= (m+1) (3m+l) ...(4.2.23)

From t h e equation (4.2.23), we get
0„,, =(m + l)[3/77-2 + 3].

= m (3m.-2) + 3m-2 + 3m + 3
= C>„+6m+l ...(4.2.24)

From t h e equation (4.2.22), we get

C„_,=(m-l)[3m-2-3].

= m (3m-2)-(3m-2)-3m + 3
= 0„-6m + 5 ...(4.2.25)

Adding t h e equations (4.2.24) a n d (4.2.25), we get

 86
0„,, + 0„_, -2<9„ = 6
This is the recurrence relation for the octagonal numbers.

Identity 4.2.1
The sum of the octagonal numbers can be expressed as a
polynomial in s.

That is, y 0„ = ^^^ ^ ^^ (2s -1) ^ ^ ^ , where H^ andT^ is the

m=l 2 S

hexagonal and triangular numbers respectively.

Proof
The m"' octagonal number is given by
0„= m {3m-2).

Hence J]C>„ = 2] w(3/w - 2) = ^(3m^ - 2m)

m=l m=l

s s
5(^ + l)(2^ + l) 25(^ + 1)
= 3 ^ m ^ -'2^m =3
m=l m=l

^ ^ [ ( 2 5 + l)-2] = r,(2^-l)
• 2

Hence ±0. -TsHss

Identity 4.2.2
The sum of the squares of the octagonal numbers can be
expressed as a polynomial in s.

That is, to.' =—[545' -9s' -415 + 11].

"=' 15'
Proof
The /M"* octagonal number is given by
 87
<9„ = m { 3 m - 2 ) .

Hence Y,Oj =Z[m(3m-2)f

m=l m=\
m=:l

m^.
m=l m=l m=l

= nr-y(^ + l ) ( 6 ^ ' + 9 ^ ' + ^ - l ) T .^.^^(5 + l ) \ , ,5(5 + 1X2^ + 1)

^ 30 ^ '^^ 4 ^ 6

= s{s+l)[—(65'+95^+5-1)-35(5 + 1) + 2 ^ ? ^ i ^ ] .

= — s ( s + l ) [9(65'+95'+5-1)-905(5 + 1)+ 20(25 + 1)].

=—[545^-95'-415+11]
15

T h u s 2 ; 0 ^ = ^ ( 5 4 5 ' - 9 5 ' - 4 1 5 + 11).

Identity 4 . 2 . 3
The s u m of t h e c u b e s of t h e octagonal n u m b e r s can be
expressed a s a polynomial in s.

That is, Y,Ol =^{210s' +45s^ -9O65+3I5' +2145-39)

m=l 35

Proof
The m"" octagonal n u m b e r is given by

0„ = m(3w-2)

s Hence Oj =m\2m-2)\

= m\27m^ +36m-54m^ -S)

 88
6 , -3zc„.4 r:4„.S o„.3>
= (llm" +36m' -54m' -Sm')

Thus iOm^ = 21 i m^ -54 im^ + 36 im"^ -S im\

m=l m=l m=l m=l m=l

,5 , i c „ 4 , r „ 3 /:„2
^ ^ ^ ( 5 + l)(6^^ + 15^V,6.y^-65"-.y + l) ^^^^(.^ + 1 ) ^ ( 2 / + 2 ^ - 1 )
42 12

J , ri_2
+ 36 o
30

^ ' 14 2

+ 6:!. 1. _ 25(^ +1)

^il±^ [45(65^ +155^ + 65^ - 65^ - 5 +1) - 315(5^ + s)(2s^ + 2 5 - 1 )

- + 8 4 ( 6,35 ',+ n_2

95^+5-1)-140(5^+5)

On simplifying, we get

J^Ol =^(270s + 45s' ^9065' +315' +2145-39).

4.3. HEPTAGONAL NUMBERS

A heptagonal number is a figurate number that represents
a heptagon.

The nth heptagonal number is given by the formula

1
-n(5n-3).
2
 89
The first few heptagonal numbers are: 1, 7, 18, 34, 55, 81,
112, 148, 189, 235, 286, 342, 403, 469, 540, 616, 697, 783, 874,
970.

The parity of heptagonal numbers follows the pattern odd-

odd-even-even.

Like square numbers, the digital root in base 10 of a

heptagonal number can only be 1, 4, 7 or 9. Five times a
heptagonal number, plus 1 equals a triangular number.

A generalized heptagonal number is obtained by the formula

where T„ is the n * triangular number. The first few generalized

heptagonal numbers are: 1, 4, 7, 13, 18, 27, 34, 46, 55, 70, 81,
99, 112.

Every other generalized heptagonal number is a regular

heptagonal number. Besides 1 sand 70, no generalized heptagonal
numbers are also Pell numbers.

A heptagonal pyramidal number is the sum of the first few

heptagonal numbers. The heptagonal number for n can be
calculated by adding up the heptagonal numbers for 1 to n, or by
using the formula
«(« + l)(5«-2)/6 .
The first few heptagonal pyramidal numbers are:l, 8, 26,
60, 115, 196, 308,456, 645, 880, 1166, 1508, 1911, 2380, 2920,
3536, 4233, 5016, 5890, 6860, 7931, 9108.
 90
In this section, two results of interest relating to heptagonal
number are presented. A few relations among heptagonal and
triangular numbers are given [30]. First proves the following
theorem.

Theorem 4.3.1
There exists an infinite pairs of heptagonal numbers
(Hm, Hk) such that their ratio is equal to a non-zero square - free
integer.

Proof
Let (H m, H k) be a pair of heptagonal numbers such that

= a, ...(4.3.1)
Hk

where a is a non- zero square-free integer.

Using the standard definition of heptagonal numbers, the

equation (4.3.1) is written as

—(5m-3) = -K5A;-3).

By writing complete squai-es, we get

[(m-—f --^]^a[ik-—y -—].

^^ 10 100 10 100
(10^-1)2 _9 ^ (io/c-l)2-9
^^ 100 100
lfwetakeX=10k-l, ...(4.3.2)
Y=10m-1, ...(4.3.3)
then we get
Y^-9 = a(X^-9) = aX^-9a
 91
Y' -aX' =9-9a = -9{a-\) = -N, ...(4.3.4)
where N - 9(a -1)
The above equation (4.3.4) is the well- known Pell's
equation and it has an infinite number of integral solutions. The
general solutions of the equation (4.3.4) are given by
X„=X,y„+Y,x„, ...(4.3.5)

7„ =Y,y„^ aX,x„, ...(4.3.6)

where YQ+4aXQ is the fundamental solution of (4.3.4) and

j'o + Viaxo is the fundamental solution of the Pellian

Y^-aX^=\. ...(4.3.7)
The infinite number of solutions of (4.3.7) is given by
y„+4^x^^{y^+x,4^y'\n=^,\a ...(4.3.8)
Further we have,
y„-4^x„={y,-x,4^T\n = QX2 ...(4.3.9)
Adding and subtracting the above equations (4.3.8), (4.3.9), we
get

yr, = ^ [ ( J ^ o + ^ ^ ^ o r ' + ( . V o - ^ / ^ ^ o ^ • ] ...(4.3.10)

x„ =_^[(;;„+v^xor'-u-V^^or'] ...(4.3.11)
Using (4.3.10), (4.3.11) in the general solutions of (4.3.4),
we get

2 2va

= -^[(y^ +^x,r\X,^ + Y,) + {y,-^x,r\X,^f^ -Y,)]

2va
 92

In view of equation (4.3.2) and (4.3.3), the ranks of the

respective heptagonal number eire given by

m = -[(y,+^x,^\Yo+^f^Xo) + iy, -^x,y'\Y, -V^Zo) + 6]

...(4.3.12)

^ =—T=[(.yo + V^^o)"'(^o +Va^o)+(:>^o -V^xo)"^'(XoV^-7o)+6V^],

20Va
...(4.3.13)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3. . .

Some particular cases

When a = 2, the equation (4.3.4) leads to the Pell's equation
Y2-2X2 = - 1 .
In view of (4.3.12) and (4.3.13), the ranks, of the heptagonal
numbers are given by

m = — [(3 + 2V2)""'(3 + 3V2) + (3 - 2V2)""'(3 - 3V2) + 6],

k = — ^ [ ( 3 + 272)"."' (3 + 3V2) + (3 - 2V2)""' (3V2 - 3) + 6V2] .

The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when

n == 6 r - 4, r = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
 93
Some examples are presented in the table 4.3.1
Table 4.3.1

s. Values Rank Rank Heptagonal number Heptagonal number

No ofn m k
m

1 2 72 51 12852 6426

2 8 2810796 1987533 19751431167846 9875715583923

3 14 110188812960 77915256855 30353936253669376684560 15176968126864688342280

When a = 6, the equation (4.3.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2 - 6X2 = _5.

In view of (4.3.12) and (4.3.13), the ranks of the octagonal

numbers are given by

w = — [(5 + 2V6)""'(3 + 3V6) + (5 - 2V6)"^'(3-3V6) + 6],

k = —^[(5 + 2V6)""' (3 + 3V6) + (5 - 2A/6)"^' (3^6 - 3) + 6V6] .

20V6
The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when
n = = 4 r + l , r = 0, 1,2, 3 ...
Some examples are presented in the table- 4.3.2
Table 4.3.2

s. Value Rank Rank Heptagonal Heptagonal

No ofn m k number i/„ number H,^

1 1 51 21 6426 1071

2 5 486843 198753 592539536358 98756589393

When a = 7, the equation (4.3.4) leads to the Pell's equation

Y2 - 7X2 =: .6.
 94
In view of (4.3.12) and (4.3.13), the ranks of the heptagonal
numbers are given by

;,j=_[(8 + 3V7)"^'(l + V7) + (8-3V7)""'(l-V7) + 2],

k^ [(8 + 3^7)"^'(1 + V7) + (8 - s V v r ' ( V 7 -1) + 2^7]

20V7
The values of ranks m and k will be in integers only when
n = 6 r - 4, r = 0, 1, 2, 3...
Some examples are presented in the table 4.3.3
Table 4.3.3

s. Value Heptagonal Heptagonal

Rankm Rankk
No ofn number/f„ number//j(.
m

1 2 2214 837 12251169 1750167

2 8 36274357737 13710418506 3289572573025217866317 469938939003602552331

Theorem 4.3.2
The general form of the rank of square heptagonal number
(H m) is given by

m = — [(19 + 3V40)''^' + (19 -3V40)'^^' + 2], where r = 0, 1, 2...

Proof
Let Hm be a square heptagonal number. We write

Hm = t2, ...(4.3.14)

where t is a non-zero integer.

Using the definition of heptagonal number the above

equation (4.3.14) is written as
 95

—(5OT-3) = / ^
2
^, 2 3/W^ ^ ,

5
By writing complete square, we get

'S\{m-—f—^]-2;^
10 100
(10;.-3)-__^ ,^,
100 100
( 1 0 m - 3 ) ' - 9 = 40?'

If we t a k e Y= 1 0 m - 3 , ...(4.3.15)
t h e n we get
y 2 _ 4 0 t 2 = 9. ...(4.3.16)

The values of t a n d y satisfying t h e equation (4.3.16) are

given by

yn = - [{19 + 3^40)^+1 + (19 - 3V40)n+i],

/„ = —1= [(19 + 3 V40)n+i-(19-3740)^^+1]

2^40

In view of t h e equation (4.3.15), the r a n k m is given by

m = — [(19 + 3740)11+1 + (19 - 3740)^+1+ 2]

It is noted t h a t t h e values of m will be a n integer when n is

talcing even values. T h u s the r a n k m of t h e square heptagonal
n u m b e r Hm is given by

m =— [(19 + 3V40)2r+i + (19 - 3V40)2r+i + 2], where r = 0, 1, 2...

 96
Some examples are presented in t h e table 4.3.4.
Table 4 . 3 . 4

Values
Rank m^ Heptagonal number H m
of r
0 6 81

1 8214 168662169

2 11844150 350709705290025

3 17079255654 729252434311108535809

4 24628274808486 1516379800105728351531817761

Theorem 4.3.3
The r a n k m r satisfies t h e recurrence relation:
mr+2 - 1442mr+i + mr + 4 3 2 = 0, where m^is t h e r a n k of t h e

r"' s q u a r e heptagonal n u m b e r .

Proof
The r a n k s m^ of t h e s q u a r e heptagonal n u m b e r H^ a r e given

by

m , = —[(19+ 3V40)2r+i + (19-3V40)2r+i + 2 ], ...(4.3.17)

where r = 0, 1, 2...
The above equation (4.3.17) c a n be written a s
20 6 m , - 6 = 3 [(19+ 3V40)2r+i + (19 -3V40)2r+i ] ...(4.3.18)

Replacing r by r + 1 , r +2 successively in (4.3.18), we get

20m,,1-6 = 3[(19 + 3V40)2(r+i)+i + (19 -3V40)2(r+mi] .

= 3[(19+ 3V40)2r+3 + (19-3V40)2r+3)].

 97
= 3[(19 + 3V40)2r+i(l9+ 3V40)2 + (19-3V40)2r+i(i9-3 V40)2].

= 3[(19+3V40)2r+i(721 + 114V40)+(19-3V40)2r+i(721-114V40)]
= 2163[(19 +3V40)2r+i+ (19-3V40)2r+i]

+342 V40 [(19+3 V40)2r+i-(193 V40)2r+i]^

...(4.3.19)
20m^^2-6=3[(19+3 V40) 2('-+2)+]+(i9_3 74^) 2(r+2)+i ]

=3[(19+3V40)2r+S+(19 _37^)2r+5 ]

=3[(19+3 V40) 2r+i(19+3 V40) 4+(19-3 V40) 2r+i(l9-3-N/40) 4].

= 3[(19+3V40)2r+i (1039681+164388V40)

+(19-3V40)2r+i(l039681-164388V40)]

= 3119043[(19+3V40)2r+i+(l9-3V40)2r+i]

+ 4 9 3 1 6 4 ^ 4 0 1(19+3 V40)2r+i+(19 -3V40)2r+i]

...(4.3.20)
Multiplying (4.3.19) by 1442, subtracting from (4.3.20) and
u s i n g (4.3.18), we get

[20w,^2 -6]-1442[20w,^, - 6 ] = -3[(19+ 3V40)2r+i + (19-3V40)2r+i]

= -[20mr-6].

20/72,^2-6-28840^,^1 +8652 = - 2 0 m,+6.

20w,^2 - 28840 w,^, +20w, =-8640.

20(mr+2 - 1442mr+i + m.) = - 8 6 4 0 .

Dividing by 20, we get
w,^2 -1442 m,^, + w, + 432 = 0.
This is t h e recurrence relation for t h e r a n k s of the square
heptagonal n u m b e r s .
 98
Observation
A few interesting relations among heptagonal numbers
Let H^ and Tg denote the heptagonal and triangular numbers
respectively. First presents below a few interesting relations.

Recurrence relation 4.3.1

The heptagonal numbers satisfies the following recurrence
relation
^m+1 + Hm-\ - '^^m = 5 •

Proof
By the standard definition of the heptagonal number,

//„=^(5m-3). ...(4.3,21)

Replacing m by m-1, m +1 successively in (4.3.21), we get

(w-1),
H,„.^=^—^{5{m-\)-3l

' (5m- 8 ) , .(4.3.22)

2
(m + 1)
-^m+l = [5(m + l)1-3].
2
(m + V)
= (5m. + 2). .(4.3.23)
2
From t h e equation (4 .3.23), we get
{m +
^m+\ ^\5m 3 + 5]
2

= 1 (5m-3) + ^(5m-3) + ^ ( m + l ) .

= H„+5m+l. ...(4.3.24)
From the equation (4.3.22), we get

^„-, = ^ ^ ^ [ ( 5 m - 3 ) - 5 ] .
 99

J (5m-3)-l(5m-3)-|{m-l).

/ / „ - 5 m + 4. ...(4.3.25)

Adding t h e equations (4.3.24) a n d (4.3.25), we get

^m+i + ^ m - r 2 / / „ = 5

This is t h e recurrence relation for the h e p t a g o n a l n u m b e r s .

Identity 4 . 3 . 1
The s u m of t h e heptagonal n u m b e r s can be expressed a s a
polynomial in s.
1
That is, i:H„=-Ts{5s-2)., where Ts is t h e 5'*triangular
">=• 3
number.
Proof
The m'^ heptagonal n u m b e r is given by
//„=|(5m-3)

Hence ^H^ =—^7«(5w-3) = —^(5/w^-3w).

5. , 3. 5 5(5 + 1X2^ + 1) 3 5(5 + 1)

= —Zw — L m =
2"-=' 2-"=' 2 6 2 2
= ^ ^ [ 5 ( 2 5 + 1)-9] = ^ ( 1 0 5 - 4 )
12 o

= ^(5^-2)

Hence ! ; / / „ = ^ ( 5 5 - 2 ) .
m=l ^
 100
Identity 4.3.2
The sum of the squares of the heptagonal numbers can be
expressed as a polynomial in s.

That is, Yu^m ^-T ['i^S^-It cS+2.J , where Ts is the s*

triangular number.

Proof
The m^ heptagonal number is given by

H^ = ^ (5m -3)

Thus Y.Hj=j:[^(5m-3)r

4 m=l

= -[25j]w'-302]w'+9^m'].
^ m=\ m=l m=l

_ 1 ISsjs +1)(6^^ +95^+^-1) .9^ {s + \f ^ ^ ^(5 + r){2s +1)

U^ 30 4 6 ^

=s(s+l)i [ - ( 6 ^ ' + 9 ^ ' + ^ - l ) - - 5 ( 5 + l) + - ^ ^ ^ - ^ ] .

^ M ^6 ^ 2 2 8

=s(s+l)- [-(65^ +95^ + 5 - l ) - - - 5 ( 5 + l) + -(2s + l)].

4 6 2 2

-^^•^^^^-[305'+455^+55-5-45^'-45^ + 185 + 9].

24

Thus Y, ^l = — (15^' -1 b + 2).

Identity 4.3.3
The sum of the cubes of the heptagonal numbers can be
expressed as a polynomial in s.
 101
S 'T'

T h a t is, Y,Hi =-^(1500J'-27755^+632405^+101568^'+89485-11340)

m=l 336

Proof
The m"' h e p t a g o n a l n u m b e r is given by

Hence HJ =-w^(5m-3)\
8

= -m '(125m' + 135m - 225m^ - 27).

= -(125m' + 135m' - 2 2 5 m ' - 2 7 m ' )

8
s i s y s ?

T h u s Y.HJ = - [ 1 2 5 j m ' -225|]m' +135|]m' - 2 7 j m ' ] .

m=l " m=\ m=l m=l m=l

__1^^5(.y + l ) ( 6 5 ^ + 1 5 / + 6 5 ^ - 6 ^ - ^ + 1) ^^^5^(5 + 1)^(25^+25-1)

"S 42 12
^^,^5(5 + l ) ( 6 5 ^ + 9 5 ^ + 5 - l ) , ^ 5 ^ ( 5 + 1)^
30 4

=='^^'^^^^[250(65' + 1 5 / + 6 5 ' - 6 5 ' - 5 + 1)-1575(5' +5)(25' + 2 5 - 1 )

672

+1 ] 340(65' + 95^ + 5 - 1 ) - 567(5^ + 5)]'

Hence J] Hi = ^ ( 1 5 0 0 5 ' -27755* +63240^' +1015685' +89485-11340)

m=l 336

It h a s found t h a t there exist pairs of hexagonal, octagonal

a n d h e p t a g o n a l n u m b e r s whose ratios are n o n - s q u a r e integers.
One m a y search for t h e other s u c h n u m b e r s w h o s e ratios are
n o n - s q u a r e integers. The further observation is t h a t there exist
square hexagonal, square octagonal and square heptagonal
n u m b e r s . One m a y search for the other s q u a r e hexagonal, s q u a r e
octagonal a n d s q u a r e heptagonal n u m b e r s .