Preface

High desert near Sheets Gulch, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. Geologists Steve Ahlgren, Karen Swanberg, Pilar Garcı́a, and Alex
Bump are taking stock of how the geologic structures mapped on individual sheets are matching up and fitting together. The carryall
at left shields them and their aerial-photo collage from the intensity of the late afternoon July sun. The field area is amongst the peaks
of Navajo Sandstone ( Jurassic) in the background. Fundamental to structural geology is mapping and fieldwork. More fundamental
yet is thinking hard about what we observe. Unlike what we see at this particular moment in time, we never want to put hard
boundaries on the areas and problems we are addressing. [Photograph by G. H. Davis.]

Excellence and learning are not commodities to be
bought at the corner store. Rather they dwell among
rocks hardly accessible, and we must almost wear our
hearts out in search of them.
[From College Talks by H. F. Lowry, edited by J. R.
Blackwood, p. 116. Published with permission of Oxford
University Press, New York, copyright r 1969.]
INTENTIONS
Our purpose in writing this textbook is to communicate
the physical and geometric elegance of geologic
structures within the Earth’s crust and to describe the
ways in which they reflect the nature and origin of crustal
deformation through time. Geologic structures provide
part of the basis for recognizing and reconstructing the
profound changes that have marked the physical evo-
lution of the Earth’s outermost layers, as observed from
the scale of the plates down to the scale of the micro-
scopic. Understanding the nature and extensiveness of
geologic structures of deformational origin in the
Earth’s crust has both scientific and practical benefit.
But, there is a philosophical value as well. Our percep-
tions of who we are and where we are in time and space
are shaped by facts and interpretations regarding the
historical development of the crust of the planet on

v
vi PREFACE
which we live. Knowing fully the extent to which our
planet is dynamic, not static, is a reminder of the lively
and special environment we inhabit.
For example, we have come to understand that our
earthly foundations are not fixed. Instead, we live on
continent-size plates that are in a continual state of
slow motion. The interaction of these plates has played
a dominant role in both the formation and defor-
mation of rock bodies in the Earth’s crust. Knowledge
of present-day plate tectonic processes aids us in
interpreting past structural movements. Furthermore,
evaluating and interpreting past dynamics may
help us predict what the present actions hold for the
future.
Structural geology is an essential tool in unraveling
the geologic history of any given area or region within
the Earth, especially in mountain belts where defor-
mational movements profoundly modify original
arrangements of rocks and geologic contacts. The 17th
century anatomist, Nicolaus Steno, discerned that the
structure of each layer of the earth told us something
important about the history of the earth. Steno’s fas-
cination with the earth, and his creation of funda-
mental principles of structural geology, began with a
life-changing trip across the Alps and Apennines,
where he “had the chance to see with his own eyes
layers of rock packed with fossilized shells, [and] strata
raised and contorted into mountains, . . . He would
become an anatomist of the world” (Cutler, 2003,
p. 44). In fact, “Steno was the first to assert [that] history
might be recoverable from the rocks and [took] it upon
himself to unravel that history. And he did so . . . based
on elementary geometry. . . . above versus below, con-
tinuous versus discontinuous, tilted versus horizontal,
enclosed versus enclosing” (Cutler 2003, p. 106).
When viewed at geological scales of time and spatial
dimension, rocks must be regarded as materials almost
without strength, capable of being deformed continu-
ously even under the slightest of pressures. The
geologic mapping of mountain belts has shown this to
be true time and time again. The understanding of this
paradox, which we try to capture in the expression
“soft as a rock,” yields a transformed view of the
strength and behavior of rocks and regions.
Practical applications of structural geology are
broad ranging and powerful, traditionally in the fields
of petroleum geology, exploration geology, mining
engineering, and civil engineering; and increasingly
in the fields of environmental geology, hydrology,
earthquake engineering, and geothermal energy
development. The practical value of structural geology
derives largely from the fact that movement and
trapping of fluids in the earth are strongly influenced
by fracturing, faulting, and folding. Thus, a firm
understanding of principles of structural geology is
beneficial practically.
This 3rd Edition of Structural Geology of Rocks and
Regions benefits from a 3rd author, Charles F. Kluth,
former coordinator and principle lecturer of the
Chevron and Chevron-Texaco Structural Geology
Schools. Chuck’s range of experience brings to this
textbook a useful scale-dimension of thinking about
vast tracts of structural geology in the subsurface and
in mountain belts, such as the Canadian Rockies. To
be sure, we want this book to be helpful to those whose
careers involve exploration for and recovery of oil and
gas, investigating for the sources of contaminants in a
part of the groundwater system, evaluating the energy
potential of a natural geothermal system, appraising
daring but dangerous proposals for the subterranean
disposal of radioactive waste, examining basin sedi-
ments as potential groundwater reservoirs, assessing
the fundamental stability of steep slopes underlain by
rain-infiltrated fractures in the bedrock, or planning
the excavation of mines or tunnels. Because most ore
deposits owe their existence to the movement of
mineral-bearing hydrothermal solutions through frac-
tured bedrock, structural geology is a basic tool in the
exploration for metals, and in the development of an
ore body. Finally, the understanding of active tectonic
events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mas-
sive landsliding, are intellectually demanding activities
requiring knowledge derived from intimacy with the
principals of fracturing and faulting.
ARRANGEMENT
We have arranged this text in three parts. Funda-
mentals (Part I) provides essential background for
analyzing Structures (Part II). Descriptive Analysis
(Part III) describes how to function in the field, and
what to do with the data that are collected.
Nature of Structural Geology (Chapter 1) introduces
the beauty, the challenging geometry, and the practical
value of structural geology. It also presents the basic
approach to structural geology as used throughout
the book. No matter what the structure, we like to
start with comprehensive descriptive treatment, i.e.,
describing the physical and geometric characteristics of
the geologic structures and deformed rocks. Then we
evaluate strain, and displacement, describing deforma-
tion and interpreting the deformation paths by which
changes in location, orientation, shape, and size of rocks
and regions were achieved. Next is dynamic, i.e., inter-
preting the forces and stresses that caused deformation,
appraising the mechanical strength and behavior of the
rock at the time of deformation, and applying (plate)
tectonic concepts to deduce the narrative of origin. This
approach, which we sometimes refer to as detailed
structural analysis, provides the leverage for unraveling

and interpreting structures and systems of structures at
any scale, from rocks to regions.
Displacement and Strain (Chapter 2) presents the
means for describing deformation, documenting chan-
ges in location, orientation, shape, and size of rocks or
regions of rocks during the course of deformation, and
interpreting deformation paths. The very presence of
structures and systems of structures in rocks in the
Earth’s crust reflects translation (change in the location),
and/or rotation (change in orientation), and/or distortion
(change in shape), and/or dilation (change in size) of the
rocks in which they are found. If no such changes were
required, the structures would have no reason to exist.
Evaluation of displacement and strain is applied at all
scales, from movements within the lattices of an indi-
vidual crystal to the movements of plates.
Stress and Strength (Chapter 3) probes the origin of
deformation in terms of force, traction, stress, rock
strength, and mechanics. Down-to-earth examples give
a ‘feel’ for force, traction, and stress and the equations
that are used to describe these fundamental concepts.
Conventional laboratory testing of rock strength is
employed as a helpful context to think about the
mechanics of origin of deformation and to apply
the basic math. Furthermore, laboratory evaluation of
the response of rocks to force and stress permits us to
evaluate how strength and resistance to deformation
are influenced by such factors as rock type, tempera-
ture, confining pressure, fluid pressure, and strain rate.
Deformation Mechanisms and Microstructures
(Chapter 4) explores what actually takes place at the
microscopic and submicroscopic scales that enables
‘hard’ rock to change shape and size as if it were soft.
In this chapter we see that temperature, pressure,
mineralogy, strain rate, and the presence (or absence)
of fluids determine which mechanisms will operate
during deformation. The processes that permit rocks to
deform on the grain and subgrain scales range from
brittle microfracturing and grinding to plastic defor-
mation involving the subtle ‘creep’ of crystals. The
ease (or difficulty) with which microscopic deforma-
tional mechanisms are triggered when rock is stressed
controls the level of stress that rock can support.
Part II, Structures, presents the chief classes of
structures. Structures are described and analyzed
according to the methods and principles presented in
Part I, Fundamentals. In addition, the mechanics of
formation of each class of structure is examined. The
geometry and formation of the structures is viewed
from the microscopic to the regional, although the
greatest descriptive attention is at the outcrop and
map scale.
Within Part II reside the following chapters: Joints
(Chapter 5), Faults (Chapter 6), Folds (Chapter 7),
Fault Fold Interactions (Chapter 8), Foliation and
Lineation (Chapter 9), and Shear Zones (Chapter 10).
PREFACE vii
These chapters present the ‘bread and butter’ of
structural geology, namely the fundamental categories
of ancient or active map-scale structures, which record
deformation of the earth’s crust. Part II concludes with
Active Tectonics (Chapter 11). Within Active Tectonics
we tour the western United States, distilling an
astonishing body of knowledge regarding how, why,
and at what rate faults and folds are forming today.
This examination of deformation related to Pacific/
North American plate motion informs us about the
mechanics of formation of geologic structures, and
provides a basis for pulling together what is presented
throughout the book. Chapter 11 makes the point that
structures do not exist in isolation, but are integrated
within networks of interconnecting structures, at all
scales, to accomplish just the right amount of defor-
mational response to the prevailing tectonic stresses.
Part III, Descriptive Analysis, is subdivided into
sections A to S. It is intended to be used as preparation
for fieldwork, and as a guide to reducing data collec-
ted in the field. The sections in Part III are entitled:
(A) Nature of Descriptive Analysis, (B) Geologic
Mapping, (C) Mapping Contact Relations, (D)
Identifying Primary Structures, (E) Measuring The
Orientations of Structures, (F) Preparing Geologic
Cross Sections, (G) Preparing Subsurface Contour
Maps, (H) Using Orthographic Projection, (I) Carry-
ing Out Stereographic Projection, (J) Evaluating
Rotation Using Stereographic Projection, (K) Deter-
mining Slip on Faults Through Orthographic and
Stereographic Projection, (L) Carrying Out Strain
Analysis, (M) Determining the Relationship of
Faults To Principal Stress Directions, (N) Carrying
Out Joint Analysis, (O) Engaging in Fault Analysis,
(P) Carrying Out Fold Analysis, (Q) Deciphering
Structure in Boreholes, (R) Studying Shear Zones in
the Field, and (S) Determining Focal Mechanisms for
Earthquakes.
We have written this book in a way that proceeds
from basic physical concepts and methods of analysis
to the description and interpretation of structures and
systems of structures. We have made each chapter as
self-contained as possible, knowing that some will want
to cover the material in a different order. Throughout,
techniques, methods, experiments, and calculations are
described in detail, with the aim of engaging active
participation through laboratory and field work.
Each of us likes to tell stories to illustrate and bring
to life the material we present. As a story begins, we
parenthetically insert who is doing the ‘telling:’ (GHD
VS. SJR VS. CFK). In this way you will know who is
telling which personal story within a book that “WE”
have so enjoyed writing together.
GEORGE H. DAVIS, STEPHEN J. REYNOLDS,
& CHARLES F. KLUTH