E XA MPLES ON M AC HINER Y FAI LUR E

MACHINE DIAGNOSIS
1. Introduction
After the vibration signatures are verified as to validity and the spectral peaks,
especially the 1X components positively identified, can the diagnosis of machine
problems begin. The following section discusses a variety of machine problems and
illustrates them with their typical vibration signatures.

In analyzing vibration spectra from rotating machines, it is important to note that

individual faults are seldom seen by themselves. Care must be taken in the
interpretation of vibration signatures since different faults can cause spectral
components at the same frequencies.
Imbalance

2. Calculating the Imbalance Force

,
where F = the imbalance force, Im = the mass, r = its distance from the pivot, and
w (omega) is the angular frequency, equal to 2p times the frequency in Hz..

Fig.1

From this, it is seen that the force on the pivot is proportional to its distance from
the center of rotation and to the speed squared.
A rotor containing a heavy spot is not exactly equivalent to the stone on a string. In
the case of the stone, the center of gravity of the system is the center of the stone
itself, whereas the CG of a rotor with imbalance is outside the imbalance mass and
is near the axis of rotation of the rotor.

Fig.2

If the structure holding the bearings in such a system is infinitely rigid, the center of
rotation is constrained from moving, and the centripetal force resulting from the
imbalance mass can be found from the above formula. This force is borne by the
bearings. Now, consider a hypothetical machine where the bearings are not rigidly
supported, but are suspended on springs.

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Fig.3

Under these conditions the shaft centerline is not constrained, and the rotor will
rotate around its center of gravity. The 1 x RPM force on the bearings will be very
small because it is only required to accelerate the bearings to the above mentioned
amplitude. The double amplitude of vibration of the bearings will be equal to twice
the distance between the CG and the centerline of the rotor. Moreover, the
amplitude of bearing vibration is constant regardless of the rotor speed, provided
the speed is higher than the natural frequency of the spring-rotor system. It is seen
here that the vibration amplitude has nothing to do with the above centripetal force
formula.
At speeds well below the natural frequency, the system is said to be "spring
controlled", and the centripetal force formula holds. Speeds above the natural
frequency are in the "mass-controlled" region where the amplitude is constant, and
the bearing forces are not so easily predictable, be dependent on the equivalent
mass of the bearings and springs.

Fig.4 Static Imbalance

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3. Couple Imbalance

Fig.5 Couple Imbalance

With pure imbalance, either static or dynamic, the axial 1X and 2X vibration levels
will be low

4. Severity of Imbalance
The severity of imbalance depends on both the type and size of the machine as well
as the vibration level. To assess imbalance severity, average 1X levels for healthy
machines of the same type should be used as a comparison. If the second order
peak is as large as the first order, you should suspect misalignment.

The following levels are guidelines for general use in diagnosing imbalance for
machines running at 1800 or 3600 RPM. Very high-speed machines have lower
tolerance levels.

1X Vibration Level, Diagnosis Repair Priority

VdB
Less than 108 VdB Slight Imbalance No recommendation
(0.141 ips)
108 VdB -- 114 VdB Moderate Imbalance Desirable
(0.141 – 0.282 ips)
115 VdB -- 124 VdB Severe Imbalance Important
(0.316 – 0.891 ips)
More then 125 VdB Extreme Imbalance Mandatory
(>1.00 ips)

The measured vibration level at 1X depends on the stiffness of the machine

mounting as well as the amount of imbalance, with spring-mounted machines
showing more 1X than solidly mounted machines for the same degree of
imbalance. The overall size of the machine also affects the allowable 1X level as
follows:

1X Vibration Level, Machine Type Repair Priority

VdB

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109 VdB (0.158 ips) Small Single-stage Desirable

Pump
118 VdB (0.447 ips) Large Hydraulic Pump Desirable
116 VdB (0.355 ips) Medium Sized Fan Desirable

The tangential and radial 1X levels should be compared. The more nearly equal
they are, the more likely that imbalance is the cause. In any case, the direction in
which the machine has the least stiffness will be the direction of the highest 1X
level.

5. Sources of Imbalance
The following machine problems are among the conditions that will create
imbalance:
Uneven dirt accumulation
on fan rotors
Lack of homogeneity in
cast parts, such as bubbles,
blow-holes, porous
sections
Rotor eccentricity
Roller deflection,
especially in paper
machines
Machining errors
Uneven mass distribution
in electric motor rotor bars
or windings
Uneven erosion and
corrosion of pump
impellers
Missing balance weights
Bowed Shaft

6. Misalignment
Misalignment is a condition where the centerlines of coupled shafts do not
coincide. If the misaligned shaft centerlines are parallel but not coincident, then the
misalignment is said to be parallel misalignment. If the misaligned shafts meet at a
point but are not parallel, then the misalignment is called angular misalignment.
Almost all misalignment conditions of machines seen in practice are a combination
of these two basic types.
Parallel Misalignment

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Fig.6 Parallel Misalignment

If the machine speed can be varied, the vibration due to imbalance will vary as the
square of the speed. If the speed is doubled, the imbalance component will rise by a
factor of four, while misalignment-induced vibration will not change in level
Following is a typical vibration spectrum from a misaligned machine.

Fig.7
7. Angular Misalignment
Angular misalignment produces a bending moment on each shaft, and this
generates a strong vibration at 1X and some vibration at 2X in the axial direction at
both bearings, and of the opposite phase. There will also be fairly strong radial
and/or transverse 1X and 2X levels, but in phase.

Fig.8 Angular Misalignment

Misaligned couplings will usually produce fairly high axial 1X levels at the bearings
on the other ends of the shafts as well!

8. General Misalignment
Most cases of misalignment are a combination of the two above described types,
and diagnosis is based on stronger 2X peaks than 1X peaks and the existence of 1X

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and 2X axial peaks. Take care that high axial 1X levels are not caused by imbalance
in overhung rotors.

Misalignment produces a variety of symptoms on different types of machines, and

the average vibration signatures for healthy machines should be consulted to
determine allowable 1X and 2X levels.

9. Temperature Effects on Alignment

The best alignment of any machine will always occur at only one operating
temperature, and hopefully this will be its normal operating temperature. It is
imperative that the vibration measurements for misalignment diagnosis be made
with the machine at normal operating temperature.

10. Causes of Misalignment

Misalignment is typically caused by the following conditions:
Inaccurate assembly of components, such as motors, pumps, etc.
Relative position of components shifting after assembly
Distortion due to forces exerted by piping
Distortion of flexible supports due to torque
Temperature induced growth of machine structure
Coupling face not perpendicular to the shaft axis
Soft foot, where the machine shifts when hold down bolts are torqued.

11. Bent Shaft

Fig.9 Bent Shaft

12. Journal Bearings
Most journal-bearing problems will generate spectral peaks at lower frequencies
than 1X, and these are called sub-synchronous peaks. Sometimes harmonics of
these sub-synchronous peaks are also created, indicating severe degradation of the
bearing. Here are some things to look for in diagnosing journal bearings:

13. Oil Whirl

Oil Whirl is a condition in which a strong vibration occurs at between 0.38X and
0.48X. It never shows up at precisely 0.5X, but is always a little lower in frequency.

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It is caused by excessive clearance and light radial loading, which results in the oil
film building up and forcing the journal centerline to migrate around in the bearing
opposite the direction of rotation at less than one-half RPM. Oil whirl is a serious
condition and needs to be corrected when found, for it can deteriorate fairly
quickly to the point where metal-to-metal contact occurs in the bearing.

14. Oil Whip

The solutions for oil whip and oil whirl are suitably small bearing clearances and
adequate radial loading. When bringing a large turbine up to speed, it is important
to pass through the critical frequencies very quickly to prevent the buildup of oil
whip.

15. Journal Looseness

Fig.10 Journal or bearing housing looseness

One half, one third, and one fourth-order harmonics are sometimes called sub
harmonics.

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16. Journal Thrust Bearings

Worn thrust bearings usually present strong axial components at the first few
harmonics of 1X. Worn Kingsbury bearings with 6 shoes will generate a peak at
6X. This vibration peak is predominantly in the axial direction.

17. Rolling Element Bearings

Many years of experience have shown that in practice, less than 10 % of all
bearings will run for their design lifetime. About 40 % of bearing failures are
attributed to improper lubrication, and about 30% of failures are from improper
mounting, i.e. misalignment or "cocking". About 20 % fail for other reasons, such
as overloading and manufacturing defects, etc.

Fig.11
These are the formulas for calculating the frequencies of the bearing tones from the
bearing geometry, but they are a little imprecise because the axial loading and
slippage affects them in an unpredictable manner.

The number of rollers in most bearings is usually between 8 and 12, but in very
large diameter bearings, such as the ones found in paper machines, the number of
rollers can be much higher.

18. Rolling Element Bearing Wear

The first stages of bearing defects will produce telltale non-synchronous vibration
frequencies called "bearing tones" and their harmonics. Bearing tones at 0.006
inches per second peak (81 VdB) or higher are considered significant. Sometimes a
new bearing will produce bearing tones, possibly because of damage during
installation, shipping, or defective manufacture.

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Fig.12

If the bearing defect is very small in size, such as a crack in one of the races, the
vibration signature will show harmonics of the bearing tone with little or no
fundamental frequency present. If the defect begins as a spall over a larger area of
the race, the bearing tone fundamental will usually be higher in level than the
harmonics. As the defect becomes worse, the overall level of the bearing tones will
increase, as will the overall broadband noise level.

19. Sidebands
If the defect is on the inner race of the bearing, the turning speed will amplitude
modulate the bearing tones, and this will cause sidebands around the bearing tones,
spaced apart at 1X, to appear. The amplitude modulation comes from the fact that
the defect on the inner race moves in and out of the bearing load zone once per
revolution. While in the load zone, the defect produces vibration at the ball pass
frequency, but when it is out of the load zone, very little vibration is produced at
this frequency. This accounts for the amplitude modulation of the bearing tone and
the consequent sidebands. Sidebands spaced at 1X around bearing tones are a sure
sign of advanced bearing wear. Sometimes, if a rotor is strongly out of balance, an
inner-race bearing defect will not produce amplitude modulation or sidebands. This
is because the centrifugal force due to imbalance keeps the inner race loaded at the
same location on its periphery all the time.

Another example of sidebands in bearing spectra involves the Fundamental Train

Frequency (FTF). This is the rate at which the cage holding the rollers rotates in
the bearing. If one roller is spalled, cracked, or worse yet, in several pieces, it will
make a lot of noise when it is in the load zone of the bearing, but will be quiet
when not in the load zone. It will move in and out of the load zone at the FTF rate
because it migrates around the bearing with the cage. This causes amplitude
modulation of the bearing tones at the FTF rate, and the result is sidebands around
the bearing tones spaced apart by the FTF.

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Fig.13

The final stage of bearing wear is sometimes called the "thermal" stage, where the
bearing becomes hot, breaking down the lubricant, leading to catastrophic failure
which can include melting of the rolling elements and/or the races.

The key to effective predictive maintenance of bearings is the trending of bearing

tone levels over time from their onset. Sometimes a bearing condition will progress
from a very small defect to complete failure in a relatively short time, so early
detection requires sensitivity to very small vibration signature components. The
analyst should be aware that some types of machines will show bearing tones in the
average spectra. Diagnosis is made on the basis of significant increases from these
average values. Any significant bearing tone should be carefully watched for signs
of worsening.

20. Misaligned ("cocked") Rolling Element Bearings

Fig.14 Cocked Bearing

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21. Rolling Element Bearing Looseness

Excessive clearance in a rolling element bearing will produce harmonics of 1X,
usually in the range from 2X to 8X. Extreme looseness will commonly produce
one-half order components, i.e., components at multiples of 0.5X. Looseness in
other parts of the machine will also produce 1X harmonics and sometimes 0.5X
harmonics, so this is not a conclusive sign of bearing clearance problems.

22. Mechanical Looseness

Fig.15 Mechanical Looseness

23. Non-Rotating Looseness

Looseness between a machine and its foundation will increase the 1X vibration
component in the direction if the least stiffness. This is usually the horizontal
direction, but it depends on the physical layout of the machine. Low-order 1X
harmonics are also commonly produced if the looseness is severe. It is often hard
to tell imbalance from foundation looseness or flexibility, especially in vertical
machines. If 1X tangential is much greater than 1X radial, looseness is suspected. If
1X tangential is lower than or equal to 1X radial, then imbalance is suspected.
Foundation flexibility or looseness can be caused by loose bolts, corrosion, or
cracking of mounting hardware.

24. Pumps
There are many types of pumps in common use, and their vibration signatures vary
over a wide range. When monitoring pump vibration, it is important that the
operating conditions are uniform from one measurement to the next to assure
consistent signatures. Suction pressure, discharge pressure, and especially air
induction and cavitation will affect the vibration signature.

25. Centrifugal Pumps

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The following spectrum, containing broadband high-frequency noise, indicates

cavitation in a centrifugal pump due to low inlet pressure.

Fig.16 Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps

Cavitation produces this type of spectrum at all measurement points of the pump
and the housing

Fig.17
26. Gear Pumps
Gear pumps are commonly used for pumping lube oil, and they almost always have
a strong vibration component at the tooth mesh frequency, which is the number of
teeth on the gear times the RPM. This component will be highly dependent on the
output pressure of the pump. If the tooth mesh frequency changes significantly,
such as the sudden appearance of harmonics or sidebands in the vibration
spectrum, it could indicate a cracked or otherwise damaged tooth.

Fig.18 Typical Gear Pump Spectrum

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27. Screw Pumps

The screw type pump can generate a multitude of frequency components in the
vibration spectrum. Thread wear or damage will usually produce strong harmonics
of the thread rate, which is the number of threads times the RPM.

28. Fans
Most fans are either axial flow propeller-type fans, or are centrifugal. Fans,
especially when they are handling particle-laden air or gas, are prone to uneven
buildup of detritus on the blades. This causes imbalance, and should be corrected
as soon as it is diagnosed. If any of the blades become deformed, cracked, or
broken, the blade pass frequency vibration peak will increase in level, and if there
are many blades, sometimes 1X sidebands will appear around the blade pass
frequency.

29. Axial Flow Fans

Fig.19

Fig.20
30. Centrifugal Fans

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Fig.21

A common problem in centrifugal fans is uneven supply air velocity distribution

across the inlet, and this causes increased vibration levels at the blade pass rate. If
the fan is out of balance and is overhung, high 1X vibration will occur in axial as
well as both radial directions.
Defective blades can also cause 1X sidebands around the blade pass frequency.
31. Couplings

Couplings exist in many types and configurations, and defects in them usually cause
symptoms similar to misalignment. Frequently coupling problems will produce
stronger 1X vibration components than simple misalignment does. If the coupling
is not true, i.e., has non-parallel flange faces, a vibration similar to angular
misalignment is produced.
Coupling imbalance is also a common problem, and results in high 1X and 2X
radial and tangential components.

Coupling wear can produce all the symptoms of misalignment and looseness.
Three-jaw motor couplings that contain spacers of improper length will cause
strong axial and radial components at 3 times shaft RPM.
32. Drive Belts
Belt drives are relatively inexpensive types of power transmissions, but they are
prone to many problems. There are many types of drive belts, and all are subject to
wear and damage. Belts should be frequently inspected for damage and should be
kept at the proper tension and kept clean.
33. Mismatched, Worn, or Stretched Belts

Mismatched, worn, or stretched belts, especially Vee belts, will generate vibration at
the fundamental belt pass frequency and harmonics of it. Usually the second
harmonic is dominant if there are two sheaves in the system. The fundamental belt
frequency FBF is given by the following formula. It is always sub-synchronous,
meaning it is lower in frequency than 1X.

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Where D = Sheave Diameter

L = Belt Length
RPM = Turn speed of sheave D

34. Eccentric Sheaves, Sheave Runout

Eccentric sheaves will generate strong 1X radial components, especially in the
direction parallel to the belts. This condition is very common, and mimics
imbalance. This can be checked by removing the belts and measuring again. 1X
vibration of an eccentric sheave or a sheave with runout will usually also show up
at the other sheave.

Fig.22 Eccentric Sheave

35. Sheave Misalignment

Sheave misalignment will generate strong axial 1X components and axial harmonics
of the fundamental belt frequency.

Fig.23

Belt Resonance, or Belt Slap

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Fig.24 Belt Resonance

36. Gearboxes

If the gearbox has multiple shafts, each pair of gears will generate its own tooth
mesh components.

Different types of gear teeth will generate greatly different levels of vibration. Spur
gears are inherently the most noisy, followed by Bevel gears, Hypoid gears, Helical
gears, Herringbone gears, and Worm gears in descending order of vibration
severity.

37. Hunting Tooth Gear Sets

The so-called “Hunting Tooth Gear Set” is a gear set whose tooth counts are
relatively prime; in other words, they have no common factors. This is the best
configuration for gears, since any tooth on either gear will contact every tooth on
the other gear before encountering the same tooth. This spreads the wear evenly
over all the gear teeth, increasing the life of the gearbox.

The hunting tooth frequency of a pair of gears is the gear mesh frequency divided
by the least common multiple of the numbers of teeth on the two gears. The least
common multiple is often just the product of the numbers of teeth. In some
gearboxes, the hunting tooth frequency will appear in the vibration spectrum, and if
so, it should be trended over time because rapid wear usually results under these
conditions.

38. Ghost Components

New gear sets will sometime exhibit spectral components that are not related to the
tooth counts of either gear. These components are sometimes called ghost
frequencies, and usually are the result of irregularities in the tooth spacing of one of
the gears. The irregularities are the result of machining errors when the gear was
made.

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Ghost components generally tend to disappear over time since there is no

mechanical action that reinforces them.

39. Damaged Gear Teeth

Fig.25

40. Eccentric Gears and Bent Shafts

Gear eccentricity will generate one sideband on each side of the tooth mesh spaced
at the gear RPM, rather than the multiple sidebands found with individual damaged
teeth.

41. Planetary Gears

Planetary gear systems are somewhat more complex than standard gear pairs due to
the fact that the planet gear centers rotate around the sun gear at a rate called the
train frequency. The sun gear RPM, a planet gear RPM or the train frequency can
modulate the tooth mesh frequency. This can produce complex sets of sidebands in
the spectrum, and can be difficult to interpret.

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Fig.26

Planetary gear set characteristic forcing frequencies may be calculated by the

following formulas:

Where RPMP = Planet RPM,

RPMS = Sun RPM,
RPMC = Carrier RPM
N = number of teeth
GMF = Gear mesh frequency

Defects in the Ring Gear will show up at number of Planets time Carrier RPM
Defects in the Sun gear wills show up at number of planets times Sun RPM minus
Carrier RPM
Defects in a planet gear will show up at:

42. Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal compressors generate spectra similar to centrifugal fans in that the vane
pass frequency will be dominant. Damaged or eroded vanes will cause increases in
the level at the vane pass, and also will usually produce 1X sidebands around the
vane pass. Compressor surge is a fluid dynamic problem at the compressor output
port that usually causes vibration at less than 1X frequency. It is often caused by
improper output pressure.

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Below is a typical vibration spectrum from a 6-vaned centrifugal compressor.

Fig.27 Vane Pass Harmonics

43. Reciprocating Machines

The most common types of reciprocating machines are piston pumps and
compressors and internal combustion engines. In all these machines, the piston rate
(usually 1X) is dominant, along with the firing rate for 4-cycle engines. Vibration
levels as high as 125 VdB (1.0 inches per second peak) are not uncommon for
healthy machines such as these. The analyst must judge the machine condition by
comparison to previous levels rather than applying absolute reference levels.

Many reciprocating engines have turbo chargers, and they are diagnosed like other
rotating turbines and compressors. Camshaft gear problems are also common, and
can be seen by looking for the tooth mesh frequency. If the engine has a torsional
vibration damper on the shaft, it can fail, greatly increasing vibration at the
frequency of the first crankshaft tensional vibration mode. This frequency must be
obtained from the engine maker.

Variable displacement piston pumps are much smoother than compressors, and
lend themselves well to vibration analysis. If harmonics of the piston rate are
present in significant levels, it usually indicates a piston drive linkage problem. A
very prominent tone at piston frequency fundamental may indicate a worn spot on
the wobble plate.

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