GAS EXCHANGE

FK UMSU
2019
 MECHANISMS OF GAS EXCHANGE

Gas exchange involves breathing,

transport of gases, and exchange of gases
with tissue cell.

Gas exchange – intake of oxygen and

elimination of carbon dioxide
Gas exchange ultimately relies on
diffusion
In general, gas exchange in most respiratory systems occurs in
the following stages:
1. air or water, containing oxygen, is moved past a respiratory system by bulk flow
(fluids or gases move in bulk through relatively large spaces, from areas of higher
pressure to areas of lower pressure) – commonly facilitated by muscular
breathing movements
2. oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged through the respiratory surface by
diffusion; oxygen is carried into capillaries of circulatory system and carbon
dioxide is removed
3. Gases are transported between respiratory system and tissues by bulk flow of
blood as it is pumped throughout body by heart
4. gases are exchanged between tissues and circulatory system by diffusion (oxygen
diffuses out into tissue and carbon dioxide diffuses into capillaries based on
concentration gradients)
 Transportation of Oxygen

Oxygen binds loosely to hemoglobin in blood – forms oxyhemoglobin

each hemoglobin binds to 4 oxygen molecules
nearly all oxygen is transported in blood by hemoglobin
removal of oxygen from solution in the plasma by hemoglobin maintains a
concentration gradient that favors the diffusion of oxygen from air into blood
blood can carry 70x more oxygen because of hemoglobin than if oxygen were
simply dissolved in the plasma
when hemoglobin binds to oxygen, it undergoes a slight change in shape
which alters its color
deoxygenated blood is dark red and appears bluish through the skin
oxygenated blood is bright red
Composition of inspired (atmospheric air), alveolar,
and expired air (percentage composition by volume)
Gas Inspired air alveolar air expired air
Oxygen 20.95 13.8 16.4
CO2 0.04 5.5 4.0
Nitrogen 79.01 80.7 79.6
Blood arriving in lungs has a relatively high concentration of carbon dioxide and
relatively low concentration of oxygen
◦both gases diffuse down their concentration
gradients to equalize between blood and air
 Hemoglobin and the transport of oxygen
oxygen enters blood from alveoli and diffuses into red blood cells
oxygen then combines with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin
(HbO2)
as hemoglobin picks up the first molecule of oxygen, it increases its
affinity for oxygen and picks up the next molecule even faster, the
third and fourth are picked up even faster
the degree of oxygenation of hemoglobin is determined by the
partial pressure of oxygen (p(O2)) in the immediate surroundings
If p(O2) is low (as in the capillaries at the tissues needing
oxygen) hemoglobin releases oxygen and carries relatively
small amounts of oxygen
If p(O2) is high (such as at the alveoli) hemoglobin becomes
almost saturated with oxygen
an oxygen dissociation curve shows the degree of hemoglobin saturation
with oxygen plotted against different values of p(O2) – the curve is S-shaped
at p(O2) close to zero there is no oxygen bound to the hemoglobin
at low p(O2), the polypeptide chains are tightly bound together, making it
difficult for an oxygen molecule to attach to iron in heme group
as one molecule of oxygen attaches, the polypeptide chain opens up
exposing the other heme groups to oxygen and allowing oxygen to attach –
the curves rises sharply
at very high p(O2), the hemoglobin becomes saturated and the curve levels
off
 oxygen at the muscles is taken over and stored by myoglobin
◦ myoglobin has a much higher affinity for oxygen than
hemoglobin
◦ it binds with oxygen at a high rate and does not dissociate its
oxygen unless the p(O2) drops to very low levels
◦ myoglobin stores oxygen in muscles until the demand becomes
very great – during heavy exercise, muscles will get oxygen from
hemoglobin first, then when supply oxygen from hemoglobin is
exhausted, myoglobin will begin to release its oxygen
 Fetal hemoglobin
◦ mother and child have separate circulatory systems
◦ fetus must be able to take oxygen from mother’s hemoglobin in
placenta
◦ fetal hemoglobin is structurally different from maternal
hemoglobin (slightly different) – has a slightly higher affinity for
oxygen than adult hemoglobin – oxygen released by maternal
hemoglobin is bonded to fetal hemoglobin
 Transportation of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is transported three ways in the blood:
about 70% of carbon dioxide is transported in plasma in the form
of bicarbonate ions (HCO3)
carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid
(catalyzed by enzyme – carbonic anhydrase)
carbonic acid dissociates forming hydrogen ions and bicarbonate
ions
H+ tend to lower pH of blood
H+ bind to hemoglobin (acts as a buffer) – forms acid hemoglobin
Carbon Dioxide Transport
About 20% of CO2 binds to hemoglobin (has already released O2 at
tissues) to be carried back to lungs
10% remains dissolved in the plasma as CO2
Both the production of bicarbonate ion and the binding of CO2 to
hemoglobin reduces the concentration of CO2 in blood to increase
the gradient for CO2 to flow out of body cells into blood
Breathing (ventilation) is the mechanical process of moving air from
the environment into the lungs and expelling air from the lungs
Inspiration (inhalation) – volume of thoracic cavity is increased
diaphragm (dome-shaped muscle forming floor of thoracic cavity)
contracts and moves downward
External intercostal rib muscles contract lifting ribs up and out
(internal intercostal muscles relax)
this increases volume of thoracic cavity which lowers air pressure
air from outside rushes into lungs to equalize air pressure
Process of Inhalation (Active)
1. Rib muscles pull ribs up and out
2. Diaphragm muscle pulled down
3. Now low air pressure in chest
4. Air sucked into chest
5. Alveoli expand
Expiration (exhalation) – volume of thoracic cavity is
decreased
diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome-shape (moves up)
Internal intercostal rib muscles contract (external intercostal
muscles relax) causing ribs to drop back down
this decreases the volume of thoracic cavity which increases
air pressure
air from inside lungs rushes out to equalize air pressure
Process of Exhalation (Passive)
Diaphragm relaxes and goes back up
Rib muscles relax
Ribs go down and in
Increase pressure in chest
Air squeezed out of lungs
 Breathing rate is controlled by the respiratory center in brain –
located in medulla just above spinal cord
muscles are stimulated to contract by impulses from
respiratory center
nerve cells in respiratory center generate cyclic bursts of
impulses that cause the alternating contraction and relaxation
of respiratory muscles

respiratory center receives input from several sources and

adjusts breathing rate and volume to meet body’s changing
needs
CO2 concentration in blood is the most important chemical
stimulus for regulating rate of respiration
chemoreceptors in medulla, and in walls of the aorta and
carotid arteries are sensitive to changes in arterial CO2
concentration
Breathing Regulation
Involuntary
Have Chemoreceptors in walls of arteries that detect CO2 levels
High CO2 levels in blood detected and send message to respiratory
center of brain (Medulla)
Medulla send message to diaphragm and rib muscles to increase rate
and depth of breath
Low pH of blood also stimulates medulla
Problems
Emphysema
◦ Destruction of alveoli walls
◦ Scar tissue from macrophage attack
◦ Reduced breathing ability
Asthma
◦ Allergic reaction in bronchioles with their subsequent closing
◦ Treat with Epinephrine mist
Lung Cancer
Pneumonia
◦ Fluid in alveoli
Tuberculosis
◦ Immune attack leaves scars that thicken alveoli and affect diffusion
Bronchitis
◦ Inflammation of bronchial tubes