Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Airy
Points
Consider
a
straight
beam
that
is
comprised
of
a
material
that
is
homogenous,
linear-‐elastic,
and
isotropic.
The
beam
is
subjected
to
a
uniform
loading
across
its
entire
length
(e.g.
its
own
weight),
has
a
constant
cross
section,
and
is
simply
supported
at
two
points
spaced
symmetrically
about
its
length.
The
spacing
of
the
two
support
points
can
be
chosen
such
that
when
the
beam
is
deflected,
the
slope
at
each
end
of
the
beam
is
zero
and
the
end
faces
are
both
vertical.
The
spacing
of
these
two
support
points,
known
as
the
Airy
points,
can
be
found
using
the
relation
L
s=
(1)
3,
where
s
is
the
spacing
of
the
supports
and
L
is
the
overall
length
of
the
beam.
This
result
has
been
derived
using
Euler-‐Bernoulli
beam
bending
theory,
and
thus
is
only
valid
for
cases
that
adhere
to
the
requisite
assumptions.
Airy
points
are
named
after
Sir
George
Airy,
who
originally
investigated
the
requirements
for
supporting
precision
length
standards.
These
points
are
commonly
used
in
precision
metrology
when
supporting
precision
line
and
end
standards.
In
addition
to
being
applicable
in
precision
metrology,
the
concept
of
Airy
points
may
be
of
interest
to
the
engineer
who
is
developing
a
design
where
it
is
desirable
to
minimize
angularity
of
the
end
faces
of
a
beam
or
structure.
In
cases
of
great
precision,
the
engineer
will
need
to
be
sure
to
closely
respect
all
assumptions
used
in
derivation
of
the
Airy
points
when
they
formulate
their
design.
In
non-‐precision
designs,
deviation
from
these
assumptions
may
be
acceptable
if
the
behavior
of
the
structure
is
within
required
limits.
In
both
design
cases,
structuring
supports
to
occur
at
the
Airy
points
has
minimal
impact
to
product
cost
or
complexity,
and
so
it
is
worthwhile
for
the
design
engineer
to
consider
the
relevance
of
this
concept
when
developing
designs.
Derivation
of
the
result
presented
in
equation
1
is
provided
in
the
remaining
portion
of
this
technical
note.
Airy
Points
1
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Derivation
i. Nomenclature:
Figure
1
illustrates
the
geometric
nomenclature
that
will
be
used
to
derive
the
Airy
point
spacing.
A
coordinate
system
is
established
with
the
origin
at
the
intersection
of
the
left
edge
and
the
neutral
axis
of
the
beam.
The
x
coordinate
represents
horizontal
position,
and
the
v
coordinate
represents
deflection.
The
overall
length
of
the
beam
is
denoted
as
L,
and
the
support
points
are
positioned
symmetrically
at
a
spacing
denoted
as
s.
The
modulus
of
elasticity
of
the
beam
and
the
area
moment
of
inertia
of
the
cross-‐section
are
assumed
constant
and
denoted
as
E
and
I,
respectively.
Figure
1.
Geometric
nomenclature
for
derivation
ii. Reaction
Force
Solution:
A
free
body
diagram
is
useful
to
help
determine
reaction
forces
at
the
beam
support
points.
Figure
2
displays
two
forces,
R1
and
R2,
which
have
replaced
the
two
supports
shown
in
Figure
1.
In
addition
to
reaction
forces,
the
beam
weight
is
shown
as
a
distributed
loading
of
magnitude
w
(Units
of
weight/length).
Figure
2.
Free
body
diagram
Figure
3
further
simplifies
the
free
body
diagram
by
replacing
the
distributed
loading
with
a
point
loading
equal
to
the
beam
weight,
wL,
at
the
center
of
gravity
of
the
beam.
Figure
3.
Free
body
diagram
further
simplified
Airy
Points
2
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
With
the
free
body
diagram
complete,
Newton’s
second
law
can
be
used
to
investigate
forces
on
the
beam.
Since
the
beam
is
static,
the
sum
of
all
forces
must
be
equal
to
zero;
that
is,
∑ F = 0
(2)
Equation
2
is
expanded
based
on
the
free
body
diagram
of
Figure
3
resulting
in:
R1 + R2 − wL = 0
(3)
Equation
3
is
then
solved
for
one
of
the
unknown
reaction
forces,
R1,
so
that
R1 = wL − R2
(4)
Again,
the
second
law
can
be
used,
this
time
considering
moments
applied
to
the
beam.
Since
the
beam
is
static,
the
sum
of
all
moments
must
be
equal
to
zero;
that
is,
∑ M = 0
(5)
Equation
5
is
expanded
based
on
the
free
body
diagram
of
Figure
3
and
the
geometric
nomenclature
in
Figure
1
resulting
in:
L # L −s& #L+s&
wL ⋅ − R1 % ( − R2 % (=0
2 $ 2 ' $ 2 '
(6)
Equation
6
is
simplified
resulting
in:
wL2 − R1L + R1s − R2 L − R2 s = 0
(7)
The
result
in
equation
4
is
now
substituted
into
equation
7
to
eliminate
one
of
the
unknown
reaction
forces.
The
remaining
equation
is
wL2 − ( wL − R2 ) L + ( wL − R2 ) s − R2 L − R2 s = 0
(8)
Equation
8
is
simplified
to
obtain
the
solution
for
one
of
the
reaction
forces:
wL
R2 =
2
(9)
Airy
Points
3
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Using
the
result
for
R2
provided
in
equation
9,
and
substituting
it
back
into
equation
4,
a
solution
can
be
determined
for
the
other
unknown
reaction
force,
R1.
This
process
is
illustrated
below.
wL wL
R1 = wL − R2 = wL − =
2 2
(10)
wL
∴ R1 = R2 =
2
(11)
Since
the
reaction
forces
are
equal
in
magnitude
and
direction,
the
subscripts
previously
used
with
the
reaction
forces
will
be
eliminated.
R1
and
R2
will
be
notated
as
R
in
the
remainder
of
the
analyses
that
follow.
iii. Beam
Slope
Solution:
The
information
presented
in
sections
i
and
ii
will
be
used
in
conjunction
with
the
beam
bending
moment
equation,
d 2v
M ( x ) = −EI 2
dx
(12)
to
derive
the
slope
of
the
beam
as
a
function
of
position
along
its
length.
Because
the
beam
is
supported
at
two
intermediate
points,
the
bending
moments
across
the
length
of
the
beam
cannot
be
represented
by
a
single
continuous
function.
The
discontinuities
in
bending
moment
that
occur
at
the
support
points
make
it
necessary
to
formulate
the
bending
moment
equation
for
each
of
the
three
sections
of
the
beam.
Note
that
the
same
coordinate
system
will
be
utilized
for
each
section.
The
moment
in
section
1
of
the
beam
is
formulated
and
substituted
into
equation
12,
resulting
in:
!x$ d 2v
wx # & = −EI 2
"2% dx
(13)
Equation
13
can
be
further
simplified
to:
wx 2 d 2v
= −EI 2
2 dx
(14)
Equation
14
is
then
integrated
to
obtain
the
slope
characteristic
of
the
first
section
of
the
beam.
wx 2 d 2v
∫ 2 dx = ∫ dx 2 dx
−EI
(15)
Airy
Points
4
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
The
resulting
slope
equation
for
the
first
section
of
the
beam
is:
wx 3 dv
+ C1 = −EI
6 dx
(16)
The
moment
in
section
2
of
the
beam
is
formulated
and
substituted
into
equation
12,
resulting
in:
!x$ ( ! L − s $+ d 2v
wx # & − R * x − # &- = −EI 2
"2% ) " 2 %, dx
(17)
Equation
17
can
be
further
simplified
to:
wx 2 "L −s% d 2v
− Rx + R $ ' = −EI
2 # 2 & dx 2
(18)
Equation
18
is
then
integrated
to
obtain
the
slope
characteristic
of
the
second
section
of
the
beam.
( wx 2 " L − s %+ d 2v
∫ *) 2 − Rx + R $# 2 '&-,dx = ∫ −EI dx 2 dx
(19)
Completing
integration
provides:
wx 3 Rx 2 "L −s% dv
− + R$ ' x + C2 = −EI
6 2 # 2 & dx
(20)
Using
equation
11,
a
substitution
can
be
made
in
equation
20
for
R,
producing:
wx 3 wLx 2 wL " L − s % dv
− + $ ' x + C2 = −EI
6 4 2 # 2 & dx
(21)
The
resulting
slope
equation
for
the
second
section
of
the
beam
is:
wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx dv
− + − + C2 = −EI
6 4 4 4 dx
(22)
The
moment
in
section
3
of
the
beam
is
formulated
and
substituted
into
equation
12,
resulting
in:
!x$ ( !L −s$+ ( ! L + s $+ d 2v
wx # & − R * x − # &- − R * x − # &- = −EI 2
"2% ) " 2 %, ) " 2 %, dx
(23)
Airy
Points
5
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Equation
23
can
be
further
simplified
to:
wx 2 "L −s% "L+s% d 2v
− Rx + R $ ' − Rx + R $ ' = −EI
2 # 2 & # 2 & dx 2
(24)
Equation
24
is
then
integrated
to
obtain
the
slope
characteristic
of
the
third
section
of
the
beam.
( wx 2 "L −s% " L + s %+ d 2v
∫ *) − Rx + R $ ' − Rx + R $ '-dx = ∫ −EI dx 2
dx
2 # 2 & # 2 &,
(25)
Completing
Integration
results
in:
wx 3 Rx 2 "L −s% Rx 2 "L+s% dv
− + R$ 'x − + R$ ' x + C3 = −EI
6 2 # 2 & 2 # 2 & dx
(26)
Using
equation
11,
a
substitution
can
be
made
in
equation
26
for
R,
producing:
wx 3 wLx 2 wL " L − s % wLx 2 wL " L + s % dv
− + $ ' x − + $ ' x + C3 = −EI
6 4 2 # 2 & 4 2 # 2 & dx
(27)
Further
simplification
leads
to
the
resulting
slope
equation
for
the
third
section
of
the
beam:
wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x dv
− + + C3 = −EI
6 2 2 dx
(28)
The
general
slope
equations
are
now
defined.
However,
it
is
still
necessary
to
solve
for
the
unknown
integration
constants.
This
will
be
accomplished
by
using
two
known
conditions.
Since
the
beam
is
symmetrically
supported
the
deformed
shape
will
be
symmetric
about
the
center.
This
leads
to
the
first
condition,
which
is
that
the
slope
at
the
midpoint
of
the
beam
must
be
zero.
Substituting
this
condition
into
equation
22
provides
the
following
result:
3 2
w ! L $ wL ! L $ wL2 ! L $ wLs ! L $
# & − # & + # &− # & + C2 = 0
6"2% 4 "2% 4 "2% 4 "2%
(29)
After
simplification
of
equation
29,
a
final
solution
is
determined
for
the
integration
constant
C2.
wL3 wL2 s
C2 = − +
12 8
(30)
Airy
Points
6
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Since
the
beam
has
a
smooth
shape
without
abrupt
change,
the
slope
must
be
continuous
over
the
length
of
the
beam.
This
leads
to
the
second
known
condition,
which
is
that
the
slope
calculated
at
the
support
points
must
be
equivalent
as
determined
by
both
equations
that
apply
for
that
given
support
point.
Since
E
and
I
are
equivalent
for
all
sections
of
the
beam,
they
can
be
lumped
with
the
slope
to
simplify
reduction
of
the
equations.
Using
equations
16
and
22
this
condition
is
setup
in
equation
31.
wx 3 wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx
+ C1 = − + − + C2
6 6 4 4 4
(31)
Prior
to
substituting
the
coordinate
for
the
first
support
point
in
for
x,
some
simplifications
are
made
to
make
subsequent
operations
easier.
wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx
C1 = − + − + C2
4 4 4
(32)
Now
the
coordinate
for
the
first
support
point
is
substituted
into
equation
32.
2
wL " L − s % wL2 " L − s % wLs " L − s %
C1 = − $ ' + $ '− $ ' + C2
4 # 2 & 4 # 2 & 4 # 2 &
(33)
Simplifying
equation
33,
the
final
result
for
integration
constant
C1
is:
wL3 wLs 2
C1 = − +
48 16
(34)
The
same
condition
is
applied
for
the
second
support
point,
using
equations
22
and
28.
wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x
− + − + C2 = − + + C3
6 4 4 4 6 2 2
(35)
Prior
to
substituting
the
coordinate
for
the
second
support
point
in
for
x,
some
simplifications
are
made
to
make
subsequent
operations
easier.
wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx
− − + C2 = C3
4 4 4
(36)
Now
the
coordinate
for
the
second
support
point
is
substituted
into
equation
36.
2
wL ! L + s $ wL2 ! L + s $ wLs ! L + s $
# & − # &− # & + C2 = C3
4 " 2 % 4 " 2 % 4 " 2 %
(37)
Airy
Points
7
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Simplifying
equation
37,
the
final
result
for
integration
constant
C3
is:
7wL3 wLs 2
C3 = − −
48 16
(38)
With
a
solution
determined
for
all
three
of
the
integration
constants,
it
is
now
possible
to
list
the
complete
slope
equations
for
each
section
of
the
beam.
The
slope
equation
for
section
1
of
the
beam,
from
the
left
end
to
the
first
support
is:
wx 3 wL3 wLs 2 dv
− + = −EI
6 48 16 dx
(39)
The
slope
equation
for
section
2
of
the
beam,
from
the
first
support
to
the
second
support
is:
wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx wL3 wL2 s dv
− + − − + = −EI
6 4 4 4 12 8 dx
(40)
The
slope
equation
for
section
3
of
the
beam,
from
the
second
support
to
the
right
end
of
the
beam
is:
wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x 7wL3 wLs 2 dv
− + − − = −EI
6 2 2 48 16 dx
(41)
iv. Beam
Deflection
Solution:
The
beam
slope
equations
derived
in
the
previous
section
can
now
be
integrated
to
obtain
equations
defining
deflection
of
the
beam
as
a
function
of
position
along
its
length.
Equation
39
is
integrated
to
determine
the
deflection
characteristic
for
the
first
section
of
the
beam.
" wx 3 wL3 wLs 2 % " dv %
∫ $# 6 − 48 + 16 '&dx = ∫ $#−EI dx '&dx
(42)
4 3 2
wx wL x wLs x
− + + C4 = −EIv
24 48 16
(43)
Equation
40
is
integrated
to
determine
the
deflection
characteristic
for
the
second
section
of
the
beam.
" wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x wLsx wL3 wL2 s % " dv %
∫ $# 6 − 4 + 4 − 4 − 12 + 8 '&dx = ∫ $#−EI dx '&dx
(44)
4 3 2 2 2 3 2
wx wLx wL x wLsx wL x wL sx
− + − − + + C5 = −EIv
24 12 8 8 12 8
(45)
Airy
Points
8
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Equation
41
is
integrated
to
determine
the
deflection
characteristic
for
the
third
section
of
the
beam.
" wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x 7wL3 wLs 2 % " dv %
∫ $# 6 − 2 + 2 − 48 − 16 '&dx = ∫ $#−EI dx '& dx
(46)
4 3 2 2 3 2
wx wLx wL x 7wL x wLs x
− + − − + C6 = −EIv
24 6 4 48 16
(47)
After
integration
is
complete
it
is
still
necessary
to
determine
the
integration
constants.
This
is
accomplished
by
identifying
several
known
conditions.
The
first
condition
considered
is
that
deflection
at
the
first
support
point
must
be
equal
to
zero.
This
condition
is
applied
to
equation
43.
4
w " L − s % wL3 " L − s % wLs 2 " L − s %
$ ' − $ '+ $ ' + C4 = 0
24 # 2 & 48 # 2 & 16 # 2 &
(48)
Simplifying
equation
48,
the
final
result
for
integration
constant
C4
is:
3wL4 3wL2 s 2 wLs 3 ws 4
C4 = − + −
384 64 24 384
(49)
The
same
condition
is
now
applied
to
equation
45.
4 3 2 2
w " L − s % wL " L − s % wL2 " L − s % wLs " L − s % wL3 " L − s % wL2 s " L − s %
$ ' − $ ' + $ ' − $ ' − $ '+ $ ' + C5 = 0
24 # 2 & 12 # 2 & 8 # 2 & 8 # 2 & 12 # 2 & 8 # 2 &
(50)
Simplifying
equation
50,
the
final
result
for
integration
constant
C5
is:
7wL4 wL3s wL2 s 2 wLs 3 ws 4
C5 = − − + −
384 32 64 32 384
(51)
Similar
to
the
previous
condition,
deflection
at
the
second
support
point
must
also
be
zero.
This
condition
is
applied
to
equation
45.
4 3 2
w ! L + s $ wL ! L + s $ wL2 ! L + s $ 7wL3 ! L + s $ wLs 2 ! L + s $
# & − # & + # & − # &− # & + C6 = 0
24 " 2 % 6 " 2 % 4 " 2 % 48 " 2 % 16 " 2 %
(52)
Simplifying
equation,
the
final
result
for
integration
constant
C6
is:
11wL4 wL2 s 2 wLs 3 ws 4
C6 = + + −
384 64 24 384
(53)
Airy
Points
9
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
With
all
integration
constants
derived,
it
is
possible
to
assemble
complete
deflection
equations
for
each
section
of
the
beam.
The
deflection
equation
for
section
1
of
the
beam
is:
wx 4 wLs 2 x wL3 x 3wL4 3wL2 s 2 wLs 3 ws 4
+ − + − + − = −EIv
24 16 48 384 64 24 384
(54)
The
deflection
equation
for
section
2
of
the
beam
is:
wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2 wLsx 2 wL3 x wL2 sx 7wL4 wL3s wL2 s 2 wLs 3 ws 4
− + − − + + − − + − = −EIv
24 12 8 8 12 8 384 32 64 32 384
(55)
The
deflection
equation
for
section
3
of
the
beam
is:
wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2 7wL3 x wLs 2 x 11wL4 wL2 s 2 wLs 3 ws 4
− + − − + + + − = −EIv
24 6 4 48 16 384 64 24 384
(56)
v. Airy
point
Solution:
Notice
that
the
deflection
and
slope
equations
derived
up
to
this
point
are
valid
for
any
spacing,
s,
of
the
support
points.
In
order
to
derive
a
single
solution
specifically
for
the
Airy
points,
an
additional
constraint
must
be
considered.
This
constraint
is
to
set
the
slope
equal
to
zero
when
x
is
equal
to
zero.
This
condition
is
substituted
into
equation
30
and
the
resultant
equation
is
solved
to
determine
the
relationship
between
L
and
s.
w ⋅ 0 wL3 wLs 2
− + = −EI ⋅ 0
6 48 16
(57)
wL3 wLs 2
− + =0
48 16
(58)
2 3
wLs wL
=
16 48
(59)
2
L
s2 =
3
(60)
L
s=
3
(61)
Airy
Points
10
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Airy
Points
11
the
engineer’s
notebook
©2013
Airy Points 13