Artificial Muscles9 PDF

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Torsional artificial muscles

Cite this: DOI: 10.1039/c9mh01441a
Shazed Aziz *ab and Geoffrey M. Spinks*a
Large stroke torsional actuators are the newest class of artificial muscle technology that produces rotary
motion or generate torque in response to various stimuli. A number of materials comprising twisted
fibres or filaments have been shown to display high degrees of reversible untwist and retwist under
various experimental conditions such as heating, electrochemical charging, chemical absorption or
photonic excitation. Torsional actuators are of potential application in areas that include microfluidic
mixing, microsensors, photonic displays, and energy-harvesting devices. Furthermore, the torsional
actuation in fibres can be translated into a linear, or tensile, actuation when the fibres are formed into
Received 12th September 2019, coils. These coil tensile artificial muscles are of potential use in soft and wearable robotics, medical
Accepted 24th October 2019 devices and prosthetics. This review will provide a comprehensive overview of torsional actuators
DOI: 10.1039/c9mh01441a constructed from different functional materials, their actuating mechanism, potential applications, and
their current limitations. The review will conclude with recent developments and future trends of
rsc.li/materials-horizons torsional actuators as well as critical issues that need to be addressed and resolved.
1. Introduction combustion engines is their potential for miniaturisation

without the sacrifice of power generated per mass. Artificial
New discoveries in smart materials fuel the continual advance- muscles have been developed that can reversibly simulate
ment of artificial muscles that mimic the performance of muscle-like motions such as contraction, expansion, bending,
skeletal muscles. One significant advantage of artificial muscles and rotation.1–5 Many different materials have been developed
over conventional actuators such as electric motors and for artificial muscles, including shape memory alloys (SMAs),6–17
electroactive polymers (EAPs)18–24 and piezoelectric and dielectric
materials.25–30 The performance of artificial muscles can be
a
ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science and Intelligent Polymer evaluated against a number of parameters, including force and
Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Innovation Campus, Squires Way,
displacement generated and speed of response. In many of these
North Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia. E-mail: gspinks@uow.edu.au
b
School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Don Nicklin areas, artificial muscle performance surpasses that of natural
Building (74), QLD 4072, Australia. E-mail: shazed.aziz@uq.edu.au skeletal muscle, making them significantly attractive to use in
Shazed Aziz is a Postdoctoral Geoffrey M. Spinks is a Senior

Researcher at The University of Professor at Australian Institute
Queensland, Australia. His current for Innovative Materials at the
research aims to manufacture University of Wollongong,
nano-particle and nano-fibre Australia. His primary research
reinforced polymer composites interest is the development and
for aerospace and automobile application of bionic artificial
applications. His research focus muscles from stimuli-responsive
also includes various aspects of materials that can match or
fundamental and applied polymer exceed the performance of natural
science with a particular emphasis skeletal muscle. He has extensively
on polymeric actuators (artificial investigated thermo-responsive
Shazed Aziz muscles) for soft robotics, energy Geoffrey M. Spinks polymers, conducting polymers,
harvesting, and wearable and hydrogels, carbon nanotubes
implantable bio-devices. and graphene for artificial muscles and other smart material
applications.
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

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Review Materials Horizons
applications where a muscle-like response is required. Commer- of an active volume change material to a flexible support
cial development and use of these materials are at the primary structure converts the volume change into a bending displace-
stage, and only a few types are commercially exposed. However, ment [Fig. 1(b)]. Examples include bimetallic strips and similar
there is a need for continued improvement in artificial muscles laminate structures. Helically twisted fibres or yarns can
systems since applications areas can be expanded by reducing generate torsional rotation depending on their volume changes
overall system mass and volume, reducing driving voltages, once activated [Fig. 1(c)]. Additionally, twist induced coiled
increasing actuation rates, cycle-life and power density.1,31,32 fibres can generate contractile motion when the degree of
Like a natural skeletal muscle, artificial muscles are char- inserted twists changes [Fig. 1(d)]. This review article concen-
acterised by a reciprocating or oscillatory type of motion that trates explicitly on these ‘torsional’ artificial muscles and aims
may be evident as tensile, bending, torsion or a combination of to understand better the mechanisms that produce high
these processes. Fig. 1 summarises the general actuation types torsional strokes. Fig. 2 charts the recent evolution of torsional
of artificial muscles. Simple volume change materials can actuators which shows an increase of published work over the
generate tensile actuation strokes [Fig. 1(a)], and the coupling past decade.
Fig. 1 Actuation capabilities of differently structured materials: (a) linear actuation, (b) bending motion, (c) torsional rotation and (d) torsion induced
linear actuation. Calculations of: (e) fractional change in fibre twist and (f) absolute change in twist for three fibres having different initial twist densities
when calculations assume isotropic volume expansion and were based on fibres of 1 mm initial diameter, 100 mm initial length and initial inserted twists
of T0 = 180, 264, and 357 turns per m. Reproduced with permission.35 Copyright 2016, Cambridge University Press.
Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

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generate large coil tensile actuation. Tensile strokes as high as

B50% were reported for twisted and coiled nylon 6,6 fibres,
delivering power densities over 5.3 kW kg1 with 2.48 kJ kg1
contractile work capacity and greatly exceeding that produced
by natural skeletal muscle (39 J kg1).37,38
Applications that exploit the rotating action of torsional
actuators have employed tethering at either one end or both
ends. The latter requires some asymmetry in the actuator to

allow rotation, and most typically this has been achieved by
connecting the actuating material in series to a non-actuating
material. The non-actuating material also operates as a ‘return
spring’ mechanism that can improve the reversibility of the
actuation when the actuating stimulus is removed. The
mechanics of torsional actuation is first described regarding
Fig. 2 Development progression of torsional actuators constructed of reversible rotation for an actuating fibre tethered at one end
different materials. only. A vertically hanging fibre of length l that is clamped at the
top end and free to rotate at the opposite end can be treated as
a torsional shaft. The rotation of the free end with regard to
Torsional actuation of a material can be defined as in the clamped end is f(l) =t/S, where t is the torque applied to
‘torsion mechanics’ which describes the angular rotation of the free end and S is the torsional rigidity of the fibre. The
one part of a slender beam when a torque is applied and where actuating fibre generates an internal torque causing a rotation
the rotation occurs around the beam’s long axis. Torsional per yarn length of y at the free end. The rotation at any distance
actuators show such rotations in fibres, wires, films and strips x from the tethered end to the free fibre end is:
in specific materials when exposed to various stimuli. Most
f(x) = xDy (2)
recent interest has considered the torsional actuation in highly
twisted fibres and yarns mainly because of the large torsional
Torsional rotation of a fibre clamped at both ends and
rotations generated. These twisted fibre torsional actuators
subjected to constant tensile load is measured using a paddle
have been successfully analysed by considering the changes
attached to the fibre at a distance x from one end. Clamping at
in a helix geometry due to a volume increase such as when
both ends does not allow any rotation at either end; hence,
twisted yarns or fibres are heated, absorb solvent or are
rotation is only possible if the fibre is actuated along only part
electrochemically charged. The helically wound filaments can
of its length. Here, rotation of the actuating segment of the
be considered as inextensible and the change in twist can be
fibre mechanically introduces rotation to the non-actuating
estimated from the known helix length and diameter changes.33–35
segment, thereby generating an increasing opposing torque in
For example, the effect of inserted twist on the torsional actuation
the non-actuating segment as the torsional rotation proceeds.
stroke of isotropically expanding helices is shown in Fig. 1(e) as
Therefore, tethering the fibre at both ends restricts rotation at
denoted by the fractional change in twist (T) normalized to the
all points along the fibre compared to the free rotation by
initial twist T0 = n0/l0. Regardless of the twist count, an isotropic
producing this equal and opposite residual torques in the
volume increase causes an untwist in the fibre where again the
actuating and non-actuating segments. The net rotation, f(x)
‘string’ length is considered unaffected. A smaller fractional change
occurring at any point x along the actuating segment is given by:
in torsional stroke occurs with a higher inserted twist. However, the

absolute torsional actuation stroke shows a smaller dependency on b
fðxÞ ¼ xDy (3)
the initially inserted twist, as shown in Fig. 1(f), since the higher bþg
amount of twist partially offsets the reduced fractional change in
twist during isotropic volume expansion. where b is the ratio of the torsional modulus of the actuating and
Torsional actuation can be used to develop useful oscillatory non-actuating segments; g is the ratio of the actuating segment
rotations, but the most significant application area is in tensile length to non-actuating segment length; and x varies from zero to
actuation of coil structures that are driven by torsion in the coil l, where l is the length of the actuating segment.
fibre or wire. The well-established spring mechanics36 shows These principles of torsional mechanics provide a framework
that stretching a coiled fibre that is tethered to prevent end for the comparison of various reported torsional actuators. The
rotation produces a change in the fibre’s twist as given by: inherent torsional actuation properties are described by Dy, the
torsional stiffness and the rates of response. Where available
NDL
DT ¼ (1) these parameters are described below for different torsional
l2
actuators and related to the different functional mechanisms of
where DT is the change in twist (turns per m) of the fibre of actuation. These principles then provide guidance for the
length l that forms a coil of N turns and when the coil length design of actuator systems and provide knowledge about their
changes by DL. Coils made from torsionally actuating fibres current and potential applications.

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2. Types of torsional actuators through shape recovery in a 40 mm long strip operated in the
2.1 Shape memory alloy (SMA) torsional actuators one-end-tethered mode. Some other works were conducted with
similar TiNi tape; however, they used a return spring mechanism
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are a group of metallic materials for achieving two-way actuation.54,55 Here the twisted strip was
that offers the ability to recover a former length or shape when connected to a superelastic alloy strip that acted as a return
heated. Although a wide range of alloys exhibits the shape spring in the two-end-tethered configuration [Fig. 3(a)]. A linear
memory effect, only those that can recover from a large amount relationship was observed between torque and angle of twist per
of plastic strain are of practical interest. Among several indust-
unit length of the strip under a constant loading process.

rially developed SMAs (such as Cu–Zn–Al, Cu–Al–Ni, and Ni–Ti), The alternating torsional response were found to be symmetric
the most common SMA is Ni–Ti (nitinol) alloy used for its with respect to an origin [Fig. 3(b)].
high ductility and fatigue and corrosion resistance.14,39–41 Similar torsional actuation mechanisms have recently been
In addition, nitinol offers design flexibility in the form of reported9,56 where a twisting SMA rod was embedded in an
rods,42,43 tubes,12 sheets,10,44 strips,45 wires,7,13,46–48 twisted elastomeric sheet. These composite actuator systems used the
wires49 and coils.50–52 SMA rod as a one-end-tethered torsional actuator and the
Torsional actuation has been demonstrated in both thin elastomer sheet as a ‘return spring’ mechanism to enable
SMA strips and wires. Tobushi et al.53 have conducted torsion, two-way actuation [Fig. 3(c)]. Joule heating of the SMA wire
recovery torque and torsion fatigue tests with a TiNi SMA thin generated twisting of the elastomer sheet to B11 per mm of
strip to evaluate the essential torsion characteristics based on 3 mm thick sample [Fig. 3(d)].9 Increasing actuator thicknesses
thermal recovery. When the strip was twisted, torque and to 5 and 7 mm where the width and length of the actuator were
recovery torque were found to increase in proportion to the fixed at 15 and 70 mm reduced the torsional stroke, but the
angle of twist and temperature. A rotation of 901 was achieved blocked torque remained unchanged.
Fig. 3 Micro-rotary actuator; (a) schematic illustration showing clamping yoke, torsionally strained SMA wire and electronics for differential heating,
(b) angular deformation vs. pre-clamped twist (turns per cm) for a 10 mm long, 100 mm diameter piece of SMA wire being heated by a 200 mA current.
Reproduced with permission.55 Copyright 1988, Elsevier. Soft twisting actuator; (c) fabrication method of a twisting actuator by clamping the SMA wire
with torsional strain, then positioning the SMA wire onto the mold, and finally, close the upper mold and inject siloxane elastomer, (d) twisting angle and
twisting moment depending on the elastomer layer thickness. Reproduced with permission.9 Copyright 2015, IOP Publishing.

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Despite having a significant number of advantages, control However, the manufacturing process of the actuator was reason-
challenges exist in SMA actuators due to their undesired non- ably complex and seemed challenging to be used in mini or
linear characteristics. Conventional solutions using digital micro-sized torsional actuators. Therefore, Kim et al.62 presented
encoders remain unfeasible at this scale. Therefore, miniature the design, test and improvement of a piezoelectric torsional
and low-weight sensors need to be integrated for accurate actuator using piezoceramics and a torsion bar which was
measurement of torsional actuation. Moreover, power consump- comparatively easy to construct. The proposed cylindrical actuator
tion is another concern with SMA actuators, that becomes more directly invokes the shear mode of the piezoelectric material;
significant as the number of actuators grows.57 Another major hence, no complicated additional mechanism is needed
limitation is having low torsional stroke (maximum of [Fig. 4(a)]. However, a small angular displacement of just 0.181
B4.51 per mm) which makes the SMA torsional actuators less was achieved from a 25 mm long tube. Glazounov et al.63
feasible for real-life applications. described a similar kind of actuator where the conversion of
shear piezoelectric strain of a tubular structure was converted
2.2 Piezoelectric torsional actuators into angular displacement. Fig. 4(b) shows a tube structure
Piezoelectric and electrostrictive materials are a natural choice actuator consisted of an even number of piezoelectric ceramic
for precision displacement transducers or actuators. They segments which were poled in such a way that the remnant
utilise the strain induced piezoelectric effect by an electric field polarization, Pr, is directed along the length of each segment.
to provide static structural deformation.58–60 A number of The joints between the segments act as electrodes to apply an
materials show piezoelectricity such as piezoelectric ceramics electric driving field, E. The segments were electrically connected
(lead zirocondate titanate, PZT), piezoelectric polymers (poly- in parallel and provide coherent shear strain, S, by the applied
vinylidene fluoride, PVDF), and piezoelectric ceramic/polymer electric field in all the segments. Due to the cylindrical structure
composites. Actuators made of piezoelectric ceramic materials of the actuator, the shear strain was directly transformed into the
are now being widely used for numerous applications, such as angular displacement, b.
precision positioning, noise and vibration sensing and cancel- Pan et al. reported a torsional actuator with helical
lation, ultrasonic motors, and controlling hydraulic valves. electrodes64,65 that involves a very simple structure [Fig. 4(c)].
Due to their increasing demand, piezoelectric torsional actua- A tubular PZT was wrapped with a pair of parallel electrodes on
tors have been studied for many years. Morita et al.61 developed its surface to transform into a torsional actuator. The parallel
a torsional actuator from multi-layered and assembled piezo- wound electrode formed a helical structure with interweaving
ceramic cylinder which was able to harvest shear strain directly. similar to the interdigitated electrodes (IDEs). When this helically
Fig. 4 Tubular piezoelectric torsional actuator: (a) piezoceramic based torsion bar (front and top view). Reproduced with permission.62 Copyright 2001,
IOP Publishing. (b) Piezoelectric ceramic segments are bonded together to form a tube structured torsional actuator. Redrawn from ref. 63. Copyright
2000, SAGE Publications. (c) Proposed helical electrode actuator model for controlled performance and (d) planar form of the torsional actuator made of
tubular fibre showing the electric field direction. Reproduced with permission.65 Copyright 2008, Elsevier. Schematic illustration of multilayer
piezoelectric torsional actuator: (e) the fibre directions of the two FRC outer layers (with oriented at angle a to the longitudinal axis of the actuator)
with embedded piezo layer and (f) a 3-D and end-on view of a twisting actuator with twist angle ytwist.

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structured assembly is put into use, usually one end is fixed to a Apart from tubular piezoelectric torsional actuators, twisting
steady object and the other end is free to move. If the tubular fibre motion can be obtained with a single piezoelectric layer by
is assumed to be cut along the longitudinal section and opened laminating antisymmetric top and bottom fibre reinforced
into a planar form [Fig. 4(d)], then the actuator will appear like composite (FRC) layers [Fig. 4(e)]. An actuator of specific
a piezoceramic layer covered with parallel electrode lines on its dimension can attain a rotation angle of ytwist [Fig. 4(f)] by
external surface. The electrode lines are arranged as alternating applying a voltage across the piezoelectric layer, using the
positive and negative electrodes, which are the same as the IDEs. conductive FRC layers as electrodes. Finio et al.67 have
The poling and driving electric field direction can be assumed modelled a twisting sheet based piezoelectric actuator on
from this planer form which is responsible for the torsional achieving controlled performance that can be applied in the
movement. A small torsional angle of about 1.71 was observed micro-robotic field. A theoretical model was developed which
from a 40 mm long tube when the driving voltage changes from successfully predicts torsional rotation, torque and energy
500 to +500 V. This helical structure is very suitable for fabri- density of piezoelectric twisting actuator; and optimises these
cating tiny torsional actuators using piezoelectric hollow or solid values by accounting for actuator geometry such as reinforced
fibres, which can be produced by several conventional methods, fibre orientation angle a.67
for example, microfabrication by co-extrusion and viscous– Despite of significant number of works conducted and
suspension–spinning process.61,66 published there still remain several restrictions of piezoelectric
Fig. 5 Net shape helically structured bimorph strips: (a) basic process sequence and schematic top view: initial planar bilayer, patterned through
conventional microfabrication technique, and (b) digital microscope image with released helical structures and the different orientations of the initial
pattern result in helical structures with different pitches. Reproduced with permission.74 Copyright 2006, American Chemical Society. Fabrication of
VO2 based bimorph coils: (c) schematic of the microfabrication process of a dual coil, (d) rotation of a single coil removed from as-fabricated dual
coil operated at various temperatures in a heating/cooling cycle, and (e) temperature dependence of specific rotation and spring constant in the heating
half-cycle. Reproduced with permission.75 Copyright 2013, John Wiley and Sons.

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materials which limit their usability in modern day torsional constant varies with the change in strip geometry additional
actuator systems.68,69 For example, piezoelectric ceramics are tuning is necessary by optimising the dimensions of the
stiff and brittle, and cannot be coated onto non-uniform bimorphs as well as the spring length. Additionally, they must
surfaces, which restricts the design flexibility in the transducer. be constrained from translational movement perpendicular to
Similar to SMA torsional actuators they also produce minimal the axial direction which adds to system complexity.
material deformation compared to charge input; hence they are
not suitable in many of those relevant fields where large 2.4 Electroactive polymer (EAP) torsional actuators
torsional movement is required, specifically, in impact rotating Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are functional materials that are
motors and robotics.60,70,71 often used as actuators in adaptive structures, in particular
when large deformations are required. In EAPs, electric energy
2.3 Multilayer torsional ribbons is directly converted into mechanical work and some EAPs
The mechanical principles of residual stress or strain-induced can create large strains of more than 10%. Typical EAPs are
bending of multilayer structures have been exploited to described briefly below followed by examples of their applica-
manufacture micro- and macroscale torsional actuators. For tion to generate torsional actuation.
instance, net shape helical structures made of bimorph strips Dielectric elastomer EAPs have been widely studied in recent
were successfully developed by Pearce et al.,72 Mohammadi years for developing electroactive actuators due to their excel-
et al.73 and Bell et al.74 The helical ribbons were produced by lent overall performance, including large elongation, high
inducing a bending action within the bimorph structure where energy density, good energy conversion efficiency and fast
the bending direction did not coincide with the long axis of the response.4,76–78 Application of an electric field using compliant
bimorph ribbon. The bending angle can be controlled by electrodes on both sides of an elastomer film results in its
manipulating the anisotropic properties of one of the bimorph deformation according to Maxwell’s pressure and the nearly
layers. For example, epitaxial deposition of InAs/GaAs using incompressible properties of the material. Considerable strains
AlAs as a sacrificial layer dictated that the h100i direction is the can be achieved in comparison to other common actuators,
preferred roll-up direction when the patterned bilayers were such as piezoelectric devices.28 Dielectric elastomers are fre-
released by wet etching. Helical ribbons with different pitches quently being used as actuators in many technological fields
and helix angles form depending on the misorientation angle such as mobile mini- and micro-robots, micro-pumps, micro
of the ribbon’s geometric axes and the bending direction air vehicles, disk drive, prosthetic devices, flat panel loud-
[Fig. 5(a)]. The angle between the patterned stripe and the speakers and optical fibre positioning.76,79,80
closest h100i direction determines the pitch between turns of Conducting polymers are another class of EAPs which
the resulting helical structures. This effect is illustrated by the structurally feature a conjugated backbone and are electroni-
images in Fig. 5(b). cally conductive. Upon oxidation or reduction of the polymer,
Liu et al.75 built a micro-scale torsional muscle actuated by conductivity is increased and leads to a charge imbalance which
the phase transition of VO2, with a simple bimorph design. The results in a flow of ions into the material from an external
actuator was constructed by releasing a long ‘‘V’’-shaped electrolyte so as to balance charge. Conducting polymer
Cr/VO2 bimorph structure where VO2 thin films were initially actuators are generally designed by immersing the polymer in
grown by pulsed laser deposition on Si substrates. The exposed a bulk liquid electrolyte environment.81,82 The ions or dopants
area of VO2 was etched away by reactive ion etching (RIE). Then enter the polymer from a surrounding electrolyte medium
the ‘‘V’’-shaped Cr/VO2 area was shielded by photoresist with which typically remains in the form of gel, solid, or liquid.
the same pattern, and the exposed SiO2 and the underneath Si Contraction or expansion of the polymer occurs due to the
were deep-etched by RIE. Upon removal of the photoresist and mass transfer of ions between the polymer and the electrolyte.
under-etching of the SiO2 layer beneath the Cr/VO2, ‘‘V’’-shaped Typical volume changes are about 10%, and length changes are
Cr/VO2 bimorph ribbon were released [Fig. 5(c)]. The final hence on the order of 3%.83,84 Nevertheless, the dimensional
structure is a suspended bimorph helix consisting of two changes of a single piece of the conductive polymer during
symmetric coils naturally connected to the two Cr electrode redox can be exploited to produce better linear motion.32
pads. Fig. 5(d) shows a single coil being actuated by global On the other hand, a conjugated-polymer layer bonded to a
heating with the specific rotation amplitude of B10001 per mm non-swelling layer85 or another conjugated-polymer layer, but
of coil length that is reduced by half from that of a dual coil with different swelling86,87 results in significant bending
[Fig. 5(e)]. This system includes all the functions including motion. These configurations have been explored in various
torsional actuator, memristor, and proximity sensor, showing biomedical,85 biological,88 microfluidic89,90 and robotic91,92
great possibilities in applications that require a high level of applications.
functionality integration in a tiny space. The torsional muscles A dielectric elastomer actuating motors that continuously
simulate active neuromuscular systems with all-inorganic rotate a shaft have been described by Anderson et al.93,94 and
materials by sensing a distanced remote substance and responding Heim et al.95 A variation described recently by Wache et al.
by rotating to a different configuration.75 describes the oscillatory torsional motion of dielectric elastomer
Overall, multilayer bimorphs strips were able to provide actuators.96 The governing principle behind this new rotational
significant torsional deformation; however, since the spring motion is the creation of asymmetric electrodes, which induce

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twisting of the actuator centre. The two different kinds of samples

were investigated where in the first kind, the rigid external frames
supporting a free-standing, pre-stretched film of VHB acrylic
elastomer have a square shape with an inner side where four
rectangular electrodes located at the corners of the frame. In the
second assembly, the elastomer film is enclosed by circular
frames instead of the square ones, with a fixed inner diameter.
The samples were fixed in a dark chamber with continuous

illumination applied by light emitting diodes (LEDs). Rotation is
observed depending on the intensity of the field applied, and
among the tested configurations, a maximum rotation of 101 was
achieved.
Liwen et al. has reported a new method of achieving elec-
trically induced torsional deformation of a fibre reinforced
actuator made by embedding a set of helical fibres into a
dielectric elastomer tube (Fig. 6).97 Torsional strokes of up to
2.51 per mm were found. As illustrated in Fig. 6(a), in the
reference configuration Br, the actuator is undeformed and
uncharged, and of fibre angle Y. The external and internal
surfaces of the actuator are considered coated with compliant
electrodes. When an axial force, a torque and a direct-current
voltage is applied through the width, the reference configu-
ration is transformed to an actuated state B with deformed fibre
angle y, or called the current configuration. The effects of the
fibre stiffness and helical angle as well as externally applied
mechanical loads on the torsional deformation were also
studied, and it was found that when snap-through instability
occurs, the voltage-induced twist angle changed to a higher
value when deformation occurred which can be tuned by
varying the fibre stiffness and helical angle [Fig. 6(b)]. The
demonstrated results are expected to provide guide for the Fig. 6 Schematic figure of a helical fibre reinforced tubular dielectric
future rational design of fibre-reinforced torsional dielectric elastomer actuator: (a) the reference and current configurations, and
(b) the snap-through instability phenomenon of the tubular DE actuator
elastomer actuators.
reinforced by a family of helical fibres. Reproduced with permission.97
A few studies have reported the development of rotary Copyright 2017, Elsevier.
actuators based on conductive polymers. Hunter et al. applied
a polyaniline-based linear actuator to rotate a crank for rotary
motion in one direction.98 Fang et al. proposed a novel deswelling of the tube, which subsequently leads to torsional
conjugated-polymer-based reversible oscillatory torsional actuator motion. The measured maximum peak-to-peak torsion was about
by embedding helically wound fibres into a conjugated-polymer B0.011 per mm of actuator length. Recently, Martinez et al.100
tube.99 In this configuration, the fibres are confined and have reported the electrochemically activated torsional movement of
little room for extension. Therefore, they impose directional electropolymerized PPy coated textile yarns, Fig. 7(a) shows the
constraints for swelling of the material matrix, which causes SEM images of used PPy coated yarns: (1) polyamide/carbon,
complex deformation resulted by the fibre-matrix orientation. (2) silicon/carbon, (3) silver coated polyamide, (4) cellulose/
The torsion, elongation, and dilation of the tube are predicted carbon, (5) polyester/INOX, (6) polyester/Cu/Sn, and (7) gold
by developing and utilising a nonlinear elasticity-based theoretical coated polyester. A reversible torsional rotation up to 11 was
model. A prototype for the proposed torsional actuator was achieved from PPy coated gold/polyester yarn. The torsional
constructed by helically embedding platinum fibres into a poly- movement was explained as the effect of pre-twisting which was
pyrrole (PPy) hollow tube during the PPy deposition. Application present in some of the bare yarns [Fig. 7(b)].
of a positive charge between the fibre-directed PPy tube and an Despite having several advantages, EAPs have a number of
electrolyte causes the movement of anions in the electrolyte issues yet to be addressed to use them as practical actuator
toward the PPy/electrolyte interface. This results in a double layer systems.101 Both the EAPs torsional actuators described here
of charges on the interface and then, diffusion of highly concen- showed very small torsional rotation when operated as oscilla-
trated ions in the double layer into the PPy. Application of a tory torsional actuators. In past two decades, some dielectric
negative voltage causes the PPy to be reduced, and the previously elastomer actuators have demonstrated extensions up to
absorbed ions will be returned back to the electrolyte. Mass three times their initial lengths, satisfactory efficiencies and
transfer of ions in and out of the polymer causes swelling and high specific energy densities. However, in most experiments

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times higher than a traditional double-acting hydraulic cylinder

while attaining similar tensile stroke and maximum force
output.107 These attractive features make fluidic artificial muscles
a suitable actuation choice for bioinspired robot designs,113,116–118
powered prosthetics,119–122 or robots designed to interact closely
with humans.112,115,123
While axial movement of fluidic artificial muscles has been
studied and developed fairly comprehensively, much less

research has been conducted to construct simple fluidic actua-
tors that can provide rotary actuation.124–126 In one example,
Sanan et al.124 have assembled two differently shaped struc-
tures into a single configuration (having a shape like ‘S’) along
a shared geometric centre to make pneumatic torsional
actuators. The two helices were joined along the central axis
of the two shapes. The fabric used to make the muscle was
inextensible; therefore, the common central axis length
remained constant and accordingly the length of the whole
actuator was held constant during the movement. Consequently,
the motion between the ends of the torsion shape actuator moves
toward pure rotating motion with negligible axial movement.
Fig. 7 Electropolymerized PPy coated textile yarn actuators: (a) SEM One of the prototypes developed a torsional rotation of nearly
images of used PPy coated yarns: (1) polyamide/carbon, (2) silicon/carbon, 0.41 per mm of actuator length. Similar work has been reported
(3) silver coated polyamide, (4) cellulose/carbon, (5) polyester/INOX, by Yan et al.126 where a new spiral driven soft torsional module
(6) polyester/Cu/Sn, and (7) gold coated polyester, and (b) electrochemi-
has been designed based on the design idea of screw type
cally induced torsional rotation of corresponding PPy coated yarns.
Reproduced from ref. 100 Copyright 2018, IOP Publishing.
twisting [Fig. 8(a)]. First, finite element modelling of the
actuator was performed and then fabrication was carried out
by two stages. A kinematic model, which is the relationship
actuator life was a serious concern. In some applications between the air pressure and the twist angle, was also estab-
dielectric elastomers still lack several important properties lished by means of experimental calibration. Finally, a test
such as low voltage operation.102 Use of conductive polymers platform was fabricated and used to evaluate the actuation
as actuators require significantly less voltage; however, the performance of the designed module [Fig. 8(b)]. The torsional
response time of these actuators is long, and a low actuation module was inflated to a few specific angles and the air
force is generated which limits the practical applications.103,104 pressure was recorded. The data on air pressure/torsion angle
One potential way of improving their actuation speed is to use a [Fig. 9(c)] were obtained by averaging the values of five mea-
core material that is coated with conductive polymer. Several surements. The result of kinematic fitting as shown by the
patterns such as twisted, knitted, or weaved structures could be green and red line has been found consistent with the mea-
constructed to amplify the actuation efficiency. sured curve (blue). To clarify the effect of elastic deformation
on the module, a segmentation linear function has been
2.5 Fluidic torsional actuators described for each corresponding relationship separately when
Fluidic artificial muscles, also familiar as McKibben muscles, the angle was within the range 0–201 and more than 201.
have been extensively studied in both analytical and experimental Despite having novelty in these particular works, an issue was
aspects.105–108 Fluidic artificial muscles are constructed in a very overlooked is the structural role of the actuator if it is to be used
simple way and consist of internal elastomer bladder surrounded in a soft-bodied robot. In particular, the load bearing central
by a helically braided outer sleeve. Commonly, one end of the axis structure needs to be sufficiently stiff to linear and bending
muscle is connected to a fluid port through which pressurised forces but compliant to torsional loads, hence, the design
working fluid flow in and out of the muscle, while the other end of requires a careful investigation and selection of the central axis
the muscle is closed by a plug, crimp or another blocking device. material.
These muscles work by using pressurised fluid to expand the In another work, Connolly et al.125 demonstrated that a wide
internal elastic tube such that the outer braided sleeve of inexten- range of motions, including linear extension, radial expansion,
sible fibres causes linear contraction of the whole muscle unit. and rotational motion could be achieved from fibre-reinforced
Pneumatic or air filled muscle is the most common type of fluidic soft fluidic artificial muscles by merely controlling the fibre
artificial muscle and these systems have demonstrated many of angle.125 To illustrate the effect of fibre angles (ranged from 01
the distinctive features found in a real muscle.105,109–112 Some to 901) on the response of the actuators, a numerical study was
researchers107,113–115 have also investigated hydraulic artificial conducted using finite element analysis. To verify the finite
muscles and shown that an antagonistic pair of the hydraulic element results, numerical predictions and experimental data were
actuator is able to deliver force to weight ratios more than six compared for two actuators having fibre angles of 31 and 701.

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Fig. 8 Spiral driven torsional soft actuator: (a) CAD design and a protype, (b) test platform, and (c) validation of theoretically modelled and experimentally
evaluated results of the actuator with torsion angle o201 (segment 1) and o201 (segment 2). Reproduced with permission.126 Copyright 2017, Springer
Nature.
Fig. 9 Characteristics and performance of V-SPTAs: (a) actuated state of a V-SPTA, (b) angle change a and height change DH with different initial heights
H0, and (c) angle change a and height change DH with different initial angles b. Reproduced with permission.127 Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons.
Understanding the effect of tailoring the fibre angle provides a the unique design and structure of the actuated V-SPTA, where the
quantitative prediction of motion of the soft actuators and explora- top and bottom end sections were compressed against the top or
tion of the design space for this class of actuators. A small bottom surface [Fig. 9(a)]. The effect of the initial angle b of the
magnitude of torsional rotation of B1.751 per mm of actuator V-SPTA by varying b from 151 to 901 was also studied which had
length was reported in this work. A higher torsional movement has little effect on the change of angle a and height DH [Fig. 9(c)].
been reported by Jiao et al.127 where a novel vacuum-powered soft All the reported amount of torsional actuation from fluidic
pneumatic twisting actuator (V-SPTA) has produced B21 twisting actuators have been very small compared to their actual volume
motion per mm of actuator length (Fig. 9). The authors have and material content hence reducing the practical applicability.
investigated the effect of the initial height H0 of V-SPTA by varying Another limitation includes the requirement of the fluidic
H0 from 20 to 60 mm. Fig. 9(b) shows the angle change a and the pump to the actuator set-up which makes it unsuitable for
height change DH increased with an increase of H0. This is due to microscopic operations.

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2.6 Torsional carbon nanotube (CNT) artificial muscles rotation and a paddle was attached near yarn centre with only
Linear and bending modes of CNT actuators are well known by one-half of the yarn immersed in the electrolyte and used as a
using different stimuli such as electricity, fuels, light, magnetic torsional muscle. Despite having a smaller torsional rotation
fields or heat.128,129 Electrostatic attraction and repulsion than the same length of CNT yarn that was tethered at only one
between two nanotubes have been used for cantilever-based end, the reversibility of the actuation was improved because the
nano-tweezers130 and mechanically functional switches and non-actuating section of the yarn functioned as a torsional
logic elements.131,132 On the macroscale, electrically powered133–138 return spring to rotate the paddle to its initial angle (Fig. 10).
and fuel-powered139,140 electrochemical CNT actuators provide a Electrochemical actuation of CNT yarn relies on the use of
small expansion stroke and over a hundred times higher stress electrolytes; hence, the actuating system is restricted to a wet
generation than natural muscle. CNTs also have been used as environment or the use of gel-based electrolytes. Electro-
additives that act in conjunction with organic polymers to provide lytes also put a narrow boundary on operating temperature,
photo-responsive,141 shape memory,142,143 electrochemical144 and application of voltage, and rate of actuation. Furthermore,
electromechanical145,146 actuators. Fennimore et al. demonstrated special packaging is needed which adds extra weight and
electromechanically powered torsional and rotational motors by volume, and reduces the work density of the actuator system.
using a single multi-walled nanotube as a low-friction shaft with To overcome these limitations, Lima et al. have designed guest-
attached magnetic rotor where repeated rotation of 3601 was filled, electrolyte-free, twisted CNT yarn muscles that provide
achieved without having any wear or fatigue.147 high speed torsional and tensile stroke, in which a muscle
Foroughi et al. were first to demonstrate an electrolyte-filled spins a rotor at an average 11 500 revolutions per minute or
twist-spun multi-walled CNT yarn acted as a torsional artificial provides B3% tensile actuation at 1200 cycles per minute.154
muscle.148 They used a conventional three-electrode electro- Electrically, chemically, or photonically induced volume change
chemical set-up, and produce a reversible 2501 rotation per mm of guest material generates torsional rotation and tensile con-
of sample length and a peak rotation speed of 590 revolutions traction of the CNT yarn host. However, these wax-infiltrated,
per minute (rpm).148 The muscles operated by electrochemical electro-thermally powered artificial muscles are torsionally
double-layer charge injection, as demonstrated in carbon nano- underdamped, thereby experiencing dynamic oscillations that
tube supercapacitors-based reports.149–153 Immersion of a complicate positional control.
twisted multi-walled CNT yarn and a counter electrode in an Chun et al. developed an ultrafast hybrid CNT yarn muscle
electrolyte and applying a voltage between these electrodes that produced a torsional rotation of 9800 revolutions per minute
causes the yarn to rotate in the untwist direction. To improve without noticeable oscillation by using a similar mechanism in
reversibility, the yarn was tethered at both ends to prohibit end spider silk to reduce uncontrolled spinning of the spider at the
Fig. 10 Torsional CNT artificial muscle: (a) scanning electron micrograph of a CNT yarn that was symmetrically twist-spun (twist angle, a) from a multi-
walled CNT forest, (b) illustration of electrochemical cell configurations used for characterizing torsional actuation or the combination of torsional and
tensile actuation, where the Ag/Ag+ reference electrode, actuating yarn electrode, and Pt mesh counter-electrode are shown from left to right, (c) both
end tethered yarn configuration with actuating yarn length, LA and non-actuating yarn length, LN, and (d) torsional rotation (black) and axial length
actuation (blue) versus time for a yarn (length = 120 mm, diameter = 12 mm, a = 401). Reproduced with permission.148 Copyright 2011, The American
Association for the Advancement of Science.

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end of dragline silk.155 A viscoelastic material, containing

paraffin wax and polystyrene–poly(ethylene–butylene)–polystyrene
copolymer (SEBS), was used as the yarn guest material to produce
an overdamped dynamic oscillating response. The thermally-
induced volume increase of the wax/polymer composite within
the CNT yarn causes the yarn length to contract and the yarn to
partially untwist to generate torsional rotation.
In another article, Lee et al. demonstrated electrochemically

induced, all-solid-state torsional and tensile artificial yarn
muscles using a spinnable CNT sheet and received large
torsional rotation (531 per mm) without using the relatively
complicated three-electrode electrochemical system, a liquid
electrolyte, or heavy packaging.156 Anode and cathode yarns
were fabricated by infiltrating the solid electrolyte (poly(vinyl-
idene fluoride-co-hexa-fluoropropylene)), PVdF-co-HFP, containing
tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4) with propylene
carbonate (PC) to obtain an electrical insulation electrolyte layer
on the yarn surface. These two yarns were then plied together
using an opposite twist direction of yarn plying than for the
initially introduced yarn twist. Penetration of ions and solvating
species from exterior electrolytes into the anode and cathode
yarns causes the increase in hybrid yarn volume and produces
yarn untwist and yarn contraction. Torsional actuation study of
CNT yarn has also been conducted by utilising environment’s
temperature variation.158 In the example studied, twisted CNT
yarn was employed as the backbone for torsional actuation driven
by the volume change of infiltrated a phase change material
Fig. 11 Actuation performances of helical coiled multi-walled CNT yarn:
(PCM). When the specific volume of CNT yarn varies drastically
(a) schematic illustration of the contractive and rotary actuators where a
at the phase-transition temperature, torsional actuation has copper paddle with a mass of 75 mg was fixed at the end of the sample,
occurred. A maximum of 81 per mm rotation was observed when and (b) rotary speeds generated by the coiled sample upon the absorption
the temperature varies from 27 to 40 1C. Recently, solvent or of ethanol. The coiled sample was made from 20 twisted yarns. Repro-
vapour driven torsional multi-walled CNT yarn muscles have duced with permission.157 Copyright 2015, Springer Nature.
been reported by a few researchers. Chen et al.157 showed that
a compact coil of multiple twisted multi-walled CNT yarns
Multi-walled CNT twisted yarns have been the most extensively
consisting of nanoscale gaps between the nanotubes and
studied for torsional actuator showing high performance in
micrometre-scale gaps among the twisted fibres contribute to
terms of large torsional strokes and high-speed actuation.
the rapid response and large actuation stroke of the actuating
A summary of works on torsional CNT yarn artificial muscles
fibres. Upon exposure to ethanol vapour, a coil of 20 multi-
is provided in Table 1. Compared with other torsionally actuating
walled CNT yarn reversibly rotated a 570 times heavier paddle
materials, CNT yarns demonstrate several advantages such as
by 3801 per mm of muscle length with a maximum rotational
actuation under low voltages, ultra-high speed response, and
speed of B6361 rpm (Fig. 11). A maximum tensile contraction
millions of cycle-life which mainly originates from unique
of B10% was also generated during the rotation.
electronic properties, large surface area, and excellent chemical
In another work, Di et al.159 demonstrated an incandescent
and thermal stability of CNT yarns. Torsional CNT artificial
tension annealing process (ITAP) for stabilising both twisted
muscles have potential application in microfluidic mixing,148
and coiled multi-walled CNT yarns with respect to unwanted
torsional motors,154 torsional pumps,155 and micro-electro-
irreversible untwist, thereby avoiding the need to tether
mechanical systems.148,156,161 Integration of CNT yarn with
torsional artificial muscles, and increasing the mechanical
textile threads by means of winding, or wrapping could open
loads that can be driven by these muscles. This ITAP involves
their potential in smart textiles and exoskeleton applications.
thermally annealing twisted CNT yarns at a temperature of
about 2000 1C while these yarns are under tensile loads
(Fig. 12). When exposed to acetone vapour, a 24 mm-long, 2.7 Graphene-fibre torsional actuator
100 mm-thick coiled ITAP yarn reversibly rotated a 6100 times The significant potential of graphene fibres stems from the
heavier rotor by 6301 (corresponding to a rotation of 261 per characteristic they combine the high mechanical strength and
mm of muscle length). The maximum rotational speed of the flexibility of fibres with the extraordinary electronic and thermal
rotor was 44 rpm, and the muscle lifted a weight corresponding properties of graphene.162–164 Recently, a number of graphene
to a 2.9 MPa load by about 0.7% of the yarn length [Fig. 12(d)]. fibre based hybrid torsional actuators has been reported that can

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contraction (%)
Not reported
Not reported
Not reported
Tensile
B0.7
B10
B1
B3
B2
0.7
Maximum reversible torsional rotation
Not reported
B11 500
B11 500
B9800
B2700
B6361
Speed
B590
(rpm)
B0.1
B44
Stroke (degree
Not reported
per mm)
B250
B180
B380
B85
B53
B26
B71
B8
Thermal, or electro-thermal, or photo-thermal
Electrochemical double-layer charge injection
Fig. 12 Acetone vapour induced torsional CNT artificial muscle: (a) setup
for applying ITAP to multi-walled CNT yarns, (b) SEM images of the effects
of an applied freely rotating load on a nontethered, non-ITAP coiled yarn,
(c) SEM images of the effects of a nontethered, coiled ITAP yarn, showing
Chemical (acetone vapour)

that the ITAP stabilises the coiled yarn with respect to untwisting, and
Chemical (ethanol vapour)

(d) weight rotation in degrees (normalised to yarn length) versus time for a
one-end-tethered, coiled ITAP yarn when driven by acetone vapour
Actuation principle
absorption/desorption. Reproduced with permission.159 Copyright 2016,
Electromechanical
Electrochemical
Electro-thermal
John Wiley and Sons.
Magnetic
Thermal
be induced chemically,165,166 or thermally.167 These fibres with in-
line oriented graphene sheets offer the great capability to develop
Tethering
unconventional fibre-based devices. Recently, a spinning techni-

Two-end
Two-end
Two-end
Two-end
Two-end
Two-end
One-end
One-end
One-end
system
que for constructing graphene fibres directly from graphene oxide

Torsional CNT yarn artificial muscles and corresponding performances
dispersions has stimulated research in this field, as this delivers

a large-scale and inexpensive route to fibres with a variety of
Electrolyte (PVdF-co-HFP + TEABF4 + PC) infiltrated twisted CNT yarn156
Host: multi-walled CNT yarn/guest: paraffin wax + SEBS copolymer155
different functionalities that could be useful in textiles for wear-

able electronics.168,169
Incandescent tension annealed coiled multi-walled CNT yarn159
Expanding the scope of graphene fibres and exploring the

NdFeB magnetic particle bi-scrolled multi-walled CNT yarn129
unconventional potential of graphene fibres, Cheng et al.

achieved a novel moisture-driven rotational motor by twisting
the as-spun graphene oxide fibre hydrogel.166,170 This twisted
Host: multi-walled CNT yarn/guest: paraffin wax154
Hierarchically made multi-walled CNT yarn coil157
configuration with rearranged graphene sheets within the fibres

offers excellent performance as a reversible rotary actuator
showing a rotary speed of up to B5190 revolutions per minute
under relative humidity fluctuation (Fig. 13). Torsional rotation of
PCM (icosane) infiltrated CNT yarn158
B5881 per mm was observed by using a 200 mm long twisted

sample. Although the amount of measured rotation is more
than twice CNT yarn torsional actuator (B2501 per mm),148 this
Multi-walled CNT fibre160
one-end-tethered system may have limited practical usability due

Multi-walled CNT yarn148
to the uncontrolled mobility to any direction.

Recently, Kim et al. reported the torsional actuation ability
of wet-spun nylon-6,6 infiltrated graphene oxide (GO) based
fibres.167 These fibres were twisted to form torsional actuators
Materials
which produced as high as 14.81 per mm rotation when the

Table 1
samples were heated to 200 1C. As illustrated in Fig. 14(a), the

actuation was induced by volume expansion of the guest

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conductive polymer containing yarns can potentially be imple-

mented in wearable actuator systems.
2.8 Metallic nanowire torsional actuator

CNT yarns have been promising as torsional or tensile actuators;
however, they usually exhibit low mechanical strength and
electrical or thermal conductivity. Mirvakili et al.171 demon-
strated a torsional actuator based on twisted metal nanowires

yarns that are strong, pliable, and more conductive than CNT
yarns. Niobium nanowire fibres were extracted by etching
a copper–niobium nano-composite material made by severe
plastic deformation.171,172 When impregnated with paraffin
wax, the niobium nanowire yarns produce fast rotational
actuation as the wax is heated. Similar to wax impregnated
CNT yarns, heated and expanded wax untwists the yarn,
Fig. 13 Torsional graphene fibre actuator: (a) schematic rotation of a which then re-twists upon cooling. Normalised to yarn length,
twisted graphene oxide fibre with a paddle at low (left) and high (right) 121 per mm of torsional rotation was achieved along with
humidity, (b) SEM images of the initially twisted graphene oxide fibre at
twist rates in excess of 1800 revolutions per minute when
relative humidity = 20% (1), after exposure to high humidity of 85% (2), and
the final state of twisted graphene oxide fibre as the humidity goes back 23 times larger paddle is used for measurement (Fig. 15). The
to the initial relative humidity = 20% (3); scale bar: 100 mm, and (c) the tensile modulus of 19 5 GPa was measured for the niobium
durability test of twisted graphene oxide fibre (45000 turns per meter) nanowire yarns, which is very similar to that of multi-walled
undergoing repeated relative humidity changes, showing forward (the environ- CNTs. In thermally induced torsional actuation, the higher
ment humidity changed from relative humidity = 20% to 85%) and backward
conductivity of niobium nanowire yarns allows heating to be
(relative humidity = 85% to 20%) rotation speed versus cycle numbers.
Reproduced with permission.166 Copyright 2014, John Wiley and Sons. attained with lower voltages than are required in CNT yarns,
making them of possible importance in portable devices such
material in the fibre. When the actuator is heated, the volume

of the nylon polymer increased, which eventually enhanced the
separation between the GO flakes because the nylon polymer
occupies the inter-flake spaces. This volume expansion of this
hybrid fibre induces the torsional actuation by rotating in the
untwisting direction. Fig. 14(b) shows the torsional stroke of
the twisted GO/nylon fibres prepared with different amounts on
inserted twist when heated to 200 1C. The torsional stroke
increased almost linearly with the number of twist and measured
63, 84, 104, and 148.51 per cm for 133, 266, 400, and 533 turns per m,
respectively. Although practically viable reversible torsional
actuation was obtained, these attractive features should be
further supplemented by relatively inexpensive carbon materials
such as CNTs. Another approach of integrating GO with
Fig. 14 GO/nylon twisted actuator: (a) schematic illustration and the Fig. 15 Niobium nanowire yarn torsional actuator: (a) as spun yarn with
thermo-responsive work principle, and (b) performance of the maximum twist angle a of 131, (b) torsional actuation configuration, with the right half
torsional actuation when heated to 200 1C and for GO/nylon fibres made of the yarn infiltrated with wax and melting induced by current pulses. The
of different amounts of the twist. The inset shows a micrograph of central paddle is used to determine rotation, and (c) the angle of rotation
GO/nylon fibre with a twist count of 533 turns per m (scale bar: 200 mm). versus time upon pulse voltage actuation of the niobium nanowire yarn.
Reproduced with permission.167 Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission.171 Copyright 2013, John Wiley and Sons.

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as implantable drug delivery systems, guided catheters, and greatly amplified by inserting such a large amount of twist that
miniature valves.171 some twist converted to fibre coiling.182,183 A thermally-induced
tensile contraction of the overtwisted coils was found to surpass
2.9 Polymer fibre/yarn based torsional muscle the maximum in vivo stroke of human skeletal muscles (B20%)1
Stimuli-responsive fibres and yarns are of great interest in the [Fig. 16(a)]. A similar kind of actuation was also obtained by
field of artificial muscles. These fibres can experience a volume introducing heat to the fibres by using different ways such
and/or shape change when externally stimulated resulting in as Joule heating by incorporating electrically conductive
a tensile expansion/contraction,173–178 bending178–180 or tor- filaments174,184 or coatings,175,177 air heating,173,175,185 photo-

sional rotation.104,175,178,181 Potential applications for these thermal stimulation175 or electrochemical stimulation.175 Most
fibres are many and include microfluidic mixing, micro-scale recently, humidity-induced torsional actuator system has been
robots and exoskeletons for movement assistance. reported where a twisted spider dragline silk biopolymer fibre
Recently, Haines et al. demonstrated that low-cost, high- exhibited a torsional rotation of 3001/mm when the relative
strength oriented polymer fibres can be transformed into tensile humidity reaches to 70%.186 However, this system is mostly
and torsional muscles by inserting twist in the fibre.175 irreversible and limited to low torque generation. Most
As reported, commercially produced fibres including polyethylene recently, Mu et al. demonstrated a torsional and tensile muscle
and nylon fishing line, and polyester sewing thread were used as that exhibited significant actuation, in which polymer gel was
the precursors. As with CNT yarn muscles,148,154 the twist was used as a sheath on a twisted or coiled polymer fibre core.187
inserted into these polymer fibres to make them chiral, which When activated chemically (ethanol absorption/desorption),
enables them to function as torsional muscles. Tensile stroke was this sheath/core muscles exhibited as high as B1201 per mm
Fig. 16 Actuation of oriented polymer fibre: (a) comparison of the tensile actuation of braided polyethylene, nylon 6 monofilament, nylon 6,6
monofilament, and silver-coated nylon 6,6 multifilament fibres before twisting (inset) and after coiling by twist insertion, (b) the optically measured fibre
bias angle induced by an applied torque and the torsional stroke and work during thermal actuation (between 201 and 160 1C) as a function of this applied
torque for a non-coiled torsional muscle made from 860 mm diameter nylon 6 fishing line (inset photograph was used to optically determine the fibre
bias angle by measuring the displacement of a black line from its initial orientation parallel to the fibre axis), and (c) schematic illustration of the
mechanism by which torsional fibre actuation drives large-stroke tensile actuation for heterochiral (left) and homochiral (right) coiled fibres. Reproduced
with permission.175 Copyright 2014, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

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torsional rotation. However, compared to thermally activated (twisted and coiled in the opposite direction) increases due to
torsional muscles, the sheath/core muscles are fairly slow and the fibre untwist during heating that pushes the coils apart
limited to low torque generation. [Fig. 16(c)]. However, a comprehensive study on muscle stroke
There are several advantages of using heat-activated polymer and specific work capacity based on fibre diameter and muscle
fibre muscles compared to other stimulus. For example, electro- fabrication parameters is yet to be performed which is critically
chemically charged fibres of conducting polymers can generate important for the diverse family of targeted applications
large strokes but have low cyclability and need a multi-electrode including humanoid robotics, powered prosthetic limbs,
electrochemical system, which adds to system weight and microfluidic actuators, giant-force-capacity exoskeletons, and
cost.32,85 Electric field induced dielectric elastomers28,188 are smart textiles.174–176,184,189,190
attractive because of their large strokes and high performances Torsional actuation of helically twisted oriented polymer
but is difficult to use as an artificial muscle because of the fibres is associated with the thermal expansion coefficients of
required high electric fields. In contrast, thermally-induced the non-twisted fibre to both radial and lengthwise direction.
twisted polymer fibres or yarns are able to deliver large These synthetic polymer fibres exhibit anisotropic thermal
amounts of mechanical work as torsional actuators with high expansion behaviour, i.e. their responses are different in
cyclability and cycle rate. These single component systems do different directions.191 A thermal contraction in the fibre axis
not require any special assembly and are suitable for manu- direction has been reported for several semicrystalline polymers
facturing light weight and low cost actuators. Specifically, a above their glass transition temperature (Tg) and this has been
constant torque torsional actuation experiment was conducted attributed to the rubber-elastic behaviour of the intercrystalline
by using an 0.86 mm diameter, 55 mm long, twisted nylon tie-molecules (TM).192 Highly oriented semicrystalline polymers
6 fibre. Under a temperature fluctuation from 201 to 160 1C, are made up of crystalline lamellae embedded in an amorphous
this torsional actuator rotated a 2.8 mm diameter axle by 2861 matrix, each lamella consisting of mosaic crystalline blocks
and lifted a 1 kg weight by 7 mm. The mechanical work done by connected by occasional ‘tie molecules’. Upon drawing, the chain
the actuator was calculated to be 2.1 kJ kg1 [Fig. 16(b)] based axes of the crystalline blocks become increasingly aligned along
on the mass of the nylon fiber and this work output is similar to the draw direction. Simultaneously, the crystalline blocks are
the 2.48 kJ kg1 generated during tensile actuation of a coiled pulled out of the lamellae, and on further deformation, these
nylon 6,6 fibre. blocks will align along the draw direction forming a periodic
It was found that thermal contraction of coiled polymer structure. The intercrystalline material may be thought of as
fibre muscles principally arises from thermally-induced fibre consisting of the three components as shown in Fig. 17.
untwist, which generates a torque that decreases inter-coil According to Choi et al.,192 the axial thermal contraction of
separation.35 This thermally-induced fibre untwist (DT, mea- the highly oriented semicrystalline polymer fibres such as
sured in turns per initial fibre length) produces the torsional polyethylene and nylon originate from both crystalline and
actuation of twisted fibres and amplifies the length change of non-crystalline regions. Aligned crystal blocks and the crystal-
coiled fibres by changing coil bias angle from ac to ac 0 , as line bridges are formed between these regions with the polymer
described by the spring mechanics equation,36 chain direction similar to the fibre drawing direction.193
0 0 The main contribution to the negative thermal expansion in
sin ac cos ac sinðac Þ cosðac Þ
DT ¼ (4) the draw direction comes from the rubber-elastic effect of the
pD0 pD
pre-stretched amorphous tie-molecules in the inter-crystalline
Here, D and D 0 are the diameters of coils, taken through the regions. These polymer chains remain as highly extended after
fibre centreline before and after heating, and the coil bias angle drawing due to the formation of the crystalline bridges. The
ac is the angle between the fibre and the coil’s cross-section. For inter-crystalline space is significantly sensitive to the moduli of
a coil having N turns and length L fabricated from a precursor the extended tie-molecules and the crystalline bridges and the
fibre of length l: sin(ac) = L/l and cos(ac) = pND/l. The expression volume fraction of each phase. According to the thermo-
suggests that when the change in fibre length l is negligible, dynamics of rubber elasticity, the modulus of the amorphous
stretching a coiled fibre which is tethered to prevent end tie-molecules increases due to the application of heat194 and
rotation produces a change in the fibre twist of, results in the contraction of crystalline bridges since the
modulus of this region remains almost unchanged on heating.
NDL
DT ¼ (5) These mechanics are operated only at temperatures above the
l2
Tg of the polymer. Choi et al. have reported a thermal contrac-
This expression predicts that the large contractions and tion coefficient up to 40 105 K1 in the draw direction of
expansions in coil length in twisted and coiled polymer fibres highly oriented polymer fibre192 that is much higher than the
originate from fibre untwist during heating. This twist-driven change in dimensions of the crystal lattice.
coil contraction/expansion mechanism is best understood by The untwisting phenomenon of oriented twisted polymer
using mandrel-made coils. Heating of a homochiral coiled fibre fibres can be explained based on these anisotropic thermal
(twisted and coiled in the same direction), delivers an untwisting properties of highly oriented semicrystalline polymer fibres.
torque that pulls coils together, providing work by linear con- Twisting of these fibres results in helically oriented chains.
traction. On the contrary, the length of a heterochiral muscle Thermally-induced length contraction of the oriented polymer

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Fig. 17 Schematic diagram showing the structure of a highly oriented Fig. 18 Single-helix model for a twist-spun CNT yarn, where helically
semicrystalline polymer (A) amorphous region: this includes floating wound fibre of constant length ls forms a cylindrical volume of radius r0
chains, cilia which are attached to a block at one end, and loops which and length l0 before actuation and r and l after actuation (left and middle
start and end on the same block; (B) intercrystalline bridges: it has been illustrations). The fibre makes n0 turns along the cylinder length before
proposed that tie-molecules may coalesce to form bridges of a crystalline actuation and n after actuation, and the rotation of the spring bottom end
nature; (C) chain-folded crystal blocks; (TM) tie-molecules, joining one with respect to spring top is f0 before actuation and f after actuation.
crystalline block to another: these increases in both number and tautness Reproduced with permission.148 Copyright 2011, The American Association
with increasing amorphous content. Redrawn with permission.192 Copyright for the Advancement of Science.
2003, John Wiley and Sons.
change to the initial number of turns is given by:

chains now happens along the helical path presented during
twist insertion. The contraction of length in the direction of 1=2
n V0 ll0 ls2 l3 l03
helically wrapped polymer chains can be accommodated within ¼ (9)
n0 V l0 ls2 l03
the twisted fibre by combinations of changes in axial fibre
length (l), diameter (d), and number of twist (n). The relation- where V0 and l0 are for the initial state, V and l are for the actuated
ship between twisted fibre length (l), diameter (d), precursor state, and l is the length ratio (l/l0). Eqn (9) is for a single helix that
fibre axial chain length (l) and the helical chain angle to the can approximate the outer shell of a twisted yarn, and may not
fibre axis (af) is modelled by a single helix:175 quantitative predict the real fibre untwist during heating because
Dn Dl 1 Dd Dl of different axial and radial dimensional changes occurring
¼ tan2 af (6) internally in the twisted fibre. At the least, this equation provides
n l cos2 af d l
a general explanation as to why the twisted polymer fibre untwists
This equation predicts the untwisting of fibre when helically when heated and the importance of the anisotropy of thermal
oriented polymer chain contracts (negative Dl) and fibre dia- expansion on this untwist.
meter expands (positive Dd); therefore, agreeing the anisotropic The helix model approximates the mechanism of torsional
thermal behaviour of highly oriented polymer fibres. actuation obtained from almost all kinds of helically twisted
Foroughi et al. have reported that the important charac- structures such as CNT yarns, metallic nanowire yarns, graphene
teristics related to the deformations of an electrochemically oxide yarns and polymer fibres. For any stimuli applied to the
charged twisted CNT yarn can be approached by using this actuators (i.e. thermal, chemical, moisture, electrochemical,
single helix-model.148 Fig. 18 illustrates a twisted single fibre electro-thermal, or photo-thermal) there results an overall
having n rotations at a helix bias angle af to form a cylindrical volume change, which then drives the torsional actuation.
shape of length l and radius r. The helical path length of fibre is However, Guo et al.160 proposed a possible different actuation
ls and the end rotation of fibre with respect to its starting point mechanism of electromechanical actuation of twisted CNT
at the top is f. The cylindrical radius (r) and volume (V) fibres. By quoting the Ampere’s law, it was attributed that these
enclosed by the helically wound fibre can be expressed in terms CNTs in a parallel arrangement produce electromagnetic forces
of fibre length as:148 as the current flows along the length of the CNTs. Although the
electromagnetic force of a single CNT is very small, the com-
r 2 = (ls2 l2)/4p2n2 (7) bined effect of millions of CNTs in the cross-sectional area
of a fibre can generate a force high enough to induce significant
V = l(ls2 l2)/4pn2 (8)
electromechanical lengthwise contraction and torsional rotation.
Rotation due to a change in the cylinder volume is indicated by By analogy of tensile actuators, the electromagnetic attractions are
a change in the number of twists, with a decrease in n indicating perpendicular to the CNTs, and the contraction stress attributes to
untwisting of the helix and an increase in n corresponding to an the component force along the axial direction of the CNT fibre.
increase in twist. The ratio of the number of turns after a volume Upon Joule heating, the produced tensile stress of CNT fibres of

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same cross-sectional CNT density was expected to be increased

with the increasing twist bias angle. Unexpectedly, it was found
that the stress first increased and then decreased with the
increasing bias angle. This unwanted property was explained
from the point of three-dimensional hopping conduction
mechanism of the CNT fibre.195–197 Haines et al.,174 on the
other hand, have elaborately explained the torsional actuation
mechanism of twisted fibres (polymers or CNTs) by using their

thermal expansion anisotropy and the helical orientation.
It was found that the twisted polymer fibres produce similar
torsional actuation when either Joule heated or air heated. Fig. 19 Schematic illustration of an apparatus for measuring torsional
Since there is no electromagnetic effect present in air heating stroke and torsional work capacity as a function of applied torque during
process, the torsional response was solely seen as a result of the the torsional actuation of twisted polymer fibre muscles. Components are:
polymer muscle (a), controlled temperature furnace (b), load (c) providing
thermal expansion parameters. Twisting fibres of anisotropi-
torque, tensile load (d) for muscle, pulley (e) to support this load, bearing-
cally expanding materials exposed a new phenomenon i.e. the supported rod (f) connecting polymer muscle to axle (g) for applying
thermal torsion effect. Any oriented fibre that expands radially torque, and a wheel-supported attachment (h) for the muscle, which
more than it expands in length (before twisting) can produce enables horizontal movement of the muscle end. Reproduced with
untwist simply by inserting twist into the fibre. Although pure permission.175 Copyright 2014, The American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.
CNT yarns also provide anisotropic thermal expansion, by
causing nanotube length contraction and yarn diameter expan-
sion during heating, like for the in-plane and interplane for measuring isotonic torsional stroke and the work output
expansions in graphite,198 this dimensional change is small from a twisted polymer fibre.175 Torque was applied to a nylon
and only able to produce useful actuation when the yarn is 6 monofilament fibre by attachment to a constant diameter axle
heated under very high temperature. By infiltrating a volume (supported by two metal bearings), around which a polymer
expanding guest within the confines of a twisted CNT yarn, a fibre holding the load ‘c’ (Fig. 19) was wrapped. The constant
large, initially isotropic guest expansion can be transformed torque caused by load ‘c’ was first used to increase fibre twist,
into an anisotropic yarn expansion by the helically aligned, compared with that for earlier measurements in a sequence,
high stiffness CNTs, thereby producing torsional actuation. and then to enable thermally-induced actuation measurements
A number of researchers have supported this mechanism, there- under this torque. The same size load (labelled ‘d’ in Fig. 19)
fore, validates the acceptability of thermal expansion phenom- was applied to keep the fibre under tension, thereby preventing
enon of torsionally actuated fibres/yarns.148,154–157,159,166,175 coil formation.
The present review has shown that the measured length and Building on this early work, a measurement technique and
diameter expansions can be used to predict the torsional analysis procedure that allows the torsional stroke and torque
actuation. However, there is no accurate prediction of the thermal to be calculated for any imposed external loads has recently
expansion based on local anisotropy. Comprehensive investiga- been described.200 The characterisation method provides the
tion of the origin of the thermal expansion anisotropy in oriented stroke–torque curve defining the free stroke (zero external
fibres should be conducted to aid the feasibility of these actuators torque), blocked torque (zero torsional rotation) and all combi-
in real-world systems. Creep has been shown to influence the nations of non-zero stroke and torque. Aziz et al.200 introduced
load-dependency and time-dependency of the torsional actua- torsion mechanics to provide the theoretical torsional stroke
tion.199 Methods for mitigating creep in oriented polymers could expected for the cases of free rotation, isotonic torsional actuation
be investigated for twisted polymer fibre torsional actuators. and torsional actuation with a return spring [Fig. 20(a) and (b)].
The torsional strokes are expressed as a fraction of the free
rotation [f(LA)free] to emphasise the importance of the inherent
3. Established characterisation torsional actuation parameter, y, in determining the torsional
methods stroke in all cases. A set of equation was presented theoretically
3.1 Characterization method of torsional fibre/yarn muscles calculate the torsional stroke and torque generated from twisted
fibres under different mechanical and environmental conditions.
Real-world application of torsional artificial muscles necessi-
tates an accurate and continuous characterization method that f(LA)free = LAy (10)
allows the torsional stroke and torque to be calculated for any tblocked = f(LA)free SA (11)
externally applied environmental and mechanical condition.
Previous work has focused mainly on measuring torsional 1 1
fðLA Þisotonic ¼ LA y þ text 0 (12)
stroke, for example by securing the sample at one end and SA SA
measuring the rotation of the free end. Occasionally a return 0
spring mechanism has been used to improve reversibility of 1 1 SA
fðLA Þreturnspring ¼ LA y þ text (13)
torsional actuation. Haines et al. demonstrated a test apparatus SA0 SA SA 0 þ SN

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Fig. 20 Torsional actuation test methods: (a) illustration of different methods where the actuating element is optionally subjected to an external torque
(presented as force applied by a hanging weight) and/or a return spring fibre, (b) theoretical estimates of torsional stroke at each point along the length of
an actuating fibre and return spring (non-actuating) fibre, if used, and operated in free rotation or isotonic rotation modes, and (c) CAD model of torsional
actuation test apparatus; (1) heating zone, (2) ultra-low friction air bearings, (3) lever arm force/distance transducer, (4) movable fibre gripping clamp,
(5) support for air bearings, (6) connecting fibre between lever arm force/distance transducer and bearing shaft, (7) actuating muscle fibre, and (8) fibre
acting as return spring keeping the actuating muscle straight and well positioned. Reproduced with permission.200 Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
Here, LA is the length of actuating fibre, SA is the torsional According to the assumption, the volume (v) of the cylinder
rigidity of the fibre at non-actuated state, SA is torsional rigidity enclosed by a single helically wound string depends on the
of the actuating fibre at actuated state, tblocked is the blocked string length (ls); the length (l) and diameter (d) of the cylinder;
torque generated, f(LA)isotonic the is torsional stroke under and the number of turns the string makes in forming the helix
constant torque, text, f(LA)return spring is the torsional stroke at (n). A change in volume of the cylinder can be accommodated
variable (return spring induced) torque and SN is the torsional by changes in any of the above parameters so that the ratio of
stiffness of the return spring fibre. final to initial volume is described by the following expression,
A proof-of-concept apparatus was also developed for mea- in which zero subscripts represent the initial values:
suring the rotation of a shaft attached to a near frictionless n v 1=2 l l 2 l 2
0 s
bearing and driven by a thermally induced fibre/yarn torsional ¼ : (14)
n0 v l0 ls;0 2 l02
actuator, i.e. the twisted fibre [CAD model presented in
Fig. 20(c)]. The measurement system can measure both torsional Observations made by Haines et al.175 of their twisted nylon 6,6
stroke and torque, and the sample can either be operated with or fibres indicated that the volumetric thermal expansion was
without a return spring fibre. mainly in the diameter direction with small axial contraction
occurring upon heating. This asymmetry in thermal expansion
3.2 Scalability of torsional fibre/yarn muscles has been long established in oriented, semi-crystalline polymer
Scalability of torsional actuation is a key issue that has fibres.192 Assuming that the cylinder length change is negligible
remained mostly unexplored. Important insights are provided and that the string length is constant, eqn (14) simplifies to:
by the study of Haines et al.175 in which coils made by twisting n v 1=2 d
0 0
nylon 6,6 monofilaments with diameters ranging from ¼ (15)
n0 v d
0.15 mm to 2.45 mm strokes and gravimetric work capacities
that were essentially scale-independent. Aziz et al.33,201 Represented as the change in twist per cylinder length gives:
reported further investigations of the scale dependency of
n n0 n0 d0
torsional stroke and generated torque in twisted nylon 6 DT ¼ 1 (16)
l l0 l0 d
monofilaments. Twisted fibres were prepared from different
diameter precursor fibres and with a differently inserted twist The above expression suggests that the torsional stroke (DT)
having a range of bias angles or the number of twists. The key indeed depends on the inserted twist (T0 = n0/l0) and the diameter
assumption that torsional stroke depends only on inserted change from volume expansion, such as during heating. If fibre
twist was experimentally tested. Further, the single helix twist has negligible effect on the asymmetric volume expansion of
approximation of the twisted fibre structure was evaluated in the fibre, then the torsional stroke depends only on inserted twist
terms of the quantitative prediction of the torsional stroke and is independent of fibre diameter. Experimentally measured
during fibre heating. torsional strokes are included for comparison and in all cases

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Fig. 21 Comparison of experimentally measured and theoretically calculated torsional actuation for 70 mm long twisted nylon 6 fibre prepared with
different fabrication parameters. (a) All calculated and measured torsional strokes are compared. (b) All calculated and measured blocked torques
comparison. Reproduced with permission.33 Copyright 2016, John Wiley and Sons.
there, is a very good agreement between the measured and actuation. Helix model studies can be approximated for twist
calculated values [Fig. 21(a)]. The single helix theory correctly induced hierarchically helical coiled structures. Further work can
predicts the dependence of torsional stroke on the diameter also extend the modelling to study the untwisting of co-twisted
change and the amount of inserted twist. fibres and their effect on linear actuation of hierarchical coiled
A quantitative analysis of torque generation from differently structures.
twisted fibres was also conducted. It has been shown previously
that the maximum torque generated when the twisted fibres are
heated occurs when the fibres ends are securely clamped.200 4. Summary on torsional artificial
This ‘‘blocked torque’’ (tblocked) can be calculated using muscles
standard torsion mechanics and as verified previously:200
As-discussed, torsional actuators made of different materials
4 4

p d G p d G n0 d0 and structures have different actuating mechanism and effi-
tblocked ¼ Dn ¼ 1 (17)
32 l 32 l d ciencies. Fig. 22 summarises the different actuation stimulus
that are responsible for triggering the actuators in various
Here, Dn represents the free rotation (in radians) of a fibre of mechanism. Table 2 summarises the maximum performances
length l that is clamped at one end and whose other end is free obtained from the torsional actuators of different material
to rotate, and G is the fibre shear modulus in the final state. groups and structures.
Fig. 21(b) shows the calculated blocked torques obtained from A number of functional prototypes have been developed by
eqn (17) and includes the measured torques for comparison. using torsional artificial muscles (Fig. 23). Tobushi et al.53 have
It was also investigated that the generated blocked torque is used the thermal recovery of a twisted thin strip of TiNi SMA
simply assumed as a linear function of the temperature applied to develop several prototype devices. A rotation of 901 was
with torsional stiffness as a coefficient.202 In all cases, there was achieved through shape recovery in a 40 mm long strip oper-
an excellent agreement between the measured and calculated ated in the one-end-tethered mode. This example was a one-way
values, further supporting the analytical approach based on a actuation and was used as a door opening mechanism. Another
single helix. device used a return spring mechanism for two-way actuation
The degree of agreement between the measured torsional to open and close window blinds in sunlight and darkness,
actuation parameters and those calculated from the single- respectively.54 Here the twisted strip was connected to a super-
helix model was remarkable considering that the model greatly elastic alloy strip that acted as a return spring in the two-end-
simplifies the complex internal structure of the twisted fibres tethered configuration [Fig. 23(a)]. Jiao et al.127 introduced new
and yarns to a single helix. In contrast, the real twisted fibre is a types of vacuum-powered soft pneumatic actuator and their
solid where the twist angle increases from zero at fibre centre to potential to achieve linear, twisting, and radial movements.
a maximum at the fibre surface. Treating the twisted fibre as a The feasibility of the actuators has been demonstrated using
series of concentric cylinders of increasing diameter and with prototypes based on flexible joint and wrist [Fig. 23(b)].
the same inserted twist provides some insight into why the Foroughi et al.148 demonstrated a fluidic mixer by using a
single helix model is appropriate. electrochemically actuated CNT yarn torsional artificial muscle
Considering the current utilisation, the further investigation to mix two laminar flowing liquids (dyed yellow and blue) that
of the single helix model and the suggested concentric cylinder were joined at a T-junction in a fluidic circuit [Fig. 23(c)].
model should be conducted to evaluate the torsional actuation A reversible paddle rotation of up to 1801 was attained with a
in fibres where appreciable length changes occur during 65 mm long actuating yarn of 15 mm in diameter. The yarn

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Fig. 22 Different torsional actuators and relevant actuation stimulus that fundamentally control the actuation mechanism.
Table 2 Summary table of torsional artificial muscles made of different materials and their peak performances
Kind of torsional Maximum stroke Maximum torque Maximum Operating

actuator Developed structures (degree per mm) (N m kg1) Hysteresis frequency (Hz) temperature (1C)
Shape memory alloy Rod, tube, sheet, strip, wire, B4.555 Not reported Low B4 Not reported
or coil
Piezoelectric material Bar, tube, twisted sheet, or fibre B0.0464
Not reported Medium B10 000 B80
Multilayer torsional ribbon Twisted or coiled bimorph strip B100075 B1.5 High B100 B68
Electroactive polymer Films, or tube B0.0199 Not reported Low B0.01 Room temperature
Fluidic torsional actuator Tubular elastomer with outer B1.75125 Not reported Low Not reported Room temperature
helical braided sleeve
Carbon nanotube Twisted or coiled yarn B380157 B0.63 High B106 Room temperature
Metallic nanowire Twisted yarn B12171 B8.42 Low B30 B90
Graphene fibre Twisted fibre B588166 B0.08 Low B86.5 Room temperature
Graphene-polymer fibre Twisted fibre B14.8167 Not reported High B0.13 200
Polymer fibre Twisted, or coiled fibre B300181 B0.8 Low B1166 B90
rotated a 100 times wider paddle than the diameter of the yarn, polyethylene containing bimorph coiled actuator. Similar to the
and 80 times its mass, in the flowing liquids at a maximum multilayer torsional ribbon,75 this polymer bimorph utilises
rotation rate of 3601 per second. Cheng et al.166 constructed a differential thermal expansion within the structures comprising an
humidity switch in which the application of vapour leads to a elastomer and a thermoplastic polymer amplified by the helix
twisted graphene oxide fibre switching the magnetisation of geometry which would allow the linear and torsional actuation at
a small magnet, which sequentially drives a small electric field low thermal stimuli [Fig. 23(f)].
in copper coils surrounding it [Fig. 23(d)].
In the switch, twisted fibre in response to moisture (e.g.,
relative humidity = 85%) can rotate a paddle to press on the 5. Conclusions and recommendations
metal plate, as pointed out by the arrow, so that the electric
circle powered by the battery will turn on the LED, as shown In this review, we highlighted the early development to recent
in the inset photo. When the humidity changes, twisted fibre advances of torsional actuators, their actuating mechanism and
can also reversibly rotate the magnet within the surrounding potential applications, and featured limitations. The construction
copper coils to generate electricity. Steele et al.203 reported of torsional actuators has been extended from classical shape
the development of a twisted coiled nylon torsional muscles memory alloys (SMAs) to state-of-art twisted fibres/yarns in order
integrated bionic bra that was able to sense breast motion and to achieve giant stroke and torque. In between, torsional actuation
actuate to provide some additional breast support [Fig. 23(e)]. has also been achieved by using piezoelectric materials, electro-
Recently, Kanik et al.204 demonstrated a strain-programmable active polymers (EAPs), thermo-sensitive nanowire yarns and
artificial bicep operated by thermally activated high density fluidic actuators. A description of the actuating mechanisms,

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Fig. 23 Functional prototypes made of torsional artificial muscles. (a) Solar-powered active blind model constructed of two-way rotary actuation of a
SMA tape. Reproduced with permission.54 Copyright 2013, Elsevier. (b) Vacuum-powered soft pneumatically actuating gripper with various stages of
grasping and torsional movements. Reproduced with permission.127 Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons. (c) Fluidic mixer operated by a multi-walled
CNT yarn torsional actuator; (1) photograph of the prototype, (2) unmixed fluid and (3) mixed fluid. Reproduced with permission.148 Copyright 2011, The
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d) The scheme of the designed humidity switch based on the humidity-responsive twisted
graphene oxide fibres (TGF). Reproduced with permission.166 Copyright 2014, John Wiley and Sons. (e) The bionic bra: two actuator systems made
of twisted coiled conductive nylon fibre placed in parallel on the back band of a bra. Reproduced from ref. 203. Copyright 2018, SAGE Publications.
(f) A photographic time series of the twisted-coiled actuator driven artificial limb lifting a 1 g load. The heat was applied with a heat gun for 2 s and then
followed by 5 s rest epochs. Reproduced with permission.204 Copyright 2019, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.
characterization methods as well as scalability of these actua- biomedical aspects such as microscopic surgery tool, and drug
tors and some applications were investigated in this review. delivery devices.
Despite the developments highlighted in this review paper, it Bulk and continuous production of twisted fibre/yarn
should also be understood that the gap between the lab bench and actuators are needed. Small lengths of twisted fibre are easy
real-world application is still substantial. More efforts are required to to make, but mass production techniques will be needed for
narrow the gap and the future development of practical applications commercial application of torsional actuators.
for torsional actuators needs to address many challenges, including: As a final point, exciting progress has been made in recent
High-speed torsional actuators based on small diameter decade in the field of torsional actuators. Extraordinary
twisted fibre/yarn still lack acceptable torque generation performances, novel and integral functionalities and conveni-
compared to that of low-speed actuators such as SMAs. Practical ent fabrication procedures have been exploited. However,
methods for increasing the speed of fibre expansion and contrac- investigations on the protocols for the massive production of
tion in twisted polymer fibres need to be developed. controllable torsional actuators are needed to translate these
Attention should also be paid to the biocompatibility of the promising systems into designer artificial muscles for human
torsional actuators as such systems could be useful for several welfare.

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Conflicts of interest 20 K. J. Kim and S. Tadokoro, Electroactive Polymers for Robotic

Applications: Artificial Muscles and Sensors, Springer, London,
There are no conflicts to declare. 2010.
21 C. Federico, K. Roy, S.-L. Peter and A. Gursel, Bioinspiration
Acknowledgements Biomimetics, 2011, 6, 045006.
22 S. G. Wax and R. R. Sands, Smart Structures and Materials:
The authors would like to thank Dr Javad Foroughi (University Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD), SPIE
of Wollongong, Australia) and Dr Sina Naficy (The University of 3669, USA, 1999.
Sydney, Australia) for their valuable comments. 23 Y. Bar-Cohen and Q. Zhang, MRS Bull., 2008, 33, 173–181.
24 A. Fannir, R. Temmer, G. T. M. Nguyen, L. Cadiergues,
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Materials

Torsional artificial muscles

1. Introduction combustion engines is their potential for miniaturisation

Shazed Aziz is a Postdoctoral Geoﬀrey M. Spinks is a Senior

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

generate large coil tensile actuation. Tensile strokes as high as

ends. The latter requires some asymmetry in the actuator to

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

unit length of the strip under a constant loading process.

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

twisting of the actuator centre. The two diﬀerent kinds of samples

The samples were fixed in a dark chamber with continuous

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

times higher than a traditional double-acting hydraulic cylinder

studied and developed fairly comprehensively, much less

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

end of dragline silk.155 A viscoelastic material, containing

In another article, Lee et al. demonstrated electrochemically

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

Chemical (acetone vapour)

Chemical (ethanol vapour)

unconventional fibre-based devices. Recently, a spinning techni-

que for constructing graphene fibres directly from graphene oxide

dispersions has stimulated research in this field, as this delivers

different functionalities that could be useful in textiles for wear-

Expanding the scope of graphene fibres and exploring the

unconventional potential of graphene fibres, Cheng et al.

Hierarchically made multi-walled CNT yarn coil157

configuration with rearranged graphene sheets within the fibres

B5881 per mm was observed by using a 200 mm long twisted

one-end-tethered system may have limited practical usability due

to the uncontrolled mobility to any direction.

which produced as high as 14.81 per mm rotation when the

samples were heated to 200 1C. As illustrated in Fig. 14(a), the

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons

conductive polymer containing yarns can potentially be imple-

2.8 Metallic nanowire torsional actuator

strated a torsional actuator based on twisted metal nanowires

material in the fibre. When the actuator is heated, the volume

Mater. Horiz. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019

Materials Horizons Review

a tensile expansion/contraction,173–178 bending178–180 or tor- filaments174,184 or coatings,175,177 air heating,173,175,185 photo-

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 Mater. Horiz.

Review Materials Horizons