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1
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
1. INTRODUCTION
Sources and effects of electromagnetic fields – Vector fields – Different co-ordinate
systems- vector calculus – Gradient, Divergence and Curl - Divergence theorem –
Stoke’s theorem.
2. ELECTROSTATICS
Coulomb’s Law – Electric field intensity – Field due to point and continuous charges –
Gauss’s law and application – Electric potential – Electric field and equipotential plots –
Electric field in free space, conductors, dielectric -Dielectric polarization - Dielectric
strength - Electric field in multiple dielectrics – Boundary conditions, Poisson’s and
Laplace’s equations – Capacitance- Energy density.
3. MAGNETOSTATICS
Lorentz Law of force, magnetic field intensity – Biot–savart Law - Ampere’s Law –
Magnetic field due to straight conductors, circular loop, infinite sheet of current –
Magnetic flux density (B) – B in free space, conductor, magnetic materials –
Magnetization – Magnetic field in multiple media – Boundary conditions – Scalar and
vector potential – Magnetic force – Torque – Inductance – Energy density – Magnetic
circuits.
4. ELECTRODYNAMIC FIELDS
Faraday’s laws, induced emf – Transformer and motional EMF – Forces and Energy in
quasi-stationary Electromagnetic Fields - Maxwell’s equations (differential and integral
forms) – Displacement current – Relation between field theory and circuit theory.
5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Generation – Electro Magnetic Wave equations – Wave parameters; velocity, intrinsic
impedance, propagation constant – Waves in free space, lossy and lossless dielectrics,
conductors-skin depth, Poynting vector – Plane wave reflection and refraction –
Transmission lines – Line equations – Input impedances – Standing wave ratio and
power.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Mathew N. O. SADIKU, ‘Elements of Electromagnetics’, Oxford University press
Inc. First India edition, 2007.
2. Ashutosh Pramanik, ‘Electromagnetism – Theory and Applications’, Prentice-Hall
of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2006.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Joseph. A.Edminister, ‘Theory and Problems of Electromagnetics’, Second
edition, Schaum Series, Tata McGraw Hill, 1993.
2. William .H.Hayt, ‘Engineering Electromagnetics’, Tata McGraw Hill edition, 2001.
3. Kraus and Fleish, ‘Electromagnetics with Applications’, McGraw Hill International
Editions, Fifth Edition, 1999.
2
UNIT – I
CONTENTS:
2. VECTOR FIELD
3. CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS
4. DIVERGENCE THEOREM
5. STOKES THEOREM
3
SOURCES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
• Electromagnetic fields are present everywhere in our environment but are invisible to the
human eye.
• Electric fields are produced by the local build-up of electric charges in the atmosphere
associated with thunderstorms.
• The earth's magnetic field causes a compass needle to orient in a North-South direction and
is used by birds and fish for navigation.
• Besides natural sources the electromagnetic spectrum also includes fields generated by
human-made sources: X-rays are employed to diagnose a broken limb after a sport accident.
• The electricity that comes out of every power socket has associated low frequency
electromagnetic fields
FIELD:
MAGNETIC FIELD:
ELECTRIC FIELD:
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD:
• Electromagnetic is a branch of physics (or) electrical engineering.
• Electric and magnetic fields are related to each other. Such a field is called electromagnetic
field.
• The field may be time varying or time independent.
• Quantify the field, three-dimensional representation can be made easy by the use of vector
analysis.
ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITY:
The various quantities involved in the study of engineering electromagnetic can be classified as
• Scalars
• Vectors
4
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
SCALAR:
EX:
♦ Mass
♦ Density
♦ Pressure
♦ Volume
♦ Volume resistivity
♦ Speed
♦ Temperature
♦ Voltage
VECTOR:
EX:
♦ Force
♦ Velocity
♦ Acceleration
♦ Displacement
♦ Electric field intensity
♦ Magnetic field intensity
♦ Straight line from positive to negative of battery.
SCALAR FIELD:
The distribution of a scalar quantity with a definite in a space is called scalar field.
EX:
♦ Temperature of atmosphere
♦ Sound intensity in an auditorium
♦ Light intensity in a room
VECTOR FIELD:
If a quantity, which is specified in a region to define a field, is a vector then the corresponding field
is called a vector field.
• Gravitational force on a mass in a space
• Velocity of particles in a moving fluid
• Wind velocity of atmosphere
• Voltage gradient in a cable
5
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR:
R A TERMINATING POINT
O
STARTING POINT
ü Two dimentional ,a vector can be represented by a straight line with an arrow in a plane.
ü Length of the segment is called magnitude.
ü Arrow indicates direction of a given co-ordinate system.
ü OA = R
UNIT VECTOR:
The unit vector has only direction .its magnitude is always unity.
OA
Unit vector = aOA =
OA
By the use of the unit vectors ax, ay, az along the x, y, and z axes of a Cartesian co-ordinate system.
A = Axax+Ayay+Azaz
Ax + Ay + Az
2 2 2
A =A=
VECTOR ALGEBRA:
A+B = ( Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az ) + (Bx ax + By a y + Bz a z )
= ( Ax + Bx )ax + (Ay + By )a y + ( Az + Bz )a z
SUBTRACTED
A -B = ( Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az ) - (Bx ax + By a y + Bz a z )
= ( Ax − Bx )ax + (Ay − By )a y + ( Az − Bz )az
ASSOCIATIVE LAW:
A+ (B+C) = (A+B) +C
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW:
K (A+B) = kA+kB
(K1+K 2 ) =K1A+K2A
CUMULATIVE LAW:
A+B =B+A
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
A.B = AB cos θ
A.B = AxBx+AyBy+AzBz
Ex:1
The dot product obeys the distribute & scalar multiplication Laws
A. K B = K (A.B)
A. B = ( Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az ) . (Bx ax + By a y + Bz a z )
= AxBx (ax. ax) +AyBy (ay.ay) +AzBz (az.az) +
A. B =AxBx+AyBy+AzBz
A x B = (AB Sinθ) an
Ax B = ( Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az ) x (Bx ax + By a y + Bz a z )
Which is conveniently expressed as a determinant?
ax ay az
Ax B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
BXA=-AXB
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Ex: 2
Given A=2ax+4ay-3az and B =ax- ay, find A .B and A x B.
A .B = AxBx+AyBy+AzBz
=2-4+0
=-2
ax ay az
Ax B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
= -3ax-3ay-6az
• The right handed system means if x axis is rotated towards y axis through a smaller angle,
then this rotation causes the upward movement of right handed screw in the z axis
direction.
• In this system, if right hand is used then thumb indicates x axis, the forefinger indicates y
axis and middle finger indicates z axis, when three fingers are held mutually perpendicular
to each other.
• In left handed system x and y axes are interchanged compared to right handed system. This
means the rotation of x axis into y axis through smaller angle causes the downward
movements of right handed screw in the z axis direction.
8
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
NOTE:
• The base vectors are the unit vectors, which are strictly oriented along the directions of the
coordinate system. The base vectors are the unit vectors oriented in x, y, z-axis of the
system. So ax, ay, az are the base vectors of Cartesian coordinate system.
• Consider a point P (x1, y1, z1) is the position vector by the distance from the origin,
directed from origin to point P radius is called radius vector.
r op = x1ax+y1ay+z1az
• The magnitude of this vector in terms of three mutually perpendicular components given
by,
rop = x1 + y1 + z1
2 2 2
rop
aop =Unit vector along op=
rop
• Consider a point P( x, y ,z) in the rectangular co-ordinate system. Let us increase each co-
ordinate by a differential amount. A new point P’ will be obtained having co ordinates (x
+ dx, y + dy, z + dz).
Thus
• Differential vector Length also called elementary vector length can be represented as
dl= dx ax + dy ay + dz az
9
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
• Now point P is the intersection of three planes while point P’ is the intersection of new
three planes which are slightly displaced from original three planes.
dl = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2
dv= dx dy dz
NOTE:
dl is a vector
dv is a scalar
ds = ds an
ds =Differential surface area of the element
= dy dz ax
= dx dz ay
ds z = Differential vector surface area normal to y direction.
= dx dy az
10
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
• The circular cylindrical co-ordinate system is the three –dimensional version of polar co-
ordinate of analytic geometry.
• The unit vector az is the same as the unit vector az of the Cartesian co-ordinate system.
• The unit vectors are mutually perpendicular for each is normal to three mutually
perpendicular surfaces.
a l . a φ = az
• A differential volume element in cylindrical coordinates may be obtained by increasing l ,
φ and z by differential increments d l , d φ , dz.
• The cylinders of radius l and ( l +d l ), radial plane angles φ and ( φ +d φ ), horizontal
planes at z and z + dz.
• The rectangular parallel piped having sides of length d l , l d φ and dz.
11
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
NOTE:
d l and dz are dimensionally lengths, but d φ is not, l d φ is the length.
= X 2 +Y2
− y
Φ= tan
x
Z=Z
Cartesian vector
A= Ax ax + Ay ay +Az az
In Cartesian co-ordinates
A= A a + AΦ aΦ +Az az
A =A. a
AΦ =A . aΦ
A = ( Ax ax + Ay ay +Az az ) . a
= Ax ax . a + Ay ay . a
AΦ = ( Ax ax + Ay ay +Az az ) . aΦ
= Ax ax . aΦ+ Ay ay. aΦ
Az = ( Ax ax + Ay ay +Az az ) . az
= Az az . az
= Az
Since az . a and az . aΦ are zero.
a aΦ az
ax . cosΦ -sinΦ 0
ay. sinΦ cosΦ 0
az . 0 0 1
The angle between ax and a as Φ, so ax . a = cosΦ. But the angle between ay and a is 90 -Φ
and ay . a = cos(90 -Φ) =sinΦ
12
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
SPHERICAL COORDINATES
z
aR x aθ = aθ
aθ x aϕ = aR
aϕ x aR = aθ
dsR = R² sinϕdϕdθ
dsθ = RsinθdϕdR
dsϕ = Rdrdθ
13
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
dv = R² sinθdRdθdϕ
Conversion formulae
x = Rsinθcosϕ
y = Rsinθsinϕ
z = Rcosθ
R = ( x² + y² + z² )1/2
θ = tan –1 ( x² + y² )1/2
z
ϕ = tan –1 (y/x)
14
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
DIVERGENCE THEOREM:
• Divergence is defined as the net outward flow of the flux per unit volume over a closed incremental
surface.
• The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field over a closed surface S enclosing volume V
is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of integral taken through out the volume V.
VOLUME INTEGRAL:
SURFACE INTEGRAL:
• Surface integral is the surface of the surface of the region .It is denoted by S.
∂A ∂Ay ∂Az
∫∫∫ ∇. Adv = ∫∫∫ v x + + )
∂x ∂y ∂z
v
∂A
= ∫∫ v x dx ]dydz
∂x
∂Ax
∫ ∂x
dx = Ax1 − Ax 2 = Ax
• Then
∂Ax
∫∫∫ ∂x
dxdydz = ∫∫ s Axdydz
∂Ay
∫∫∫ v
∂y
dxdydz = ∫∫ s Aydsy ------------- (3)
15
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
∂Az
∫∫∫ v
∂z
dxdydz = ∫∫ s Azdsz − − − −( 4)
STOKES THEOREM:
• The surface integral of the curl of a vector field over an open surface
is equal to the closed line integral of the vector of along the contour
bounding the surface.
( ∇ x H).ds = H.dl
s
Proof:
Consider an arbitrary surface this is broken up into incremental surfaces of area ∆ s as shown in the fig.
If H is any field vector, the by definition of the curl to one of these incremental surfaces.
∫ H .dl∆s = (∆xH )N
∆s
Where, N indicates normal to the surface and dl ∆s indicates that the closed path of an incremental
area ∆s .
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
∫ H .dl∆s = (∆xH )a
∆s
N
or
∫ H .dl∆s = (∇xH )a N ∆s
= (∇xH ).∆s
The closed integral for whole surface s is given by the surface integral of the normal component of curl H
Problems:
SOLUTION:
17
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
18
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
1
UNIT – II
CONTENTS:
1. COULOMB’ S LAW.
4. GAUSS’ S LAW.
5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL.
6. DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION.
7. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
8. POISSON’ S AND LAPALACE EQUATIONS.
9. CAPACITANCE.
19
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
2
1. COULOMB’ S LAW:
Ø The force of interaction also depends upon the medium in which the charges are situated.
r12
q1
q1 q 2
F12 = k [ ]U 12 − − − −(1)
r12
Where
v F12=force exerted by q1 on q2
v U12=Unit vector directed from q1 to q2.
v R12 =distance between the charges.
v K=proportionality constant
v Force = Newton ( N )
v Charge = Coulomb’ s( C )
v Distance= Metres( m )
1
And k=
4πξ 0
Where
1
0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Farad/metre (or)
36πΧ10 9
0= permittivity of free space (or) Dielectric constant
q1q 2
F12 = [ ]U 12
4πε 0 r12
2
20
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
3
1.1.LINEAR SUPERPOSITION:
• If a system consists of n point-charges, namely q1 ,q2 ……q n ,then the force on i th charge is
given by the vector sum of all the individual forces given by coulomb’ s law. This is called linear
superposition.
ε = ε oε r
Where
= absolute permittivity
r = relative permittivity
PROBLEM NO: 1
• Use the vector form of coulomb’ s law, consider a charge of 3 x 10-4 at P (1, 2, 3) and a
TO FIND:
o Force
SOLUTION:
Q1=3x 10 -4
Q2 = -10-4
r12 = r 2 - r 1
r12 r2
Q1
r1 O
21
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
4
r12 = 12 + (−2) 2 + 2 2 = 3
r12
a12 =
r12
a12 = ax-2ay+2az
F12 =
3x10 −4 (−10 −4 ) a x − 2a y + 2a z
( )N
1 −9 3
4π ( ) x10 x9
36π
F = -10 ax+20 ay-20az
PROBLEM NO: 2
TO FIND:
SOLUTION:
Q1=2x 10 -6
Q2 = 5x10-6
P1 = (3,-2,-4)
P2 =(1,-4, 2)
r12 = r 2 - r 1
r12 r2
p1
r1 O
r12 = 44
r12
a12 =
r12
a12 = -2ax-2ay+6az
44
22
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
5
2 x5 x10 −12 ) − 2a x − 2a y + 6a z
F12 = ( )N
−12
4πx8.854 x10 x 44 44
F = 6.16ax+6.16ay-18.48az
F = 2.04 x10 −5
PROBLEM NO: 3
R=5ax+8ay-2az
Q1Q2
F2 = a12
4πε 0 R12
2
[ ]
= 5 − (− 6 )a x + (8 − 4 )a y + (− 2 − (6 )a z )
=11ax+4ay-8az
=14.1774
R12
a12 =
R12
= -0.0447(.7758ax+0.2821ay+0.5642az)
=-0.0346ax-0.01261ay+0.02522az
= 44.634 Nm.
23
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
6
PROBLEM NO: 4
• Calculate E at M (3, -4,2) in free space caused by (a) a charge Q1=2 C at P1 (0,0,0)(b) a
charge Q2 =3 C at P2 (-1,2,3)(c) a charge Q1 =2 C at P1 (0,0,0) and a charge Q2 =3 C at
P2 (-1, 2, 3).
Q1=2 C
Q2=3 C
P1= (0, 0, 0)
P2 = (-1, 2, 3)
2 x10 −6 3a x − 4a y + 2 a z
E1 = x
4πx8.854 x10 −12 (5.385)
2
5.385
=345.33ax-460.44ay+230.22az
3 x10 −6 4a x − 6a y − a z
E2 =
4πx8.854 x10 (7.280)
−12 2
7.280
E=E1+E2
=624.85ax -879.72ay+160.34 az
• The electric field intensity (or electric field )at a point is defined as the force per unit charge
on a test charge being as small as possible in comparison with other charges forming the
system.
Ft
E=
Qt
• Consider one charge fixed in position, say Q1, and move a second charge slowly around,
exists everywhere a force on this second charge.
• This second charge is called as a test charge Qt.The force on it is given by coulomb’ s law,
Q1Qt
Ft = 2
a1t
4πε o r12
• Writing the force as a force per unit charge gives,
Ft Q1Qt
= a1t → (1)
Qt 4πε o r12 2
• Electric field intensity as the vector force measured by the unit Newton’ s per coulomb the
force per unit charge.
Ft
E= → (2 )
Qt
Q1
E= a → (3)
2 1t
4πε 0 r1t
24
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
7
a R → (4)
Q
E=
4πε 0 R
2
• r is the magnitude of the vector r , the directed line segment from the point at which the point
charge Q is located to the point at which E is desired and aR is a unit vector in the r direction.
• Q1 at the centre of a spherical co-ordinate system, the unit vector aR then becomes the radial
vector ar and R is r.
• Hence
Q1
E= a r → (5)
4πε 0 r
2
or
Q1
Er =
4πε 0 r
2
CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES
Q at the origin,
R = r = xax + yay + zaz
( x ax + y ay + z az )
ar =
x2 + y2 + z2
E=
Q x a + y a + z a → (6)
2 x2 + y2 + z 2 x2 + y2 + z 2 z
4πε 0 ( x + y + z )
2 2 x y
x +y +z
2 2 2
Q located at the same point
Q (r − r ' )
= 3
4πε 0 r − r '
25
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
8
PROBLEM NO: 5
P3 (-1,-1,0)
.
P2(-1,1,0)
P
P4 ( 1,-1,0)
X
P4 ( 1,-1,0)
r = ax+ay+ az
r1 = ax+ay
r2 = -ax+ay
r3 = -ax-ay
r4 =ax-ay
r – r1 = a
r – r2 =2ax+az
r – r3 =2ax+2ay+az
r- r 4 =2ay+az
Q 3x10 −9
= = 26.96V − m
4πε o 4π (8.854 x10 −12 )
a z 2 a x + a z 2 a x + 2a y a z 2 a y + a z
+ + +
( ) ( ) ( )
E = 26.96
1 5
3 3 3
9 5
=az +2ax+2ay
E = 6.82 ax+6.82ay+32.8az
26
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
9
PROBLEM NO: 6
P=-6ax+4ay+6az
R=5ax+8ay-2az
Q1Q2
F2 = a12
4πε 0 R12
2
[ ]
= 5 − (− 6 )a x + (8 − 4)a y + (− 2 − (6 )a z )
=11ax+4ay-8az
R12 = 112 + 4 2 + (− 8)
2
=14.1774
R12
a12=
R12
=-0.0346ax-0.01261ay+0.02522az
= 44.634 Nm.
27
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
10
PROBLEM NO: 7
Calculate E at M(3,-4,2)in free space caused by (a) a charge Q1=2 C at P1(0,0,0)(b) a charge Q2
Q1=2 C
Q2=3 C
P1= (0, 0, 0)
P2 = (-1, 2, 3)
2 x10 −6 3a x − 4a y + 2a z
E1 = x
4πx8.854 x10 (5.385)
−12 2
5.385
=345.33ax-460.44ay+230.22az
3 x10 −6 4a x − 6 a y − a z
E2 =
4πx8.854 x10 −12 (7.280 )
2
7.280
E=E1+E2
=624.85ax -879.72ay+160.34 az
• The forces and electric fields due to only point charges are considered.
• In addition to the point charges, there is possibility of continuous charge distributions along a line,
on a surface or in a volume.
v Point charge
v Line charge
v Surface charge
v Volume charge
LINE CHARGE:
• It is possible that the charge may be spreaded all along a line, which may be finite or infinite.
• The charge density of a line charge is denoted as ρ L and defined as charge per unit length.
28
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
11
• Mathematically,
dQ = ρ L dL =Charge on differential length dl.
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ ρ L dl
L L
• If the line of length L is a closed path, then integral is called closed contour integral and denoted
as
∫
Q= ρ L dl
L
• Sharp beams in a cathode ray tube or a charged circular loop of conductor are the examples of line
charge. The charge distributed may be positive or negative along a line.
PROBLEM NO: 8
• The two dimensional surface has area in square metres. Then the surface charge density
is denoted as ρ S and defined as the charge per unit surface area.
29
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
12
• In case of surface charge distribution, it is necessary to find the total charge By considering
elementary surface area dS .
• The charge dQ on this differential area is given by ρ S dS .
• Then integrating this dQ over the given surface, the total charge Q is to be obtained.
• Such an integral is called a surface integral and mathematically given by
∫
Q= dQ =
S
∫ρ
S
S dS
• The plate of a charged parallel plate capacitor is an example of surface charge distribution.
• If the dimensions of the sheet of charge are very large compared to the distance at which the
effects of charge are to be considered then the distribution is called infinite sheet of charge.
VOLUME CHARGE
• This distribution of very small particles with a smooth continuous distribution described by
a volume charge density.
EX:
Space between the control grid and the cathode in the electron –gun assembly of a
cathode ray tube with space charge.
30
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
13
∆Q = ρ v ∆ v
∆Q
ρ v = lim
∆v →0 ∆v
• The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by integrating throughout that volume,
Q = ∫ ρ v dv
v
• One integral sign is indicated, the differential dv signifies integration throughout a volume and
hence a triple integration volume.
PROBLEM NO: 9
= 5µC
For charge in limits on y
PROBLEM NO: 10
31
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
14
PROBLEM NO: 11
• Three equal positive charges of 4 x 10-9 Coulombs each are located at three corners of a
square, side 20 cm. Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the
vacant corner point of the square.
E=E1+E2+E3
q1
E1 =
4πε 0 r 2
4 X 10 9
( )
9
E1 =9X10 .2 2
E1 = 900 v/M = E3
E2 is along the diagonal
4 X 10 9
( )
9
E1 =9X10 2 .2 2
= 450V/m (along the diagonal)
E1+E2 = vector directed along the diagonal, in the same direction as E2.
E1 + E 2 = 2E1
=900 2
PROBLEM NO: 12
• Find the total charge inside a volume; having volume charge density as 10 Z2 e-0.1x sin π
y C/m3. The volume is defined between -2 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 and 3 ≤ z ≤ 4.
ρv = 10 Z2 e-0.1x sin π y C/m3
Consider differential volume in Cartesian system as,
dv=dxdydz
∴ dQ = ρ v dv
= 10 Z2 e-0.1x sin π y dx dy dz
` Q= ∫ ρ dv
vol
v
4 1 2
∴Q = ∫ ∫ ∫
z =3 y = 0 x = −2
10 Z2 e-0.1x sin π y dx dy dz
2
4 1
e −0.1 x
∴Q = ∫ ∫
z =3 y =0
2 -0.1x
10 Z e sin π y dy dz
− 0.1 − 2
32
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
15
2
cos πy e e 0.2 x
4 1 −0.2 x
∴Q = ∫
z =3
π − 0.1 − − 0.1 dz
0 −2
4
z 3 − cos π − cos 0
=10 − 4.0267
3 3 π π
4
4 3 − 33 1 1
=10 − 4.0267
3 3 π π
=316.162 C
4.ELECTRIC FLUX:
• Electric flux are the lines of force that are drawn to trace the direction in which a positive
test charge will experience a force due to the main charge.
• Electric flux density measured in coulombs per square meter, is given by D.Electric flux
is more descriptive.
• The direction of D at a point is the direction of flux lines at that point, and the magnitude
is given by the number of flux lines crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the
surface area.
r=b
r=a
r=a
33
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
16
ρ V dV
E= ∫vol 4 ∏ ε 0 R 2 a R
ρ V dV
D= ∫vol 4 ∏ R 2 ar
4.1.GAUSS LAW:
Ø The electric flux passing through any closed surface equal to the total charge enclosed by
that surface.
∆s
θ θ
D
s
P
ØIf the total charge is Q1 then Q coulombs of electric flux will pass through the enclosing
surface.
ØAt every point on the surface the electric flux density vector D, will have some value Ds .
ØWhere subscript S merely reminds us that D must be evaluated at the surface, and Ds will
in general vary in magnitude and direction from one point on the surface to another.
ØAt any point P consider an incremental element of surface ∆s and let Ds make an angle
with ∆s.
ØThe flux crossing ∆s is then the product of the normal component of Ds and ∆s.
ØThe total flux passing through the closed surface is obtained by adding the differential
contribution crossing each surface element ∆s.
34
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
17
Ψ = dψ =∫ ∫ D ds s
ØThe resultant integral is a closed surface integral, and since the surface element ds always
involves the differentials of two co-ordinates, such as dx dy, ρ d dρ,(or) r2sin ,the
integral is a double integral.
ØWe shall always place an S below the integral sign indicates a surface integral ∫
s
.
ØA small circle on the integral sign itself to indicate that the integration is to be performed
over a closed surface. Such surface is often called Gaussian surface.
ψ = ∫D
s
s .ds =Charge enclosed =Q
ØThe charge enclosed might be several point charges ,in which case
Q = ∑ Qn
or
In line charge
Q = ∫ ρ l dL
or
a surface charge
Q= ∫ ρ dv
vol
v
∫ D .ds = ∫ ρ dv
s
s
vol
v
Q
E= ar
4πε 0 r 2
D = ε0E
Q
D= ar
4πr 2
35
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
18
ds = r 2 sin θdθdφ
= a2 sin d d
ds = a2 sin d d ar
ØThe integrant is
Q 2
Ds .ds = a sin d d ar .ar
4πa 2
Q
= sin d d
4π
ØLoading to the closed surface integral
φ = 2π θ =π
Q
φ =0
∫ ∫ θ =0
4π
sin d d
ØWhere the limits on the integrals have been choosen so that the integration is carried
over the entire surface of the sphere once.
ØIntegrating gives
2π π
Q
= ∫0 4π (cos θ ) dφ
0
2π
Q
= ∫ 2π dφ
0
=Q
ØA result showing that Q coulombs of electric flux are crossing the surface ,as we should
since the enclosed surface charge is Q coulombs.
5. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
• The work done in moving a point charge Q from point B to A in the electric
field E is given by
W = −Q ∫ E.dL
B
• If the charge Q is selected as unit test charge then from the above equation we
get the work done in moving charge from B to A in the field E.
• This work done in moving unit charge from point B to A in the field E is called
potential difference between the points B to A is denoted by V.
36
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
19
A
Potential Difference = V = − E.dL ∫
B
• Thus work done per unit charge in moving unit charge from B to A in the field E
is called potential difference between the points B to A.
Q A B
rA
rB
• Assuming free space, the field E due to a point charge Q at a point having radial
distance r from origin is given by
Q
E= ar
4πε 0 r 2
rA
Q
V AB = − ∫ ( a r ) dr
B 4πε 0 r 2
37
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
20
rA
r −1
rA
Q Q
∫B r dr = − 4πε 0
−2
V AB =− −1
4πε 0 B
Q − 1 − 1
rA
Q 1
V AB = − −
r = − −
4πε 0 B 4πε 0 rA rB
Q 1 1 Q 1 1
V AB = − − + = − V
4πε 0 A r rB 4πε 0 rA rB
1 1 and V is positive.
• When rB > rA , < AB
rB rA
• This indicates the work is done by external source in moving unit charge
from B to A.
6. DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION:
• When the dipole results from the displacement of the bound charges, the
dielectric is said to be polarized.
• E applied is zero.
• The number of positive charges is same as negative charges and hence atom
is electrically neutral.
• The positive charges experience a force F=QE while the negative charges
experience a force F=-QE in the opposite direction.
• There is separation between the nucleus and center of the electron cloud as,
such an atom is called polarized atom.
38
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
21
v Non -polar
v Polar
• In non-polar molecules, the dipole arrangement is totally absent of electric
field E.
• Under the application of E, the dopoles experience torque and they align
with the direction of the applied field E.
Ex:
v Non polar molecules:
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Rare gases
v Polar molecules:
• Water
• Sulphur dioxide
• Hydrochloric acid
7. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
v When an electric field passes from one medium to other medium ,it is important
to study the conditions at the boundary between the two media.
v The conditions existing at the boundary of the two media when field passes from
one medium to other are called boundary conditions.
v Depending upon the nature of the media, there are two situations of the
boundary condition,
• Boundary between conductors and free space.
• Boundary between two dielectrics with different properties.
v The free space is nothing but a dielectric hence first case is nothing but the
boundary between conductor and a dielectric.
v For boundary conditions, the Maxwell’ s equations for electrostatics are required.
39
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
22
E = E tan + E N
v Consider a boundary between conductor and free space; the conductor is ideal
having infinite conductivity.
v Such conductors are copper, silver etc, having conductivity of the order of 106
S/m and can be treated ideal.
• The field intensity inside a conductor is zero and the flux density inside
a conductor is zero.
• No charge can exist within a conductor. The charge appears on the
surface in the form of surface charge density.
• The charge density within the conductor is zero.
v Thus E,D and ρv within the conductor are zero. While ρs is the surface charge
density on the surface of the conductor
v To determine the boundary conditions let us use the closed path and the gaussian
surface.
v It is known that,
∫ E.dL = 0
v The integral of E.dL carried over a closed contour is zero i.e. work done in
carrying unit positive charge along a closed path is zero.
v Thus the E at the boundary between conductor and free space is always in the
direction perpendicular to the boundary.
v Hence electric flux density D is also only in the normal direction at the boundary
between the conductor and free space.
40
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
23
DN =ρs
ρs ρs
EN = =
ε ε 0ε r
Ø According to Gauss’ s law in point form, the divergence of electric flux density is equal to
the volume charge density.
∇D = ρ v
D= ε E
∇ ( ε E)= ρ v
ρv
∇ . E=
ε
But E= - ∇V
ρv
∇(−∇V ) =
ε
ρv
∇(∇V ) = −
ε
ρv
∇ 2V = −
ε
Ø This is the poisson equation.
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
= + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
41
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
24
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ 2V ρv
∇V = 2
2
r + sin θ + =
r ∂r ∂r r 2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ 2 ε
∇ 2V = 0
9. CAPACITOR:
Ø If potential V is applied across the plates, the positive charge Q is deposited on one plate and
the negative charge –Q is deposited on other plate as shown. The net charge is zero.
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ ∈ -
+ -
+ d -
C
V
Ø The capacitance of two conducting planes is defined as the ratio of magnitude of charge on
either of the conductor to the potential difference between conductors.
42
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
25
Ø It is given by
Q
C=
V
Ø The unit 0f capacitance is coulombs/volt or farad.
ØAssume that there is a uniform charge density D over the plates and dielectric medium.
Q
D= C / m2
A
Ø It is also written in terms of electric field E.
D=εE
Q
= εE
A
Q=AεE
Ø But electric field is given by
E=V/d V/m
∈r1 ∈r2
d1 d-
d d1
Ø The relative permittivity of dielectric medium 1 and medium 2 are ε r1 andε r 2
respectively.
43
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
26
Ø If the potential across the capacitor is V, the potential difference across medium 1 and
medium 2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
V=V1+V2
Ø Let E1 and E2 be the field intensities in the medium 1 and medium 2 respectively. Then,
V1=E1+d1
V2=E2 (d-d1)
V=V1+V2
=E1d1+E2 (d-d1)
Ø The electric flux density D=Q/A will be the same in both the media. The electric flux
densities are given by
D Q
E1= =
ε r 1 Aε r1ε 0
D Q
E2= =
ε r1 Aε r 2ε 0
Ø The applied potential V=E1d1+E2 (d-d1)
Q d1 d − d 1
+
ε r 2
V=
Aε 0 ε r1
Q Aε 0
=
V d1 d − d 1
+
ε r1 εr2
Aε 0
C=
d1 d − d1
+
ε r1 ε r2
Ø The capacitance
Aε 0 ε r1ε r 2
C=
d1ε r 2 + (d − d1)ε r1
Ø If medium 1 is air, ε r 1 = 1 and for medium 2 ε r 2 = ε r .The capacitance of capacitor is
Aε 0 ε r
C=
d1ε r + (d − d1)
9.2.Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having 3 dielectric media:
Ø Let ε 1 , ε r 2, ε r 3 be the relative permittivity and thickness d1, d2, and d3 of the medium 1,
medium 2 and medium 3 respectively.
d1 d2 d3
d
44
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
27
Ø If E1, E2, E3 are the electric field intensity of the medium 1,2 and 3 respectively. The
applied potential
V=V1+V2+V3
V=E1d1+E2d2+E3d3
Ø Since the flux density D=Q/A is the same in three media, the electric field intensity
D Q
E1= =
ε 0ε r1 Aε 0ε r 1
Q
E2=
Aε 0ε r 2
Q
E3=
Aε 0ε r 3
Then
Q Q Q
V= d1 + d2 + d3
Aε 0ε r1 Aε 0ε r 2 Aε 0 ε r 3
d1 d 2 d 3
Q
V= + +
Aε 0
ε r 1 ε r 2 ε r 3
Q Aε 0
=
V d1 d 2 d 3
+ +
ε r1 ε r 2 ε r 3
Ø The capacitance is given by
Aε 0
C=
d1 d 2 d 3
+ +
ε r1 ε r 2 ε r 3
9. 3. Capacitance Of An Isolated Sphere:
r
Q
Ø The potential is the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive test charge from
infinity to the sphere. The absolute potential is given by
r
∫
V= - Edr
∞
Q dr
=- Y 2
4 pe r
45
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
28
Q
V=
4 ∏ εr
Ø The capacitance of isolated sphere is
C=Q/V=4εΠr farads
Where
ε = ε 0ε r
Ø If the medium is air, then C becomes
C=4Π ε 0 r farad.
9. 4.Capacitance of concentric spheres:
Ø Consider 2 concentric spheres of inner radius of ‘ a’ and outer radius ‘ b’ . Let ε r be the
permittivity of dielectric medium between the inner and outer spheres as shown.
Ø If the charge Q is distributed uniformly over the outer surface of the inner sphere, there
will be equal and opposite charge induced on their inner surface of the inner sphere.
Ø The electric field intensity at any point in between inner sphere and outer sphere
(a ≤ r ≤ b) is given by
Q
E= (a ≤ r ≤ b)
4 ∏ εr 2
Ø The potential difference between the spheres is
a
Q
V= - ∫ 4 ∏ εr
b
2
.dr
a
Q dr
=-
4∏ε ∫r
b
2
a
Q 1
=
4 ∏ ε r b
Q 1 1
= −
4∏ε a b
Q b−a
=
4 ∏ ε ab
Ø The capacitance of 2 concentric spheres is
Q ab
C= = 4∏ε
V b−a
ab
C=4 ∏ ε
b−a
46
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
29
Ø The two cylinders are charged at the rate of ρ l C/m. It is assumed that inner cylinder has
charge of ρ l C / m and outer cylinder has charge of - ρ l C / m . By applying Gauss’ s law, the
electric field at any distance r from the axis of cylinder is given by
ρl
E=
2 ∏ εr
Ø The potential difference between two co-axial cables is
a
∫
V= - Edr
b
ρl
a
dr
=-
2∏ε r ∫ b
r
ρl b
=- ln
2∏ε a
b
a ρ
ØIf the conductor A has charge of ρ l C / m along its length, this will induce charge of -
ρ l C / m on the conductor B
ØThe electric field intensity at any point P with a distance r from the conductor A is
algebraic sum of electric field intensity at P due to conductor A and conductor B.
ρl ρl
E= +
2 ∏ εr 2 ∏ ε ( d − r )
ρl 1 1
= +
2∏ε r d −r
Ø The potential difference between the conductors is given by
47
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
30
∫
V= - Edr
ρl
a
1 1
=-
2∏ε ∫ r + d − r dr
d −a
ρl a a
=- ln + ln
2∏ε d − a d −a
ρl a
=- 2 ln
2∏ε d −a
ρl d − a
V= ln
∏ε a
Ø The capacitance per unit length between two parallel conductors
ρl ∏ε
C= = F /m
V d −a
ln
a
If d>>a
∏ε
C= F /m
d
ln
a
Ø If the dielectric medium between two conductor is air (for transmission lines) ε r = 1
∏ε 0
C= F /m
d
ln
a
9.7.Serial and parallel combination of capacitors:
V=V1+V2
Ø Since the charge acquired by each capacitor is same, then
Q Q
V= +
C1 C 2
Ø The equivalent capacitance C is given by
Q Q Q
= +
C C1 C 2
1 1 1
= +
C C1 C 2
Ø If N number of capacitors are connected in series ,the equivalent capacitance is given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + .........
C C1 C 2 C 3 Cn
48
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
31
N
1 1
=∑
C n =1 Cn
Ø The two capacitors of value C1 and C2 are connected in parallel as shown.
Ø The total charge acquired by the equivalent capacitor is the sum of the charges on
individual capacitors.
Q=Q1+Q2
=C1V+C2V
CV=C1V+C2V
C=C1+C2
C=C1+C2+C3+ …………. Cn
10.ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY:
Ø The capacitor stores the electrostatic energy equal to work done to build
up the charge.
Q
dW = dQ
C
Ø The capacitor is charged to the value of Q.The total work done is
Q
Q
W= ∫ C dQ
0
Q
1 Q2
=
C 2 0
Q2
W =
2C
49
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
32
Ø But
Q=CV
1
W= CV 2 or
2
1
W= QV joules
2
10.1.ENERGY DENSITY:
+ -
Q + -Q
+| -
+ -
+ ∆d -
C
V
ØThe capacitance of elemental capacitance is
εA
∆C =
∆d
ε (∆d )
2
=
∆d
= ε∆ d
Ø Energy stored in the elemental capacitor is
∆C (∆V )
1
∆W =
2
2
Ø But potential difference across the elementary cube is
∆V = E∆d
Ø Where E is the electric field exist in the cube.
∆C = ε∆d
Ø The stored energy
∆W =
1
(ε .∆d )(E.∆d )2
2
= εE (∆d )
1 2 3
2
1 2
= εΕ ∆ V
2
50
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
33
∆W 1 2 Q D = εΕ )
= εE (
∆V 2
∆W 1
= D.E Joules/m3
∆V 2
ØAs the electric field applied to dielectric increases sufficiently, due to the force exerted on
the molecules, the electrons in the dielectric become free.
Ø Under such large electric field, the dielectric becomes conducting due to presence of
large number of free electrons.
Ø All kinds of dielectrics such as solids, liquids and gases show the tendency of
breakdown under large electric field.
ØThe breakdown depends on the nature of material, the time and magnitude of applied
electric field and atmospheric conditions such as temperature, moisture, humidity etc.
NOTE:
Ø The minimum value of the applied electric field at which the dielectric breaks
down is called dielectric strength of dielectric.
ØIt can be stated as the maximum value of electric field under which a dielectric can
sustain without breakdown.
ØOnce breakdown occurs, dielectric starts conducting and no longer behaves as dielectric.
ØHence all the dielectrics are assumed to be either ideal or are not in a breakdown
condition.
51
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
34
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
PART A
52
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
35
PART -B
1. Derive an expression to determine electric field intensity at a point volume charge distribution and
surface charge distribution.
2. State and derive the expression for Laplace and Poisson’ s equations.
3. Derive the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having two dielectric media.
4.Two small identical conducting spheres have charge of -1 nano coulombs and 2 nano coulombs
respectively .If the y are brought in contact and then separated by 4 cm what is the force between them?
5. State and explain the boundary conditions of electric field between a dielectric and a conductor.
6. Derive an expression for the energy stored in the capacitor.
7. Determine the electric field at P(-0.2,0,-2.3) due to a point charge of +5 nC at Q(0.2,0.1,-2.5) in air. All
dimensions are in meters.
8. Derive and expression for electric field intensity at a point P due to an electric dipole hence define
electric dipole moment.
9. State divergence theorem.
10. Find the potential of a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R at points inside and outside.
11. Give the potential V=10sin cos /r2 find the electric flux density D at (2, /2,0).
53
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
UNIT –III
CONTENTS:
3. Biot–savart Law
4. Ampere’ s Law
7. Magnetic materials
8. Boundary conditions
10. Torque
54
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
F=QE
F=QV x B
F=Q (E + V x B)
dF = dQ
dQ = ρ v dv
Thus,
dF = ρ v dvVxB
55
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
dF = JxBdv
dF = KxBds
dF = IdLxB
F= ∫ JxBdv
vol
F = ∫ KxBds
s
F= ∫ IdLxB = − I ∫ BxdL
F = ILxB
F=BILsinθ
56
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
• It is denoted as H.
• It is a vector quantity.
3. BIOT-SAVART LAW:
• The law of biot –savart then states that at any point P the
magnitude of the magnetic field intensity produced by the
differential element is proportional to the product of the
current, the magnitude of the differential length, and the sine
of the angle lying between the filament and a line connecting
the filament to the point P .the magnitude of the magnetic
field intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the differential element to the point P.
IdLxaR
dH =
4πR 2
Point 1
dL1
R12 P
I1 aR12
Point 2
57
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
I1dL1 xaR12
dH 2 =
4πR12
2
µIdL
dB = a
4πr 2
• Where,
• Its magnitude is
µIdL sin θ
dB =
4πr 2
I1dL1 sin θ
dH 2 =
4πR12
2
58
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
∫ H.dL = I
v In electrostatics, the gauss’ s law is useful to obtain the E in
case of complex problems.
PROOF:
z
I
aφ
x
I
• Consider a long straight conductor carrying direct current I
placed along Z-axis.
59
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
dL = rdφaφ
I
H = aφ
2πr
I
H .dL = aφ .rdφaφ
2πr
I
= rdφ
2πr
I
= dφ
2π
2π
I
∫ H .dL = ∫
φ = 0 2π
dφ
=
I
[φ ]20π
2π
I 2π
=
2π
60
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
µ 0 I dL sin θ
4π ∫ r 2
B=
• From ∆ ABC
AC
= sin θ
AB
AC = dL sin θ
• But arc
AC =rdθ
dL sin θ = rdθ
dL sin θ
dθ =
r
µ 0 I dθ
4π ∫ r
B=
π
µ0 I
4πd ∫0
B= sin θ .dθ
µ I
B= 0 (− cosθ )π0
4πd
µ I
B= 0 .2
4πd
• The magnetic flux density due to infinite conductor
µ I
B= 0 wb / m 2
2πd
I
H = a/m
2πd
61
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
φ m = ∫∫ µHds
7. MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
• All material shows some magnetic effects. In many
substances the effects are so weak that the materials are
often considered to be non magnetic.
v Paramagnetic
v Ferromagnetic
v Antiferromagnetic
v Ferromagnetic
v Super paramagnetic
62
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
DIAMAGNETIC:
ANTIFERROMAGNETIC:
FERRIMAGNETIC:
63
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
8. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
∫ B.ds = 0
s
• We find that
BN 1∆S − BN 2 ∆S = 0
BN 1 = BN 2
µ1
H N1 = H N 2
µ2
µ1 χ µ
M N 2 = χ m2 H N 1= m 2 1 M N 1
µ2 χ m2µ2
∫ H.dL = I
• Is applied about a small closed path in a plane normal to
the boundary surface.
64
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
H t 1∆L − H t 2 ∆L = K∆L
H t1 − H t 2 = K
( H1 − H 2 ) xaN 12 = K
H t1 − H t 2 = K x a N 12
Bt1 Bt 2
− =K
µ1 µ 2
χ m 2m
Mt2 = M t1 − χ m 2 K
χ m1
65
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
∫ H.dL = I
Ø If no current is enclosed i.e.
J=0
∫ Hdl = 0
Ø Magnetic field H can be expressed as negative gradient
of a scalar function.
Vm = − ∫ H .dl
Ø In free space
∆.B = 0
µ 0 ∆.H = 0
but
H = −∇Vm
µ 0∇.( −∇Vm) = 0
− µ 0∇ 2Vm = 0
∇ 2Vm = 0
66
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
∇.B = 0
B = ∇xA
∇xB = ∇x∇xA
Ø By the identity
∇x∇xA = ∇(∇. A) − ∇ 2 A
But ∇xB = µJ
∇(∇. A) − ∇ 2 A = µJ
(∇. A) = 0
Then − ∇ 2 A = µJ
∇ 2 Ax = − µJx
∇ 2 Ay = − µJy
∇ 2 Az = −µJz
67
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
µ Jx
Ax = ∫ ( )dv
4π v r
µ Jy
Ay = ∫ ( )dv
4π v r
µ Jz
Az = ∫ ( )dv
4π v r
µ J
A=
4π ∫∫∫ r dv
68
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
10. TORQUE:
Axis of rotation
θ
Axis of rotation
B
= 2 xforce x distance
=2(Bil).b/2
=Bilb
=BIA
Ø Torque is given by
T=BIA
69
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Fts = F cosθ
m =IA
T=mBcosθ
Ø In vector form
T=m x B
M=T/B
em =NI= ∫ H.dL
70
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
R=V/I
71
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
IMPORTANT QUESTION
PART A
9. What is the expression for the torque experienced by a current carrying loop, placed
in a magnetic field.
PART B
1. State and explain ampere’ s Circuital Law for least two specific cases.
3. Using the biot savart’ s law in H, find the magnetic field intensity at a point on the axis
of a circular loop of radius ‘ a’ carrying a current I. The point is at a distance (on the Z
axis) from the centre of the loop.
4. A steady direct current I amps flows in a wire bent in the form of a square of side a.
Assuming that the Z axis passing through the centre of the square is normal to the
plane of the square ,Find the magnetic field intensity H at any point on the axis.
5. Obtain the flux density produced by an infinitely long straight wire carrying a current I,
at any point distant ‘ a’ normal to the wire.
72
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
UNIT – IV
ELECTRODYNAMIC FIELDS
CONTENTS:
1. FARADAY’ S LAWS
4. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
73
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
1. FARADAY’ S LAWS:
dφ
e =− N volt
dt
• Where
e =induced e.m.f.
dφ
e= volts
d
• The minus sign in equations (1) and (2) indicates that the
direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that to produce a
current which will produce a magnetic field which will
oppose the original field.
LENZ LAW:
74
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
2. INDUCED E.M.F:
e = ∫ E.dL − − − −(1)
φ = ∫ B.dS − − − (1)
s
• Where
d
dt ∫s
e=− B.dS − − − −(2)
d
dt ∫s
e = ∫ E.dL = − B.dS − − − −(3)
75
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
FIRST CONDITION:
∂B
∫ (∇xE ).dS = − ∫ ∂t .dS − − − −(5)
S S
v Hence finally,
∂B
∇xE = − − − − (6)
∂t
v Equation (6) represents one of the Maxwell’ s equations.
v If B is not varying with time, then equations (4) and (6) give
the results in the electrostatics.
∫ E.dL = 0
∇xE = 0
76
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
SECOND CONDITION:
F = QvxB − − − (7)
v But the motional electric field intensity is defined as the force per
unit charge.
v It is given by
E
Em = = vxB − − − (8)
Q
∫E m .dL = ∫ ( vxB ). dL − − − − ( 9 )
∂B
∫ E.dL = −∫ ∂t .dS + ∫ (vxB).dL
77
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
3. MAXWELL’ S EQUATIONS:
Ø Faraday’ s law
Ø Gauss’ s law
Ø Gauss’ s law
Ø Integral form
78
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
INTEGRAL FORM:
79
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v According to Gauss’ s law, the total flux out of the closed surface
is equal to the net charge within the surface.
80
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
81
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
82
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
4. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT:
∇xH = J − − − (1)
ü Taking divergence on both sides,
∇.(∇xH ) = ∇.J
∂ρν
∇. J = −− − − (3)
∂t
∂ρν
ü From equation (3) it is clear when = 0 ,and then only
∂t
equation (2) becomes true.
ü Thus equation (2) and (3) are not compatible for time varying
fields.
∇xH = J + N − − − (4)
∂ρv
∇.N =
∂t
ü But according to Gauss’ s law
83
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
ρ v = ∇.D
ü Thus replacing ρ v by ∇.D
∂
∇. N = (∇.D)
∂t
∂D
= ∇.
∂t
ü Comparing two sides of the equation,
∂D
N= − − − −(5)
∂t
ü Ampere’ s circuital law in point form as,
∂D
∇xH = J c + − − − −(6)
∂t
ü In equation (6) is conduction current density denoted by Jc.
84
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
FIELD THEORY:
∂E
∇xH = ε
∂t
§ For a wave traveling in X direction,
∂H z ∂E y
= −ε − −(1)
∂x ∂t
§ Similarly Maxwell ‘ s equation based on
Faradays law is
∂H
∇xE = − µ
∂t
§ For a wave traveling in X-direction,
∂E y ∂H z
= −µ − − − (2)
∂x ∂t
§ Differentiating equation (i) with respect to t
and (ii) with respect tox,
§ Wave equation as given by
∂2Ey 1 ∂ Ey
2
=
∂t 2 µε ∂x 2
v The velocity of the wave or signal along a lossless line given by
1
v=
µε
• For air or vacuum the velocity is given by
85
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v = 3x10 8 m / s = c
v The intrinsic impedance of the medium is given by,
µ
• η= = η0
ε
∴η 0 = 377Ω
v The line constants are given as follows
γ = propagationcons tan t
= jϖµ (σ + jϖε )m −1
α = attenuationcons tan t
= Re jϖµ (σ + jϖε ) Np / m
line 2
v= ∫ E.dL
line1
I= ∫ H .dL
aroundonel ine
∫ E.dL = Z ∫ H .dL
86
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
CIRCUIT THEORY:
dv dI
= L − − − −(i ) and
dx dt
dI dV
=C − − − −(ii )
dt dt
d 2V 1 d 2V 2
=
dt 2 LC dx 2
1
v=
LC
V R + jϖ L
Z Line = = Ω
I G + jω C
L
Zline= line = Ω
C
87
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
γ = propagationcons tan t
= ( R + jωL)(G + jωC = α + jβm −1
α = attenuationcons tan t
= Re ( R + jϖL)(G + jϖC ) Np / m
V1 V2
I= eαx e j (ωt + βx) + e αx e j (ωt + βx )
Z Z
Y Y
88
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
PART A
13. Write down the Maxwell equation corresponding to faraday’ s law, in point form.
17. Give Ampere’ s law of Maxwell equation in point form and integral form.
89
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
PART B
1. Determine the electromotive force using faraday’ s law using relevant expressions.
2. Derive Maxwell’ s equation from Ampere’ s law and Faraday’ s law .Express the
equation in phasor from for time harmonic fields.
90
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
PART- A
1. Compare field theory with circuit theory?
10. Give Ampere’ s law of Maxwell equation in point form and integral
form.
PART- B
1. Determine the electromotive force using faraday’ s law using
relevant expressions.
91
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
UNIT – V
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
CONTENTS:
6. Skin depth
7. Poynting vector
92
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v If the electron moves, say it vibrates back and forth, then this
motion will be transferred to the field lines and they will become
wavy.
v In turn, the moving electron generates a magnetic field that will
also become wavy from the motion of the electron.
v These combined electrical and magnetic waves reinforce one
another.
v This kind of wave is called an electromagnetic wave and light is
such a wave.
v Since all matter contains electrons and all these electrons are in
motion, as are the atomic nuclei they spin around, all matter
generates electromagnetic waves.
93
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v Since all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed (c) the
frequency of the waves is determined by the frequency of the
vibrating electrons that generate them.
v Hot substances have more energy and their component atoms
vibrate more rapidly than those of cold bodies.
v Thus the peak energy radiated by hot bodies has a higher
frequency, shorter wavelength, than that of cooler bodies.
v Wein’ s Law expresses the relationship of the peak frequency of a
black body to its absolute temperature.
v Wein's Law
lmax = a/T
IN LOSSELESS MEDIUM:
94
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
95
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
IN CONDUCTIVE MEDIUM:
96
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
In losseless medium:
In conducting medium:
97
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
respectively.
v The propagation constant y is given by,
98
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
99
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v From equation (2), it is clear that the propagation constant for lossy
dielectric medium is different than that for lossless dielectric
medium, due to the presence of radical factor.
v When σ becomes zero as in case with perfect dielectric, the radical
factor becomes unity and we can obtain the propagation constant γ
for perfect dielectric.
v It is also clear from equation (2) that the attenuation constant σ is
not zero.
v By substituting the values ofω,σ , µ and, the attenuation constant
(σ) and phase constant 3 may be calculated.
v The presence of a indicates certain loss of signal in the medium,
hence such medium is called lossy dielectric.
v When a wave propagates in a lossy dielectric, amplitude of the
signal decays exponentially due to the factor
100
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
101
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
102
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v For good conductor, α and are equal and both are directly
proportional to the square root of frequency (f) and conductivity
(σ).
v The intrinsic impedance of a good conductor is given by
103
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
104
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
7. POYNTING VECTOR:
105
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
NORMAL INCIDENCE:
106
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
from the x=0 plane will be the sum of the field strengths of the
incident and reflected waves at that point and will be given by
107
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
v If Ei is chosen to be real,
108
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
109
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
PART A
110
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
PART B
4. What is skin effect? What is skin depth? What is its relation with
attenuation constant, conductivity and frequency?
111
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
ElectromagneticTheory
Semester- III (EEE)
Time : Three Hoursl [Maximum Marks : 100
Answer ALL questions
PART - A (10x2= 20 Marks)
Q.l Giae an examplefor diuergingfield nnd for curling field.
Q.2 Stnte diaergencetheoremand mention the significanceof the theorem.
Q.3 using Gauss'slaw, deriae the capacitanceof a coaxial cable.
Q.4 Deriae Poisson'sequation the electrostnticfield.
Q.5 A conductorlocatednt x = 0.5 m, A = 0 and 0<z<2.0m carriesa current of L0 A
in the n, directiott. Along the length of the conductor B = 2.5 arT. Find the torque
about the x axis.
Q.6 Draw the mngnetic field pattern inside and outside the circular conductor with
wrifurm current density.
Q.7 Find the total flux induced in the loop of constant width'l'. The tength'x'is
increaseduniformly with the time by moaing the sliding conductor at a unifurm
'u'.
aelocity Theflux density is snmeand normal to the plane of the loop as shown.
Fig.1
Q.8 Find the nueragepower loss/uolumefor a dielectrichaaing e, = 2 and tan6 = 0.000t5,
if E = 1.0 kV/m at 500 MHz.
Q.9 Cnluilate the skin depth and u)aae uelocity at 2 MHz in Aluminium with
conductiaity40 MS/m and p, = 1.
Q.10 GiaenE=En,sin(at -Bf) a, in free spnce,sketchE and H at t = 0.
PART - B (5x15 = 80 Marks)
Q.11 i) Explain when nnd how an electromagnetic
walre is generated, I2+al
112 ii) Deriue Dr.K.Srinivasan &Mr. waae
the electromagnetic K.Karthikeyan
equations/EEE/TEC - LECTURE
in free space NOTESthe typesof
and mention
solutions [8+21
(P - 102)
Electrgmagnetic
Theorv p - 103 Nov./Dec.- 2003
Q'12 al i) Deriaethe electrostntic
botmdnryconclitions
at the interfaceof two dielectricmedia..
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
l10I
the potentialnnd electric
field inside nnd outside the conclttctor? t5l
Fig. 1
'a'
Q.12 a) i) A circular discof radius m is chargeduniformly with a chargedensity of
'h'
ps C / *2 . Find the electricfield at a point m from the disc along its axis. I8l
(P - 104)
ElectromagneticTheory p - 105 Mav/June- 2006
OR
ELECTROMAGNETIC
bl i) Deriae the expression THEORY
for energv density [EE2202]
in electrostntic
.fields. l8l
iil A cnpncitor consistsof srynred two metnl plates each L00 cm side plncedparallel
nnd 2 mm npart. The spncebetwcenthe plntcs is filled zuith a dielectrichaaing a
relntiaepermittiaity of 3.5. A potentinldrop of 500 V is maintainedbetweenlhe
plntes.Cnlculate
1) The cnpncitnncc 2) The chnrgeof capncitor
3) The electric flux densitrl 4) The potentinlgrndient t8I
Q.13 a) i) Find thefield intcnsity at a point P due to a strniglrt conductorcnrryhtg current I
ns sltown. l8l
__.>
I
t.<--L----+
Fig.2
ii) Find E nt the centreof nn eEilateral triangtrlarloop of side 4 m carrying current
of 5 A. IBI
OR
D i) Deriztethe expression
for co-efficientof coupling in terrns of muttral and self
inductnrrces.
ii) An iron ring with a cross-sectionnlarea of 3 cmz and a nrcnn circumferenceof
75 cm is wowtd zuitlt 250 turns zuirecarrying n arrent of 0.3 A. The relatiae
pernteabilityof the ring is 7500. Cnlculntetlrc flux establishedin the ring. t8l
Q.1a a) With necessary
axplanation,deriaethe Maxwell's equationin dffirential and integral
forms. 116l
OR
b) i) Write slnrt notes on Fnradny'slaws of electromagneticinduction I8l
ii) Whnt tlo yott mean by displacementcurrent? Write down the expressionfor the
totnl current density. l8l
Q.15 a) i) what is the physical significanceof the Poynting aector? l4l
ii) Stntennd explain the Poynting's theorem. Ir2l
OR
bl A plnne rDoag propagoting tlrouglt n medium with er = 8, Fr - 2 has
E = 0.5, sin(l}bt -Bz) a* V/m. Determine
i) 9 ii) The loss tangent iii) Wnrteimpedanceia) Waae aelocity a) E field. tlGI
Electromagnetic
Theory
Semester- III (EEE)
Time : Three Hoursl [Maximum Marks : 100
Answer ALL questions
PART - A (10x2= 20 Marks)
Q.1 State the diaergencetheoremnnd giae an examplefor diaergencefield.
Q.2 what is the electricfield around a long transmissionline?
Q.3 Calculatethe totnl chargeenclosedby ufue of 2 m sides,centerednt the origin and
with the edgespnrnllel to the axes ulrcn the electric flux densita oaer the cttbe is
[ = [1oxu
ls]u.(Cl*z).
Q.4 Define dielectricstrengthof n materinl.Mantion the san'te
for nir.
Q.5 PIot the unrintionof H insidennd otttsitlcn circulnr condttctoruitlr tutifortncurrent
density.
Q.6 Plnne ! = 0 carriesa unifurm current of 30 a, mA/m. Cnlctilntethe mngneticfield
intensity nt (7, 70, - 2) m in rectnngtilarco-ordinatesustem.
Q.7 Deriae an expression fo, 'loss tangent' in an instrlating material and mention the
practical sigrtificnnceo.fthe same.
Q.8 A medium hns constant conductiaity of 0.1 mho/rn, pr -- l, El = 30. when these
parametersdo not changezuith tlrc frequency,checkwhether the medium behaaeslike
a conductoror a dielectricat S0 kHz and 10 GHz.
Q.9 In free space E (2, t) = 100sin(rr-gr)d*(Vl4 Find tlrc totnl porL,erpnssirtg
tlrough a squarearea of side 25 mm, in the z _ 0 plnne.
Q.10 GiuenE (2, t) =700sin(at-Pz)ao(Vlm)infree space,sketchE and H at t - 0.
PARTB-(5x15=80Marks)
Q.11 a) i) What are the major sourcesof electromagnetic
fields (any fiae) ? Isl
iil What are the positiaeand negatiuefficts EM
fietds on liaing things ? tsI
iii) what are the E and H field linits for puhlic exposures? I2l
iu) ciae any one exampleto reducethc e,ffectaf EM t4l
.fierd.
OR
b) i) Explain the electricfield distribution insideand ottside a condttctor. I4l
ii) Explain the principle of electroststicshielding. l4l
116 Dr.K.Srinivasan &Mr. K.Karthikeyan /EEE/TEC - LECTURE NOTES
iii) Draw the equipotentiallines nnd E lines insideand arottnd a metal sphere. t8l
(P - 106)
ElectromagneticTheory P -107 Nov./Dec.- 2006
117
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY(EC1253)
The line integral of a vector around a closed path is equal to the surface integral of the
normal component of its curl over any surface bounded by the path
H.dl = (ÑxH)ds
Coulombs law states that the force between any two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. It is directed along the line joining the two charges.
F=Q1Q2 / 4πεr2 ar
The total electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
Electric field intensity is defined as the electric force per unit positive charge.
E =F/ Q
=Q/4πεr2 V/m
118
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Gauss law is applied to find the electric field intensity from a closed surface.e.g)Electric
field can be determined for shell, two concentric shell or cylinders etc.
Point charge is one whose maximum dimension is very small in comparison with any
other length.
Poisson ‘s eqn:
Ñ2 V= - ρv / ε
Laplace’ s eqn:
Ñ2 V= 0
Ñ·F =0
ÑxF =0
Potential difference is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to another point in an electric field.
119
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
14.Define potential.
Potential at any point is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point in an electric field.
V=Q / 4πεr
15.Give the relation between electric field intensity and electric flux density.
D=εE C/m2
E= - ÑV
Ñ·D=-ρv
The divergence of a vector flux density is electric flux per unit volume leaving a small
volume. This is equal to the volume charge density.
19.Write the point form of continuity equation and explain its significance.
Ñ·J= - ρ v / t
W=1 / 2 εE2
21.Write the boundary conditions at the interface between two perfect dielectrics.
120
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
22.Write down the expression for capacitance between two parallel plates.
C=εA / d
Point form of ohms law states that the field strength within a conductor is
proportional to the current density.
J=σE
Magnetic field intensity around a closed path is equal to the current enclosed by the
path.
H·dl=I
It states that the magnetic flux density at any point due to current element is
proportional to the current element and sine of the angle between the elemental length
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
dB=µ 0 Idl sinθ / 4πr2
It is defined as that quantity whose curl gives the magnetic flux density.
B=Ñ x A
=µ / 4π J/r dv web/m2
121
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
29.Write down the expression for magnetic field at the centre of the circular coil.
H = I/2a.
30.Give the relation between magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity.
B =µ H
dF = BIdlsinθ
The total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface is equal to zero.
B.ds =0
35.Define a wave.
122
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
i) At every point in space ,the electric field E and magnetic field H are perpendicular
to each other.
ii)The fields vary harmonically with time and at the same frequency everywhere in
space.
Ñ2 H– µ 0ε0 2
H / t2 =0.
It is the ratio of electric field to magnetic field.or It is the ratio of square root of
permeability to permittivity of medium.
377ohms
It is defined as that depth in which the wave has been attenuated to 1/e or
approximately 37% of its original value.
∆ = 1/α = 2 / jωσ
123
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
The net power flowing out of a given volume is equal to the time rate of decrease
of the the energy stored within the volume- conduction losses.
When the region contains charges poisons equation is used and when
there is no charges laplaces equation is applied.
FDM is difficult to apply for problems involving irregular boundaries and non
homogenious material properties.
The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the
total charge within the volume.
The total electric field at a point is the algebraic sum of the individual electric field at
that point.
Ohms law at appoint states that the field strength within a conductor is proportional
to current density.
124
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Self inductance is defined as the rate of total magnetic flux linkage to the current
through the coil.
The vector product of electric field intensity and magnetic field intensity at a point is
a measure of the rate of energy flow per unit area at that point.
V0= ¼(V1+V2+V3+V4)
Lenz’s law states that the induced emf in a circuit produces a current which opposes the
change in magnetic flux producing it.
Increase in permittivity of the medium tends to decrease the force between two
charges and decrease in permittivity of the medium tends to increase the force between
two charges.
The electric flux or electric displacement through a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed by the surface.
125
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
The electric displacement per unit area is known as electric displacement density or
electric flux density.
The current through a resistive element is termed as conduction current whereas the
current through a capacitive element is termed as displacement current.
The magnetic field strength (H) is a vector having the same direction as magnetic flux
density.
H=B/µ
62.Give the formula to find the force between two parallel current carrying
conductors.
F=µI I1 / 2πR
63.Give the expression for torque experienced by a current carrying loop situated in
a magnetic field.
T = IABsinθ
T = NIABsinθ
The work done in moving a point charge around a closed path in a electric field is zero.
126
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
H=NI / 2пR
An equipotential surface is a surface in which the potential energy at every point is of the
same vale.
Loss tangent is the ratio of the magnitude of conduction current density to displacement
cuurrent density of the medium.
Tan δ = σ / ωε
Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the reflected field to that
of the incident field.
71.What will happen when the wave is incident obliquely over dielectric –dielectric
boundary?
When a plane wave is incident obliquely on the surface of a perfect dielectric part of the
energy is transmitted and part of it is reflected .But in this case the transmitted wave will
be refracted, that is the direction of propagation is altered.
127
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
W = ½ LI2
W = ½ µH2
If a long slender solenoid is bent into the form of a ring and there by closed on itself it
becomes a toroid.
75.Describe what are the sources of electric field and magnetic field?
Stationary charges produce electric field that are constant in time, hence the term
electrostatics. Moving charges produce magnetic fields hence the term magnetostatics.
76.What are the significant physical differences between Poisson ‘s and laplace ‘s
equations.
Poisson ‘s and laplace ‘s equations are useful for determining the electrostatic potential
V in regions whose boundaries are known.
When the region of interest contains charges poissons equation can be used to find the
potential.
When the region is free from charge laplace equation is used to find the potential.
The integral of the divergence of a vector over a volume v is equal to the surface integral
o f the normal component of the vector over the surface bounded by the volume.
128
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
78.Give the expression for electric field intensity due to a single shell of charge
E = Q / 4πεr2
V= 1/ 4π (Q1/a – Q2/b)
Electric dipole is nothing but two equal and opposite point charges separated by a finite
distance.
The force between any two particles due to existing charges is known as electrostatic
force, repulsive for like and attractive for unlike.
82.Define divergence.
The divergence of a vector F at any point is defined as the limit of its surface integral per
unit volume as the volume enclosed by the surface around the point shrinks to zero.
In a capacitor, the work done in charging a capacitor is stored in the form of electric
energy.
Dielectrics are materials that may not conduct electricity through it but on applying
electric field induced charges are produced on its faces .The valence electron in atoms of
a dielectric are tightly bound to their nucleus.
85.What is a capacitor?
A capacitor is an electrical device composed of two conductors which are separated
through a dielectric medium and which can store equal and opposite charges ,independent
of whether other conductors in the system are charged or not.
129
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Water has a much greater dielectric constant than mica .because water ha a permanent
dipole moment, while mica does not have.
Lorentz force is the force experienced by the test charge .It is maximum if the direction
of movement of charge is perpendicular to the orientation of field lines.
Magnetic moment is defined as the maximum torque on the loop per unit magnetic
induction.
91.Define inductance.
The inductance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the linking magnetic flux to the
current producing the flux.
L = NФ / I
The main cause of eddy current is that it produces ohmic power loss and causes local
heating.
130
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
The eddy current losses can be eliminated by providing laminations. It can be proved
that the total eddy current power loss decreases as the number of laminations increases.
94.What is the fundamental difference between static electric and magnetic fild
lines?
There is a fundamental difference between static electric and magnetic field lines .The
tubes of electric flux originate and terminates on charges, whereas magnetic flux tubes
are continuous.
Electromagnetic waves which consist of electric and magnetic fields that are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation and are uniform in plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation are known as uniform plane waves.
The major drawback of finite difference method is its inability to handle curved
boundaries accurately.
The replacement of the actual problem with boundaries by an enlarged region or with
image charges but no boundaries is called the method of images.
131
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Method of images is used in solving problems of one or more point charges in the
presence of boundary surfaces.
132
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Part-B
1.Find the electric field intensity of a straight uniformly charged wire of length ‘L’m
and having a linear charge density of +λ C/m at any point at a distance of ‘h’ m.
Hence deduce the expression for infinitely long conductor.
E = λl / 4πεh
Hints:
ii)The normal component of the electric flux density is continuous if there is no surface
charge density.
Dn1 = Dn2
Hints:
Find the field intensity at P by using the formula
133
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
4.A circular disc of radius ‘a’ m is charged with a charge density of σC/m2 .Find the
electric field intensity at a point ‘h’m from the disc along its axis.
Hints:
Find the field due to the tangential and normal components
Total field is given by
E =ρs /2ε [1-cos α]
5. Four positive charges of 10–9 C each are situated in the XY plane at points
(0,0) (0,1) (1,0) and (1,1).Find the electric field intensity and potential at
(1/2 ,1/2).
Hints:
Find the field intensity at point using the formula
E = Q / 4πεr2 ur
Find the field intensity at the point due to all four charges by using the superposition
principle.
6. Given a electric field E = (-6y/x2 ) x + 6/x y + 5 z .Find the potential difference VAB
given A(-7,2,1) and B( 4,1,2)
Hint:
Find the potential using the formula v=-/E.dl and substitute the points
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Hint:
V = V1 –V2
V = Q / 4πεr1 _ Q / 4πεr 2
8.Find the magnetic flux density at a point Z on the axis of a circular loop of radius ‘a’
that carries a direct current I.
Hints:
The magnetic flux density at a point due to the current element is given by
dB = µIdl / 4π r2
9.Determine the force per meter length between two long parallel wires A and B
separated by 5cm in air and carrying currents of 40A in the same direction.
Hints:
Hint:
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
A = µ / 4π ///J / r dv
i)The tangential component of the magnetic field is continuous across the boundary
.Ht1 = Ht2
ii)The normal component of the magnetic flux density is continuous across the boundary
Dn1 = Dn2
12.Find the magnetic field intensity at a distance ‘h’m above an infinite straight wire
carrying a steady current I.
Hints:
The magnetic flux density is calculated starting from Biot savarts law.
The magnetic flux density at any point due to aninfinite long conductor is given by
B = µI / 2π d
13.Two conducting concentric spherical shells with radii a and b are at potentials V0
and 0 respectively. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
Hint:
Derive the capacitance between concentric spheres using the formula
C = Q /V
= 4πε [ ab /(b-a) ]
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Hints:
The net power flowing out of a given volume v is equal to the time rate of decrease of the
energy stored within the volume minus the conduction losses.
15.Find the forces /length between two long straight parallel conductors carrying a
current of 10A in the same direction. A distance of 0.2m separates the conductors.
Also find the force/length when the conductors carry currents in opposite directions.
Hints:
Hints
:When a current loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field forces act on the loop that
tends to rotate the tangential force times the radial distance at which it acts is
calledtorque or mechanicl moment of the loop.
T=mXB
Energy =CV2 /2
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
18. .Derive an expression for energy and energy density in a magnetic field.
Energy =LI2 /2
Hints:
i)Maxwells equation from electric Gauss law.
ii) Maxwells equation from magnetic Gauss law.
iii)Maxwells equation from Amperes law.
iv) Maxwells equation from Faradays law.
Hints:
Hint:
Starting from the maxwells equation from Faradays law and Amperes law derive the
Equation
2
˘ E - µ σ(δ E/ δt )-µε (δ2 E/δt2 )
Hints:
When a plane electromagnetic wave is incident on the surface of aperfect dielectric part
of the energy is transmitted and part of it is reflected.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [EE2202]
Er / Ei = ( 2 – 1) /( 2 + 1)
23. Briefly explain reflection by a perfect dielectric when a wave is incident normally on
a perfect conductor.
Hints
:When the plane wave is incident normally upon the surface of a perfect conductor the
wave is entirely reflected. Since there can be no loss within a perfect conductor none of
the energy is absorbed.
24. Derive the relation between field theory and circuit theory for an RLC series circuit.
Hints :
Starting from field theory erquation for a series RLC circuit derive the circuit equation
25.State and explain Faradays and Lenzs law of induction and derive maxwells equation.
Hints:
The total emf induced in a circuit is equal to the time rate of decrease of the total
magnetic flux linking the circuit.
˘ X E = -δB/ δt
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