Adkins1995 PDF

Previous Work Experience and Organizational Socialization: A Longitudinal Examination
Author(s): Cheryl L. Adkins

Source: The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 38, No. 3 (Jun., 1995), pp. 839-862
Published by: Academy of Management
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o Academy of Management Journal
1995, Vol. 38, No. 3, 839-862.
PREVIOUS WORK EXPERIENCE AND ORGANIZATIONAL

SOCIALIZATION: A LONGITUDINAL EXAMINATION
CHERYL L. ADKINS
Louisiana State University
In an extension of research on organizational socialization, the rela-

tionship between previous work experience and the tasks and out-
comes of the socialization process was examined using a longitudinal
field design. The importance of measuring socialization variables lon-
gitudinally, beginning at organizational entry, was highlighted. Im-
plications for future research are discussed.
American workers now hold an average of eight jobs during their ca-
reers (Wegmann, 1991); thus, organizational socialization is often a process
of resocialization. Because adjustment to a job in a new setting must be
viewed as a process of turning away from the patterns of behavior and ex-
periences established in the previous setting, individuals' work experience
prior to entry into a given organization must be considered in studies of
the socialization process. Examination of the preentry stage of socializa-
tion has focused on realistic beliefs about a job (e.g., Dean & Wanous, 1984;
Meglino & DeNisi, 1988) and professional socialization (e.g., Alutto, Hre-
biniak, & Alonso, 1971; Brief, Aldag, Van Sell, & Melone, 1979) but has
largely not encompassed the work experiences of nonprofessional work-
ers prior to their entering an organization (cf. Zahrly & Tosi, 1989).
Furthermore, although organizational socialization has attracted much
attention in the organizational behavior literature (e.g., Feldman, 1976;
Fisher, 1986; Reichers, 1987; Van Maanen, 1975; Wanous, 1992), the
process through which individuals change from outsiders to functioning
members of an organization is still an inadequately explored phenomenon
(Fisher, 1986). Earlier studies of the organizational socialization process
are exploratory (e.g., Van Maanen, 1975) or use cross-sectional samples and
elicit retrospective accounts of the socialization process (e.g., Feldman,
1976). These early socialization studies provide an important foundation,
but researchers should build upon them by testing hypotheses based on
their findings using longitudinal designs (Fisher, 1986).
This article is based on my dissertation. I thank my committee chairperson, Elizabeth C.

Ravlin, for assistance throughout this project and Bruce M. Meglino for assistance at vari-
ous stages of this project. I also thank Nathan Bennett, Craig J. Russell, James D. Werbel, and
two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on this article and Daniel C. Feldman for
comments on an earlier draft. This research was funded in part by the Riegel and Emory Hu-
man Resources Research Center at the University of South Carolina.
839

840 Academy of Management Journal June
The primary purpose of the present study was to extend research on

socialization by examining the effects of work experience prior to a given
organizational entry on the socialization process. The present study also
replicated findings regarding the relationship between the tasks of so-
cialization (developing a sense of task competence, developing work role
clarity, developing realistic expectations about a job, and developing in-
terpersonal relationships) and outcomes (job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and performance) using a longitudinal field design.
THEORY AND HYPOTHESES
Previous Work Experience and Socialization
A rich literature suggests that previous work experience may affect an

individual's adjustment to a new organization. Louis (1980), in her mod-
el of sense-making during organizational socialization, argued that in be-
coming socialized to a new organization individuals are also turning away
from the role relationships and experiences of a previous setting. Thus, the
new organization will be experienced as contrasting with the old organ-
ization. Similarly, Jones described individuals as developing "cognitive
maps" through past experience and stated that "past experience moderates
the newcomer's definition of events because, possessing these maps, new-
comers are primarily deductive in the way they make sense of a new sit-
uation" (1983: 314). Van Maanen proposed that "people, when left to
their own devices, learn new skills (or roles, or occupations, etc.) in much
the same ways they learned old skills that are seen as similar to the new"
(1984: 214). He coined the term "socialization chain" to describe the
process whereby lessons learned in one period or setting are tested in lat-
er periods or settings. Thus, individuals base their interpretation of events
in new organizations upon past experiences instead of upon a tabula rasa.
The Socialization Process
The major tasks of the socialization process examined here are drawn
from the socialization literature and are analogous to those examined by
Morrison (1993). They are developing a sense of task competence, devel-
oping work role clarity, developing realistic expectations about a job, and
developing interpersonal relationships on the job. Outcomes of the so-
cialization process examined here are performance, job satisfaction, organ-
izational commitment, and turnover. These outcomes are among those
most frequently examined in earlier empirical studies of socialization (for
comprehensive reviews of socialization, see Fisher [1986], Wanous and
Colella [1989], and Wanous [1992]).
Developing a sense of task competence. Fisher (1982) found that de-
veloping a system for getting the work done was an important element of
the socialization process for nurses, and Feldman (1976) included initia-
tion to the task as a key step in the socialization process. Previous work
experience in a similar setting may facilitate the development of a sense

1995 Adkins 841
of task competence. The literature on scripts in organizational behavior

(e.g., Gioia & Manz, 1985; Gioia & Poole, 1984) suggests that individuals
with previous experience in similar tasks may learn new tasks more quick-
ly. Feeling confidence about one's knowledge of an organization's rules and
procedures (developing a sense of task competence) is necessary for job
performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
Developing work role clarity. Learning one's role in the organization
and within the work group is another critical task of socialization. Re-
solving issues of role ambiguity and role conflict has been found to be crit-
ical in individuals' success in organizations (e.g., Beehr, Walsh, & Taber,
1976; Brief et al., 1979). Individuals with previous work experience in a
similar setting might feel surer about what is expected of them in a new
job and be more accustomed to balancing conflicting job demands than
those lacking similar experience; thus, the former might experience less
role ambiguity and role conflict. Feldman (1976) found that individuals
with previous work experience reported that they had achieved role def-
inition earlier than individuals with no previous work experience. Hav-
ing a sense of role clarity is important for job performance as well as job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (e.g., Brief et al., 1979; House
& Rizzo, 1972).
Developing realistic expectations about the job. The realistic job pre-
view literature indicates the importance of developing realistic expecta-
tions about a job and an organization to an employee's adjustment to the
organization (e.g., Dean & Wanous, 1984; Meglino & DeNisi, 1988). Real-
istic expectations (and subsequently, realistic beliefs) about the job rep-
resent the extent to which the newcomer perceives aspects of the job and
the work environment in the same way as experienced organizational
members. Work experience in a setting similar to a focal organization
may facilitate the development of realistic expectations about a job. Van
Maanen (1975), in a study of the socialization of police recruits, found that
previous military experience facilitated adjustment to police work; how-
ever, these effects disappeared after two months. Having realistic expec-
tations about an organization may contribute to performance, job satis-
faction, and organizational commitment.
Developing interpersonal relationships. Fisher (1985) described the
importance of developing interpersonal relationships at work and the re-
sulting social support in newcomer's adjustment to an organization. Feld-
man (1976) found that hospital employees reported that interpersonal re-
lationships on the job were important for task performance. Fisher (1985)
and Louis, Posner, and Powell (1983) reported a relationship between so-
cial support on the job and job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Thus, previous work experience in a job similar to that held in a fo-
cal organization may facilitate accomplishment of some of the tasks of the
socialization process, which in turn leads to outcomes such as good job
performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Further-
more, the literature on biodata, the use of personal history and life ex-

periences in personnel selection (e.g., Mumford, Stokes, & Owens, 1990;

Russell, 1990), has shown that previous life and work experiences may al-
so be predictors of those outcomes. Thus, the first hypothesis examines di-
rect relationships between previous work experience and selected tasks
and outcomes of the socialization process.
Hypothesis 1: Previous work experience in a job similar

to the job in a focal organization will be positively re-
lated to a newcomer's realistic expectations about the
job, sense of task competence, performance, job satis-
faction, and organizational commitment, and negative-
ly related to role ambiguity and role conflict.
To reexamine relationships among the tasks of the socialization
process and outcomes found in earlier studies of the socialization process
(e.g. Feldman, 1986; Fisher, 1985; Louis et al., 1983; Van Maanen, 1975)
using a longitudinal design and examining previous work experience (in
conjunction with the more traditional predictors of socialization), I also
hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 2: Previous work experience in a job similar
to that in a focal organization, realistic expectations
about the job, a sense of task competence, and inter-
personal relationships on the job will be positively as-
sociated with performance, job satisfaction, and organ-
izational commitment. Role ambiguity and role conflict
will be negatively associated with performance, job sat-
isfaction, and organizational commitment.
METHODS
Respondents
The sample was composed of 171 mental health specialists employed
by seven inpatient facilities of a southeastern state's department of men-
tal health. The mental health specialists' job, to provide basic care in the
facilities, is analogous to the job of nursing assistants in hospitals. The spe-
cialists must be high school graduates or possess a general equivalency de-
gree (GED). At the beginning of the present study, a seven-week training
program was conducted off-site for new hires for all the facilities; however,
during the time of the study the course was shortened to four weeks and
three facilities were allowed to conduct in-house training. The program
consisted of a classroom portion and clinical, on-the-job training. Data
were collected from participants in two seven-week training classes, two
four-week classes, and two in-house programs. Participants were surveyed
at the beginning (time 1) and end (time 2) of training and after approxi-
mately six months (time 3) on the job. The overall number of respondents
at time 1 was 171; at time 2, 147 (89.6%); and at time 3, it was 104

1995 Adkins 843
(70.7%). Between times 1 and 2, 9 individuals left the training, and 15 left
the job between times 2 and 3. I excluded those who left the organization
from the base for the computation of the participation rate for the subse-
quent survey administration. The response rates of the individuals who re-
mained with the organization compare favorably with those of similar lon-
gitudinal studies (cf. Fisher, 1982; Van Maanen, 1975).
Measures
Variables were based on a combination of survey and archival data.
In general, items on the initial surveys (times 1 and 2) were worded in the
future tense ("I will feel very sure that I am doing my job the right way"),
and items on the subsequent survey (time 3) were worded in the present
tense ("I am very sure that I am doing my job the right way"). Where ap-
propriate, Cronbach's alpha measures of reliability are reported with the
description of a measure for times 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Previous work experience. Previous work experience was measured
using archival data. Data on individual respondents' five most recent jobs
were gathered from employment applications. The variable was coded as
number of months of health care experience in any setting.
Task competence. Task competence was measured with eight items
based on Fisher's (1982) study of newly hired nurses. These items assessed
individuals' perceptions of "systems" for getting work done, knowing the
daily routine at work, knowledge of the facility, and knowledge of supply
and equipment locations and were rated on a five-point response scale (1
= strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree; a's = .75, .80, and .66).
Work role. Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman's (1970) role ambiguity and
role conflict scales were used to assess an individual's perception of his
or her work role (role conflict, o's = .76, .78, and .82; role ambiguity, o's
= .77, .84, and .71). Items were rated on a five-point scale with high val-
ues indicating high role ambiguity and role conflict.
Interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships were assessed
using two items developed for the present study (oc's = .64, .69, and .62).
These items were "I will have friends at work who I take breaks with" and
"I will make new friends at work" and were rated on a five-point scale (1
=strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).
Realistic expectations. Six items specific to the department of men-
tal health were developed to reflect initial expectations about various as-
pects of the job and, subsequently, beliefs about the job. Information gath-
ered through interviews with the centralized training program's instruc-
tors (N = 4), with a group of mental health specialists who were enrolled
in the program but were not in the sample (N = 30, approximately), and
with the directors of nursing of the facilities (N = 7) was used to gener-
ate these items. This approach to item development is consistent with that
used in developing materials for realistic job preview studies (e.g., Dean
& Wanous, 1984; Meglino, DeNisi, Youngblood, & Williams, 1988). By na-
ture, realistic expectations are job- and organization-specific. A sample

item is, "How much chance do you think there is of a Mental Health Spe-
cialist being attacked by a patient?" As with other survey items, these items
were worded in the present tense at time 3.
To assess "real" beliefs about the job, I surveyed 25 experienced work-
ers from the various facilities. Analysis of variance was used to assess be-
tween-facility differences in beliefs about the job on each of the six belief
items. No significant differences were found; however, it should be
noted that given the sample size, statistical power for this test was low.
To assess the extent to which experienced workers perceived a common
reality on these dimensions, I computed James, Demaree, and Wolf's (1984,
1993) within-group interrater reliability statistic, r , for the six-item scale.
The resulting value, .72, was at an acceptable leveT (George, 1990); there-
fore, the means of experienced workers' beliefs about the job were used
to represent reality-based beliefs about the focal job.
Conceptualizing realistic expectations as the degree to which new-
comers perceive aspects of the job and the work environment in the same
way as experienced organization members, I used the absolute value of the
difference scores between newcomers' and experienced workers' beliefs as
a measure. Thus, the realism of a newcomer's expectations was the sum
of the absolute values of the differences between the newcomer's expec-
tations and experienced workers' mean beliefs on each of the six scale
items (e.g., Dean & Wanous, 1984). A smaller score indicates more realis-
tic expectations; however, for ease of interpretation, I reversed the signs
of relationships with the realistic belief scale so that a negative relation-
ship between a given variable and realistic expectations indicates that
higher levels of the variable are associated with less realistic expectations.
It is important to note that realistic expectations are conceptually distinct
from met expectations, or the extent to which the job and work environ-
ment are consistent with what the newcomer expects from it.
Since the difference scores each assessed a distinct job dimension, in-
ternal consistencies for this scale were low (ac's = .37, .18, and .25 for times
1, 2, and 3). As Cronbach and Meehl (1955) and Bollen and Lennox (1991)
noted, it is important to remember that high internal consistency is a cri-
terion for scale validity only when the theory underlying the trait being
measured calls for high correlation between scale items.
Job performance. Key tasks were identified through interviews with
supervisors and trainers. Of the tasks mentioned, I focused on two: qual-
ity of notes and assisting patients with activities of daily living (hereafter
referred to as assisting with activities). Quality of notes reflects the accu-
racy and completeness of records of patient information such as temper-
ature, blood pressure, and observations of behavior. Assisting with activ-
ities is defined as helping patients with activities such as bathing, dress-
ing, and eating. The respondents were asked on the initial surveys to rate
their expected performance, and on the subsequent surveys they were
asked to rate their actual performance overall and on the two key tasks.
These items were rated on a seven-point scale (1 = poor, 7 = outstanding).

1995 Adkins 845
Additionally, supervisor performance appraisal ratings were gathered from

employee records. Mental health specialists were rated on a three-point
scale (below expectations, meets expectations, exceeds expectations) on
a selection of job duties, performance characteristics, and objectives cho-
sen from a list included in an agency directive. Because the duties, char-
acteristics, and objectives differed among individuals, a team of three in-
dependent raters sorted the performance dimensions into rater-defined cat-
egories. The five categories that emerged were quality of relationships,
observation and documentation, patient care, in-service training, and job
knowledge. Because of organizational factors, supervisor-rated perfor-
mance appraisal data were available for only 80 respondents.
Job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction was
measured using the short version of the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS; Hack-
man & Oldham, 1975; a's = .55, .69, and .70). Porter and Smith's (1970)
scale was used as an indicator of organizational commitment (o's = .68,
.76, and .81). Both constructs were measured on a five-point response for-
mat.
Turnover. Data on turnover during the first six months of the new spe-
cialists' employment were gathered from employee records.
Procedures
The newly hired mental health specialists were initially surveyed in
conjunction with the education program. I administered the first survey
during the first week of the off-the-job education program and gave the fol-
low-up survey at the end of the program. I administered an additional fol-
low-up survey six months from the beginning of the clinical, on-the-job
portion of the education program. The beginning of the clinical portion of
the education program represented the mental health specialists' first ac-
tual work experience in the facility; thus, individuals had experienced
their new work environment by time 2. I gained access to the facilities for
administration of the time 3 survey and surveyed the mental health spe-
cialists individually or in small groups during work time at all but one fa-
cility, where surveys were distributed via interoffice mail and returned in
postpaid envelopes.
RESULTS
Preliminary Analyses
As noted previously, the format of the training program was changed
during the study period, and participants were dispersed across seven de-
partment of mental health facilities. I used analysis of variance to test for
differences in the variables measuring the tasks of socialization and out-
comes that might be attributable to training group, facility, or a group and
facility interaction. No more significant differences were found than would
be expected as a result of chance alone (e.g., Feild & Armenakis, 1974);
therefore, all responses were combined for analysis.

Following Bauer and Green (1994), I used the mean replacement pro-
cedure for missing data.1 As those authors noted, mean replacement is a
conservative approach to dealing with missing data (Tabachinick & Fidell,
1983). Mean replacement was used only when an individual left specific
survey items blank, not when an individual did not respond at a given sur-
vey time. Mean replacement was not used for any supervisor-rated per-
formance dimensions.
Table 1 reports means and standard deviations of all variables by sur-
vey administration. Table 2 reports correlations among variables at time
1. Because of space limitations, correlation matrixes for times 2 and 3 are
not presented here; however, the patterns of correlation are similar to that
at time 1. I report specific correlations from times 2 and 3 when dis-
cussing tests of Hypothesis 1.
Hypothesis Tests
Correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between
previous health care experience and the variables measuring socialization.
As Table 2 shows, months of health care experience were negatively re-
lated to realistic expectations about the job (r = -.19, p < .01, N = 171)
but not related to the newcomer's sense of task competence, role ambigu-
ity, or role conflict. Health care experience was positively related to job
satisfaction at time 2 (r = .18, p < .05, N = 147). At time 3, months of
health care experience were positively related to role conflict (r = .22,
p < .05, N = 104) and negatively related to the self-rated performance di-
mension of quality of notes (r = -.20, p < .05, N = 104). Months of health
care experience were marginally and negatively related to the supervisor-
rated performance dimensions of quality of relationships (r = -.16, p <
.10, N = 72), job knowledge (r = -.13, p < .10, N = 78), and overall per-
formance (r = -.14, p < .10, N= 77). Thus, there is only limited support
for Hypothesis 1. Paradoxically, with the exception of the relationship be-
tween previous health care experience and job satisfaction, the significant
relationships are opposite in direction to prediction.
Hypothesis 2 was examined using hierarchical regression analysis. Re-
gression analyses were conducted by survey administration and lagged
across contiguous times (time 1-time 2 and time 2-time 3). This procedure
allowed a comparison between static analyses, analogous to a cross-sec-
tional approach, and lagged analyses, which are more consistent with the
nature of socialization. Each outcome was regressed on its corresponding
time 1 measure in the first step. I used this procedure to control for indi-
vidual differences in the expected level of the dependent variable at the
time of organizational entry. In the second step, each outcome variable was
regressed on its corresponding time 1 measure and months of health care
1 All analyses were also conducted without mean replacement for missing variables. The
results were not substantially different from those reported using mean replacement for miss-
ing variables.

TABLE 1
Means and Standard Deviationsa
Time 1 Time 2
Variables Means s.d. Range Means s.d. Rang
Previous health
care experience 22.78 44.08 0-280
Tasks of socialization
Task competence 31.77 4.64 17-40 31.62 4.95 16-40
Realistic beliefs 16.66 3.88 5-28 12.26 3.88 5-25
Role ambiguityb 3.25 3.17 0-14 3.10 3.37 0-17
Role conflict 21.06 6.33 8-36 22.85 6.46 8-40
Interpersonal relationships 7.83 1.81 2-10 7.53 1.80 2-10
Self-rated performance
Quality of notes 5.19 1.18 1-7 5.26 1.10 4-7
Assistance with activities 5.93 0.99 3-7 5.72 1.14 4-7
Overall performance 6.09 0.98 3-7 6.05 1.03 3-7
Supervisor-rated performance
Quality of relationships
Observation and
documentation
Patient care
In-service training
Job knowledge
Overall performance
Attitudes
Job satisfaction 12.74 2.02 7-15 12.18 2.51 5-15
Organizational commitment 57.52 6.41 44-75 56.38 6.92 38-71
a Ns = 171, time 1; 147, time 2; and 104, time 3. Nfor
supervisor-rated performance = 80.
b The lower bound of the
range for role ambiguity is 0 as a result of subtracting the ratings from

TABLE 2
Correlations, Time la
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Previous health care
experience
Tasks of socialization
2. Task competence .01
3. Realistic beliefs -.19* -.21**
4. Role ambiguity -.02 -.40** .28**
5. Role conflict -.02 -.20* .18* -.14t
6. Interpersonal .02 .22** .10 -.05 .14t
relationships
Self-rated performance
7. Quality of notes -.05 .40**-.05 -.11 -.18* .21* *
8. Assistance with .04 .38** -.15* -.25** -.16* .10 .50**
activities
9. Overall performance .04 .45**-.17* -.23**-.14t .16* .45** .64**
Supervisor-rated performanceb
10. Quality of relationships -.16t-.01 .06 .03 .11 .02 .03 .02 -.06
11. Observation and .01 .00 .06 .02 -.03 -.19* .02 .00 .06 .17*
documentation
12. Patient care .04 .02 .03 -.02 .09 -.14t .02 .08 -.05 .34**
13. In-service training -.05 -.08 .16t .23**-.02 .05 .06 .00 .03 .24**
14. Job knowledge -.13t .06 .13 -.10 .01 -.05 .11 .14t .01 .23**
15. Overall performance -.14t .05 .06 -.08 .09 -.03 .14t .09 .01 .53**
Attitudes
16. Job satisfaction .00 .31**-.16* -.28**-.15t .05 .13t .37** .31** .02
17. Organizational -.01 .25**-.16* -.31**-.23** .10 .15t .33** .34**-.02
commitment
a Correlation matrixes for times 2 and 3 are available from the author. The
patterns of correlation ar
b
Supervisor-rated performance dimensions were measured at time 3 only.
tp < .10
*p < .05
**p <.01

1995 Adkins 849
experience. The five measures of the tasks of the socialization process (the
newcomer's perceptions of task competence, realistic expectations about
the job, role conflict, role ambiguity, and interpersonal relationships) for
the appropriate time were added to the equation in the third step. Table
3 presents the results of the regression analyses within time, and Table 4
presents the results of the lagged regression analyses. Analyses examin-
ing the dependent variable, supervisor-rated performance, are also dis-
cussed below.
As Table 3 shows, at each survey administration time the tasks of the
socialization process as a group predicted all three dimensions of self-rat-
ed performance when predictions of self-rated performance at time of en-
try were controlled; self-rated quality of notes at time 3 was an exception.
However, not all individual predictors were significant. Role conflict was
negatively associated with self-rated quality of notes at time 1 but posi-
tively, marginally associated with that same performance dimension at
time 2. Perceived task competence did not predict self-rated quality of
notes at time 3; however, it was a significant predictor of all other di-
mensions of self-rated performance. In fact, predictions of performance
made at time 1 and perceptions of task competence were the most con-
sistent predictors of self-rated performance. Table 4 shows that in the
lagged regression analyses, the hypothesized predictors of self-rated per-
formance as a group did not explain a significant amount of variance
when predictions of self-rated performance at time 1 were controlled.
Regression analysis was also used to examine the relationship be-
tween supervisor-rated performance data from archival records and the
hypothesized predictors. Results of two equations were marginally sig-
nificant; however, this proportion is not higher than would be predicted
by chance.
As Table 3 shows, job satisfaction was predicted by the tasks of the
socialization process, with job satisfaction at time 1 controlled. Previous
work experience was positively related to job satisfaction at time 2, and
perceived task competence was positively associated with job satisfaction
at time 1 but negatively associated with job satisfaction at times 2 and 3.
Role ambiguity was negatively associated with job satisfaction at all three
times. Role conflict was also negatively associated with job satisfaction at
time 3. Role conflict and role ambiguity were negatively associated with
organizational commitment at all three survey times.
Lagged regression analysis was also used to examine the relationship
between job satisfaction, organizational commitment, previous health care
experience, and the tasks of the socialization process across survey ad-
ministration times. Previous health care experience and the tasks of the
socialization process were predictors of job satisfaction at time 2 with job
satisfaction at the time of organizational entry controlled. Previous health
care experience and realistic expectations were significant predictors of
job satisfaction at time 2. Previous work experience and the tasks of the
socialization process as a group were not significant predictors of job sat-

TABLE 3
Results of Regression Analysisa
Dependent Independent Time 1 Time 2
Variables Variables p B
R2 F AR2 PF /p R2 F AR2 PF
Quality of Quality of notes,
notes time 1 .34** .13 24.12**
Previous health
care experience -.04 .00 0.38 -.07 .13 12.28 .00 0.66
Task competence .34** .24**
Role ambiguity .06 -.10
Role conflict -.17* .14t
Interpersonal
relationships .17* -.03
Realistic beliefs .01 .21 6.99** .21 8.23** -.06 .26 6.81** .12 4.03*
Assistance Assistance with

with activities, time 1 .33 ** .16 28.54**
activities Previous health care
experience .02 .00 0.22 -.07 .17 14.40** .01 0.38
Task competence .28** .36**
Role ambiguity -.10 .01
Role conflict -.11 .07
Interpersonal
relationships .06 -.07
Realistic beliefs -.05 .17 5.42** .17 6.61** -.08 .30 8.58** .13 5.33*
Overall Overall performance,

perfor- time 1 .40** .26 50.99**
mance Previous health
care experience .02 .00 0.25 .02 .26 25.58** .00 0.40
Task competence .38** .31* *
Role ambiguity -.07 -.01
Role conflict -.07 .10
Interpersonal
Realistic beliefs -.08 .22 7.51** .22 9.18** -.16* .40 13.16* .14 6.24*

TABLE 3 (continued)
Dependent Independent Time 1 Time 2

Variables Variables pF R2 F AR2 P p R2 F AR2 P
Job Job satisfaction,

satisfaction time 1 .17* .04 5.78**
Previous health
care experience -.01 .00 0.00 .21** .08 5.80** .04 5.63*
Task competence .19* -.21*
Role ambiguity -.18* -.28**
Role conflict -.11 -.11
Interpersonal
relationships -.00 .02
Realistic beliefs -.04 .14 4.19** .14 4.99** .08 .17 4.04 .09 3.16*
Organiza- Organizational
tional commitment,
commit- time 1 .46** .26 49.78**
ment Previous health
care experience -.03 .00 0.01 .05 .26 24.95** .00 0.36
Task competence .09 -.08
Role ambiguity -.22** -.19*
Role conflict -.19* -.15*
Interpersonal
relationships .10 .08
Realistic beliefs -.07 .16 4.90** .16 5.92** .09 .33 9.39** .07 2.64*
a Ns = 171, time 1; 147, time 2; and 104, time 3.

b
The F adjacent to the AR2 refers to the latter.
tp < .10
* p < .05
**p < .01

TABLE 4
Results of Lagged Regression Analysisa
Dependent Independent Time 1-Time 2

Variables Variables p R2 F AR2 Fb
Quality of Quality of notes,

notes time 1 .33** .14 24.06** .26**
Previous health
care experience -.08 .15 12.33** .01 0.66 -.19t
Task competence .15 .12
Role conflict .11 -.02
Interpersonal
relationships .01 .19t
Realistic beliefs -.11 .18 4.37** .03 1.23 -.03
Assistance Assistance with
with activities, time 1 .34** .16 28.54** .18t
activities Previous health care
experience -.06 .17 14.40** .01 0.37 -.03
Task competence .18t .19t
Role conflict .05 -.04
Interpersonal
Realistic beliefs -.02 .20 4.94** .03 1.20 -.14
Overall Overall performance,
performance time 1 .43** .26 50.99** .26 **
Previous health
care experience .03 .26 25.58** .00 0.40 -.08
Task competence .21' .11
Role ambiguity .06 -.18t
Role conflict .09 .04
Interpersonal
Realistic beliefs -.04 .30 8.14'* .04 1.24 .02

TABLE 4 (continued)
Dependent Independent Time 1-Time 2
Variables Variables P R2 F AR2 Fb p
Job Job satisfaction,
satisfaction time 1 .12 .04 5.78* .24*
Previous health
care experience .14t .08 5.80** .04 5.63* .05
Role ambiguity -.15 -.16
Role conflict .07 .09
Interpersonal
Realistic beliefs -.22** .16 3.70** .08 2.79* -.12
Organizational Organizational
commitment commitment,
time 1 .53** .26 49.78** .40**
Previous health
care experience .04 .26 24.95** .00 0.36 .06
Role conflict .13t -.02
Interpersonal
Realistic beliefs -.05 .29 7.67** .03 0.97 .04
aN 142, time 1-time 2; N = 94, time 2- time 3.
b The F
adjacent to the AR2 refers to the latter.
tp < .10
p < .05
**p < .01

isfaction at time 3 or of organizational commitment at time 2 or 3 with lev-

els of job satisfaction and organizational commitment at the time of organ-
izational entry controlled.
Turnover. The relationship between job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and the objective outcome of an individual's leaving the job
was examined using logistic regression analysis. Turnover data were re-
gressed on job satisfaction and organizational commitment by survey ad-
ministration time. That is, turnover between time 1 and time 2 was re-
gressed on satisfaction and commitment at time 1, and turnover subsequent
to time 2 was regressed on satisfaction and commitment at time 2. Turnover
data were collected for the first six months of employment only, making
it inappropriate to use time 3 predictors in these analyses. The relation-
ships between satisfaction, commitment, and turnover were significant at
time 1 (X2 = 7.11, p < .05) and marginally significant at time 2 (x2 = 5.32,
p < .10). Thus, survey measures of job satisfaction and organizational com-
mitment were significantly associated with an objective, nonsurvey out-
come.
DISCUSSION
The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effect
of work experience prior to organizational entry on the organizational so-
cialization process. Limited, somewhat paradoxical findings were associ-
ated with previous work experience. At the time of organizational entry
(time 1), previous health care experience was negatively associated with
realistic expectations about the job. At the end of the training program,
time 2 health care experience was positively associated with job satisfac-
tion but with no other socialization variables. After the mental health spe-
cialists studied here had been on the job for six months (time 3), previous
work experience was positively associated with role conflict and negatively
related to the self-rated performance dimension of quality of notes. Pre-
vious work experience was also negatively associated with the supervisor-
rated performance dimensions of quality of relationships, job knowledge,
and overall performance.
Post hoc analyses were performed to examine whether the setting of
the previous work experience was related to the tasks or outcomes of so-
cialization. Individuals with previous health care experience were cate-
gorized according to the setting of that experience (mental health or men-
tal retardation facility versus hospital or nursing home). I then used t-tests
to compare the group means on the tasks of the socialization process and
outcome variables at each survey time and found no significant differences.
Thus, previous work experience had little effect on adjustment to the
new organization. In fact, the number of significant relationships found
was not more than would be expected to result by chance. Organization-
al differences between the settings of this research and other settings may
have overshadowed any similarities in the jobs themselves.. Much of the
mental health specialists' previous work experience was in the private sec-

1995 Adkins 855
tor. It is likely that there were marked differences in working for a public
sector organization. Mental health department personnel indicated that in
general, the job of mental health specialist was viewed as less attractive
than comparable jobs in the private sector, but individuals were attracted
to the job because of the state benefits associated with it.
Although the present study found very few relationships between pre-
vious work experience and socialization variables, it may be premature to
conclude that previous experience has no impact on socialization what-
soever. As noted previously, a rich literature suggests that previous work
experience may affect adjustment to a new job. Further, effects have been
found for previous work experience in related areas, although not in stud-
ies of socialization per se. For example, in a study of the effectiveness of
realistic job previews, Meglino, DeNisi, and Ravlin (1993) found that af-
ter being exposed to such a preview, individuals with previous work ex-
perience as corrections officers were more likely to leave their employing
organizations during a probationary period than were individuals with no
previous work experience in the field of corrections. They suggested that
for individuals with previous experience in the field, the negative aspects
of the job (presented in the preview) were more salient. The literature in
the area of biodata in personnel selection also suggests that previous ex-
periences have an effect on job performance (e.g., Mumford, Stokes, &
Owens, 1990; Russell, 1990, 1994).
Perhaps in future studies, researchers should attempt to better define
dimensions of previous work experience. The present study's months of
health care experience was a very coarse measure of previous work expe-
rience; however, it should be noted that the measure is at a level appro-
priate for an initial examination. It is likely that multiple dimensions of
previous work experience are job- and organization-specific; therefore, it
may be fruitful to take an approach similar to that used in developing mea-
sures of realistic expectations (e.g., Dean & Wanous, 1984) or in develop-
ing biodata items (e.g., Russell, 1994), to explore the dimensions of pre-
vious work experience. Zahrly and Tosi (1989), in a study of the social-
ization of manufacturing employees, examined previous shift work
experience and previous experience manufacturing the same product;
however, it is not entirely clear how these dimensions were combined as
a measure of previous work experience.
It should also be noted that the present study must be considered a
weak test of the hypothesized relationship between previous work expe-
rience and socialization for several reasons. In addition to the rather
coarse measure of previous work experience used, several of the measures
had low reliabilities, and several others, low variance; these included the
interpersonal relationship scale, the JDS, and the supervisor-rated perfor-
mance dimensions. Low reliabilities and low variances attenuate rela-
tionships between variables.
Thus, the findings associated with previous work experience in the
present study may be the result of chance; however, the general pattern

suggests that previous work experience inhibited socialization. At the

time of the first survey administration, previous experience was associat-
ed with less realistic beliefs about the job. At the final administration, pre-
vious work experience was associated with greater role conflict, lower self-
rated performance on the dimension of quality of notes, and lower su-
pervisor-rated performance on several dimensions. One possible
explanation for this finding is that individuals with previous work expe-
rience were initially overconfident about their ability to do the job and
were thus less attentive to formal instructions and organizational cues.
This false confidence may have continued through training (times 1 and
2) but may have been reflected in perceived role conflict and lower self-
and supervisor-rated performance after newcomers had spent six months
on the job confronting its day-to-day realities.
The present study also examined the relationship between the tasks
of the socialization process and outcomes using a longitudinal field design
and controlling for individuals' perceptions about the job at time of en-
try. As Bauer and Green (1994) stated, it is critical to account for initial
reaction to an organization in studying socialization. It should be noted
that in the present study, it was not possible to objectively measure vari-
ables such as performance at the time of organizational entry; therefore,
expected rather than actual levels of performance were measured.
The tasks of the socialization process as a group predicted the out-
comes of the socialization process within survey administration times;
however, not all individual dimensions were significant. In fact, per-
ceived task competence was the most consistent predictor of self-rated per-
formance, and role ambiguity and role conflict were the most consistent
predictors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Realistic ex-
pectations about the job and interpersonal relationships on the job, in gen-
eral, did not predict socialization outcomes. The mental health specialists
worked rotating shifts in their facilities, and there was high turnover
among the nurses who directly supervised the specialists. Perhaps the vari-
ation in work group peers resulting from changing shifts and in direct su-
pervision made the formation of interpersonal relationships on the job less
important.
In general, previous health care experience and the tasks of the so-
cialization process as a group did not predict the outcome variables be-
tween survey administrations. In fact, individuals' predictions concerning
their levels of performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commit-
ment at the time of organizational entry were the most consistent predic-
tors of the outcomes of their jobs. These findings are consistent with those
of Morrison (1993), who found that socialization variables were relative-
ly stable during the first six months on a job. The present findings, taken
together with those of Morrison (1993) and Bauer and Green (1994), em-
phasize the importance of examining socialization longitudinally and of
obtaining measures of outcome variables at the time of entry to use as con-
trols. As Morrison noted, this stability may be the result of changes in the

1995 Adkins 857
meaning of the variables over time, or "beta change" (Golembiewski,

Billingsley, & Yeager, 1976), or it may indicate inadequate socialization.
However, the fact that most individuals were performing at a level allow-
ing them to be retained by the organization and that there was relatively
low turnover during the study period suggests that at least some minimal
level of socialization was widely achieved.
To highlight the importance of controlling for individuals' expected
level of the outcome variable at the time of organizational entry, I also con-
ducted the static and lagged regression analyses omitting the control vari-
ables. In addition to the significant relationships reported in Tables 3 and
4, the equations for both quality of notes and organizational commitment
at time 3 in the within-time-period analyses were significant. The lagged
regressions for all three performance dimensions and job satisfaction be-
tween time 1 and time 2 were also significant. Thus, conclusions with re-
spect to the lagged regressions would be very different if expected levels
of the outcome variables at the time of organizational entry were not con-
trolled for. The relationship between the tasks of the socialization process
and outcomes could be erroneously interpreted as evidence of socializa-
tion, if the level of the outcome at the time of organizational entry were
not accounted for.
Supervisor-rated performance was not predicted by the socialization
variables; however, as noted previously, the three-point response scale for
supervisor-rated performance was somewhat restricted. Also, the mental
health department's human resources personnel reported that newcomers
generally received a rating of "meets performance requirements." This re-
stricted response scale and the somewhat defined rating for newcomers re-
duced variance in this outcome variable and lessened the possibility of my
finding significant relationships between the socialization variables and
supervisor-rated performance. Further, the relatively small number of re-
spondents for whom supervisor-rated performance data were available (N
- 80) reduces the statistical power of the analyses examining supervisor-
rated performance as a dependent variable.
As in previous research (e.g., Arnold & Feldman, 1982; Mobley, Grif-
feth, Hand, & Meglino, 1979), job satisfaction and organizational commit-
ment predicted turnover at both the second and third administrations of
the survey. Although this finding is expected, it is important because it
shows a relationship between the survey data and an objective outcome,
thus presenting some evidence of the validity of some of the survey mea-
sures.
Limitations
The very nature of the socialization process defines the limitations in
its study. First, the character of longitudinal research presented adminis-
trative problems. Participants became weary of completing multiple sur-
veys and therefore may not have been motivated to respond in a thought-
ful and honest manner. Participants were given a token (a notepad or a pen)

for survey participation and completed the surveys on work time; however,
they often commented about "having to fill out the same survey again."
Second, it is necessary to develop several new measures specific to
the organization and job in any study of socialization. By definition, re-
alistic expectations are job- and site-specific; therefore, a measure of re-
alistic expectations must be developed that is specific to the population
being studied. Inherent in the measurement of realistic expectations are
the limitations associated with the use of difference scores. As Edwards
(1994) noted, difference scores cannot be unambiguously interpreted in re-
lation to their component measures. Further, an index composed of ab-
solute difference scores assumes that the "response surface" relating each
dimension to the outcome is identical. Although the use of difference
scores can be problematic, as Tisak and Smith (1994) noted, it is impor-
tant to also consider the order of the response predicted by the underly-
ing theory being examined and such practical matters as the cost of the
large samples necessary to examine the complex response surfaces that
have been proposed as an alternative to difference scores. In the present
study, the expectations of newcomers were compared to a fixed set of val-
ues (the means of experienced workers on the expectations items); there-
fore, the use of difference scores was less problematic. In this case, vari-
ance in realistic expectations is due to individual differences rather than
to the component scores comprising the difference score. Future research
should further examine how to best measure what constitutes reality for
newcomers.
It was necessary to construct a measure of development of interper-
sonal relationships and to build on the work of Fisher (1982) to construct
a measure of development of task competence. As noted previously, the
reliability of some of the new and established measures used here fell
slightly below commonly accepted levels for well-established instruments,
although reliabilities were within common guidelines for instruments in
their early stages of development (Nunnally, 1978). Low reliabilities at-
tenuate the relationship between socialization tasks and outcome variables.
However, overall patterns of results were consistent across survey ad-
ministrations, suggesting that the reliabilities were not highly problemat-
ic. It is also important to note that there is conceptual overlap between the
domains of perceived task competence and self-rated performance and that
therefore, correlations between these two variables are high.
Third, because most of the variables examined in studies of social-
ization are changes in individuals' reactions to a new work setting, much
of the data is necessarily self-reported. Although the fact that the strongest
relationships were found between variables measured on the surveys raises
concerns about common method variance, the emergence of some signif-
icant relationships with previous work experience and turnover data is en-
couraging. Clearly, multiple methods of assessing socialization variables
are needed. Further, the independent variable for previous work experi-

1995 Adkins 859
ence was obtained from individuals' job applications. Although the fact
that this information was obtained independent of the survey is a strength,
that it was obtained from a job application is a potential weakness. As Gate-
wood and Field (1990) noted, individuals may misrepresent informa-
tion-such as previous work experience-to enhance their chances of ob-
taining employment. In the present setting, applicants had to sign a state-
ment acknowledging that they had been informed that police records
would be checked for evidence of convictions (other than minor traffic vi-
olations) and that falsifying that information would lead to dismissal.
They also had to sign multiple copies of a statement authorizing the de-
partment of mental health to "investigate my records with employers,
schools, activities, police and FBI records." Although I was not allowed
access to information on the veracity of the self-reported employment da-
ta, it is reasonable to believe that these clear warnings that records would
be checked would increase applicants' honesty in reporting application in-
formation.
Last, the present study, like most field studies, is limited by factors
that could be neither measured nor controlled for. These include the day-
to-day interactions with supervisors, peers, and patients that serve as im-
portant sources of information about the organization and the changes in
the training program that occurred during the study period.
Future Research and Conclusions
In sum, the present study shows very limited support for the hy-
pothesis that previous work experience in a similar setting will be posi-
tively related to socialization variables; however, there were some inter-
esting relationships between the work experience and socialization vari-
ables. The present operational definition of previous work experience,
months of experience, is a very coarse measure of the construct. Future re-
search should attempt to refine a measure of relevant preentry experiences.
The literature on biodata suggests that issues such as early life experiences,
leisure activities, and outside interests may have an impact on an indi-
vidual's adjustment to a new organization (Owens, 1976). The present set-
ting and concerns about survey length did not allow for the examination
of additional dimensions.
The present study also underscores the importance of conducting
longitudinal studies of socialization and of measuring socialization vari-
ables at the time of individuals' organizational entry. The results of the pre-
sent study, together with those of Morrison (1993), suggest that socializa-
tion may be a process of subtle changes and adjustments rather than of
marked changes between defined times. These results suggest that social-
ization is a continuous process rather than a series of lock-step stages.
Clearly, future research should focus on the temporal aspects of social-
ization.

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Previous Work Experience and Organizational Socialization: A Longitudinal Examination

Author(s): Cheryl L. Adkins

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PREVIOUS WORK EXPERIENCE AND ORGANIZATIONAL

In an extension of research on organizational socialization, the rela-

This article is based on my dissertation. I thank my committee chairperson, Elizabeth C.

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The primary purpose of the present study was to extend research on

Previous Work Experience and Socialization

A rich literature suggests that previous work experience may affect an

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of task competence. The literature on scripts in organizational behavior

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periences in personnel selection (e.g., Mumford, Stokes, & Owens, 1990;

Hypothesis 1: Previous work experience in a job similar

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Additionally, supervisor performance appraisal ratings were gathered from

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Assistance Assistance with

Overall Overall performance,

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Dependent Independent Time 1 Time 2

Job Job satisfaction,

a Ns = 171, time 1; 147, time 2; and 104, time 3.

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Dependent Independent Time 1-Time 2

Quality of Quality of notes,

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isfaction at time 3 or of organizational commitment at time 2 or 3 with lev-

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suggests that previous work experience inhibited socialization. At the

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meaning of the variables over time, or "beta change" (Golembiewski,

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This content downloaded from 195.78.109.142 on Fri, 9 May 2014 15:45:00 PM

Future Research and Conclusions

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Van Maanen, J. 1975. Police socialization: A longitudinal examination of job attitudes in an

Cheryl L. Adkins is an assistant professor of management at Louisiana State Uni-

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