energies

Article
Modelling a Switching Process of IGBTs with
Influence of Temperature Taken into Account †
Paweł Górecki and Krzysztof Górecki *
Department of Marine Electronics, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland;
p.gorecki@we.umg.edu.pl
* Correspondence: k.gorecki@we.umg.edu.pl
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in 24th International Workshop on Thermal
Investigations of ICs and Systems Therminic 2018, Kista, 164 40 Stockholm, Sweden, 26–28 September 2018,
doi:10.1109/THERMINIC.2018.8592873.




Received: 1 April 2019; Accepted: 14 May 2019; Published: 18 May 2019


Abstract: In this article the problem of modelling a switching process of Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors (IGBTs) in the SPICE software is considered. The new form of the considered transistor
model is presented. The model includes controlled voltage and current sources, resistors and voltage
sources. In the model, influence of temperature on dc and dynamic characteristics of the IGBT is
taken into account. A detailed description of the dynamic part of this model is included in the article
and some results of experimental verification are shown. Verification is performed for a transistor
IRG4PC40UD by International Rectifier. The presented results of computations and measurements
show clearly influence of temperature on on-time and off-time, and additionally switching energy
losses are observed. Moreover, the results of investigations performed with the use of the new model
are compared to the results of computations performed with classical models of the considered device
given in the literature. It is proved that the new model makes it possible to obtain a better match to
the results of measurements than the considered models described in the literature.

Keywords: power semiconductor devices; IGBT; modelling; transient analysis; SPICE; switching;
thermal phenomena

1. Introduction
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) belong to the group of power semiconductor devices [1].
They are commonly used as electronic switches in power electronic applications [2–4]. In a process of
designing such circuits computer simulations are typically realized.
In order to perform reliable simulations of an electronic circuit, proper software and accurate
models of all electronic components included in this circuit are indispensable. One of the most
popular software for a computer analysis of electronic and power electronic circuits is SPICE [2,4–10].
In this software, models of many semiconductor devices, including a model of the IGBT, are built-in.
Additionally, in many papers, e.g., [11–18], different forms of IGBT models are described. Of course,
these models differ from one another by accuracy and the form. In the mentioned models, physical
phenomena occurring in the IGBT could be described using equations of different forms.
In the authors’ previous papers [16,17,19] accuracy of selected models of the considered transistor
given in the literature are analysed and new forms of dc model of the considered transistor correctly
describing influence of temperature on its dc characteristics are presented. The results of computations
and measurements shown in the cited papers prove that the considered literature models correctly
describe dc characteristics of the considered transistor at room temperature only, whereas visible

Energies 2019, 12, 1894; doi:10.3390/en12101894 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 Energies 2019, 12, 1894 2 of 12
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

whereas visible
differences betweendifferences between
the results the resultsand
of computations of computations
measurementsand can bemeasurements can be
obtained at a high obtained
temperature
at a high temperature
◦ value (over 100 °C) and in
value (over 100 C) and in the sub-threshold range of operation.the sub-threshold range of operation.
Typically,
Typically, IGBTsIGBTsareare usedused
as electronic switches
as electronic operating
switches in switch-mode
operating power converters
in switch-mode power
[2–4,20–22]. In such converters dynamic properties of the considered
converters [2–4,20–22]. In such converters dynamic properties of the considered transistor transistor are very important.
are very
These properties
important. These limit the value
properties of switching
limit the frequencyfrequency
value of switching and theyand arethey
characterised by such
are characterised by
parameters as, e.g., by turn-off and turn-on times [3]. Values of these parameters
such parameters as, e.g., by turn-off and turn-on times [3]. Values of these parameters change when change when
temperature
temperaturechanges
changes[23,24].
[23,24].
In this paper, which
In this paper, which is an is an extended
extended version
version of theofconference
the conference paper
paper [25], the[25], the of
problem problem of
modelling
modelling dynamic properties
dynamic properties of the IGBT of is
theconsidered.
IGBT is considered.
PropertiesProperties
of selected ofliterature
selected literature
models ofmodels of
the IGBT
the IGBT and their usefulness for proper computations of waveforms of
and their usefulness for proper computations of waveforms of terminal voltages and currents of this terminal voltages and
currents
transistorof this atransistor
during switching during
process in a aswitching
wide range process in a wide
of temperature range of temperature
are investigated. A new dynamic are
investigated. A new dynamic model of the IGBT for SPICE is proposed and its
model of the IGBT for SPICE is proposed and its correctness is verified experimentally for different correctness is verified
experimentally for different values of temperature.
values of temperature.
In Section 2 2thethe
In Section elaborated
elaborated model model is described,
is described, whereaswhereas
in Section in3 some
Section 3 some
results results of
of computations
computations performed with the use of the new model and literature models
performed with the use of the new model and literature models as well as the results of measurements as well as the results
of measurements are
are shown and discussed. shown and discussed.

2.2.Model
ModelDescription
Description
On
Onthe
thebasis
basisofofthe
thepreviously
previously formulated
formulated byby
thethe
authors
authorsdc model
dc model of the IGBT
of the dedicated
IGBT for the
dedicated for
SPICE software [16], a new dynamic model of this device is formulated. In
the SPICE software [16], a new dynamic model of this device is formulated. In the new dynamicthe new dynamic model
controlled currentcurrent
model controlled sources describing
sources currents
describing flowing
currents flowingthrough
through parasitic
parasitic capacitances
capacitancesofofthe
the
considered
consideredtransistor
transistorareareadded.
added.In Insome
somepapers,
papers,e.g.,
e.g.,[1,11,26]
[1,11,26]the theIGBT
IGBTisistypically
typicallymodelled
modelledusing
using
the
the network representationof
network representation ofthis
thisdevice
deviceshown
showninin Figure
Figure 1. As
1. As it isitvisible
is visible in structure
in the the structure
of theofIGBT,
the
IGBT, three components
three components can becan be distinguished:
distinguished: The MOSFET,
The MOSFET, the BJT the
andBJTtheand the diode.
diode.

Figure 1. Network representation of the typical structure of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT).
Figure 1. Network representation of the typical structure of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT).
On the basis of this classical IGBT structure presented in Figure 1 a new dynamic model taking into
account parasitic capacitances is elaborated. The network representation of the new model, based on
On the basis of this classical IGBT structure presented in Figure 1 a new dynamic model taking
the conception presented in Figure 1, is shown in Figure 2.
into account parasitic capacitances is elaborated. The network representation of the new model,
In Figure 2, electronic components describing dc characteristics of the IGBT are marked with
based on the conception presented in Figure 1, is shown in Figure 2.
yellow colour and labelled as a dc model. In turn, controlled current sources GCGE , GCCE and GCGC
model currents flowing through internal capacitances CGE , CCE and CGC , respectively, of the transistor.
In analytical formulas describing the considered controlled current sources influence of temperature
on the value of the mentioned capacitances is taken into account.
Energies 2019, 12, 1894 3 of 12
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

VC
mi li q pt

RC0
iC
E1 E2 E3 E4
vBC1 ERC
DC model

GBE
vBE1
RBE GST GD GBC GCE GDB RCE GCCE

RE
GCGE RGE
G GCGC
vGE1
E

Figure 2. Network representation of the elaborated dynamic model of the IGBT.

Figure 2. Network representation of the elaborated dynamic model of the IGBT.
In the dc model of the IGBT, drain current of the internal MOS structure is represented by two
In Figure 2, electronic components describing dc characteristics of the IGBT are marked with
controlled current sources: GD describing channel current of the MOS transistor and GST modelling the
yellow colour and labelled as a dc model. In turn, controlled current sources GCGE, GCCE and GCGC
sub-threshold component of this current. To compute the values of currents and voltages in the model
model currents flowing through internal capacitances CGE, CCE and CGC, respectively, of the
of the internal MOS structure, auxiliary controlled voltage sources (E1 , E2 , E3 and E4 ) are indispensable.
transistor. In analytical formulas describing the considered controlled current sources influence of
The controlled current source GBE represents current flowing between the base and the emitter
temperature on the value of the mentioned capacitances is taken into account.
of the bipolar transistor contained in the structure of the modelled transistor. In turn, the controlled
In the dc model of the IGBT, drain current of the internal MOS structure is represented by two
current source GBC describes current flowing between the base and the collector of the bipolar transistor
controlled current sources: GD describing channel current of the MOS transistor and GST modelling
contained in the modelled IGBT.
the sub-threshold component of this current. To compute the values of currents and voltages in the
The controlled current source GCE models the main current of the IGBT. The controlled current
model of the internal MOS structure, auxiliary controlled voltage sources (E1, E2, E3 and E4) are
source GDB models dc characteristic of the diode. All the equations used to describe all the mentioned
indispensable.
controlled current sources are described and discussed in paper [16].
The controlled current source GBE represents current flowing between the base and the emitter
In order to model electric inertia of the IGBT controlled current sources GCGE , GCCE and GCGC
of the bipolar transistor contained in the structure of the modelled transistor. In turn, the controlled
are used. The mentioned current sources model current flowing through parasitic capacitances of
current source GBC describes current flowing between the base and the collector of the bipolar
the transistor: CGE , CCE and CGC , respectively. These currents are described with formulas presented
transistor contained in the modelled IGBT.
below. Capacitance between the collector and the emitter is described by formula of the form analogous
The controlled current source GCE models the main current of the IGBT. The controlled current
to formula describing p-n junction capacitance. Because this junction does not rapidly change into
source GDB models dc characteristic of the diode. All the equations used to describe all the mentioned
the forward mode, in the equation describing this capacitance the diffusive component is omitted,
controlled current sources are described and discussed in paper [16].
but influence of temperature on this capacitance is described by following formula:
In order to model electric inertia of the IGBT controlled current sources GCGE, GCCE and GCGC are
used. The mentioned current sources model current!flowing −M j ·(1+r·(through
T j −T0 )) parasitic capacitances of the
VCE
CCE = CCE0 · These
transistor: CGE, CCE and CGC, respectively. 1 + currents are described with formulas presented (1)
Vj
below. Capacitance between the collector and the emitter is described by formula of the form
analogous
where to formula
VCE marks describing
the collector p-n voltage,
emitter junction Ccapacitance. Because this junction does not rapidly
CE0 —output capacitance of the IGBT at zero voltage
change into the forward mode, in the equation describing this
on the diode, Vj —built-in potential of reverse diode, Mj —parameter capacitance the diffusive
describing component
the doping profile of
is omitted, but influence of temperature on this capacitance is described by following formula:
the junction, r—the temperature coefficient of parameter Mj , Tj —internal temperature of the IGBT,
T0 —reference temperature. − M j ⋅(1+ r ⋅(T j −T0 ))
 of V 

Capacitance between the gate and the emitter the
C CE = C CE 0 ⋅ 1 +
CE 
transistor is described by the following spline:
(1)
 V j 
 
CGE = CGE0 · w + x · T j − T0 +

< VGEminemitter

where VCE marks
 0 if VtheGEcollector + VC1Evoltage, CCE0—output capacitance of the IGBT at zero voltage

 C0x · k1 · (CG1 · VGC1 + CG2 ) i f VGEmin + VC1E < VGE ≤ VGEmax + VC1E
on the diode, Vj—built-in potential of reverse diode, Mj—parameter describing the doping profile(2) of




+
the junction,
 r—the
C i f
0x  GEV >
temperature
V GEmaxcoefficient
+ V C1E andofV C1E <
parameter
0 M j , Tj —internal temperature of the IGBT,

 2
T0—reference
 Ctemperature.
   V
i f VGE > VGEmax + VC1E and VC1E ≥ 0
 GC1
0x · u · T j − T0 + 0.75 · 2·VGE +VC1E


Capacitance between the gate and the emitter of the transistor is described by the following
spline:
  (2)
+ C 0 x if VGE > VGE max + VC 1 E and VC 1 E < 0
    
2

C 0 x ⋅ u ⋅ (T j − T0 ) + 0.75 ⋅  VGC 1

 2 ⋅ V + V   if VGE > VGE max + VC 1 E and VC 1 E ≥ 0
   C1E  
  GE

Energies 2019, 12, 1894 4 of 12
where Cox is capacitance dependent on thickness of the layer of oxide under the gate tOX, w—width of
the channel of the MOS structure, CGE0—capacitance per unit of channel widths between the gate and
the emitter,
where C0x is Vcapacitance
GEmax, VGEmindependent
, CG1, CG2, x,on
u thickness
and k1—otherof theparameters of the
layer of oxide model,
under whereas
the gate tOX , V GE and VC1E
w—width of
are channel
the voltagesof marked
the MOS in Figure 2. CGE0 —capacitance per unit of channel widths between the gate and
structure,
Capacitance
the emitter, VGEmax C,oxVoccurring
GEmin , CG1in
, CEquation (2) is
G2 , x, u and given byparameters
k1 —other formula of ofthethe
form [8,27]:
model, whereas VGE and
VC1E are voltages marked in Figure 2. ε 0 ⋅ ε ox ⋅ L ⋅ w
Capacitance Cox occurring in Equation (2)=is given by formula of the form [8,27]:
Cox (3)
tOX
ε0 · εox · L · w
Coxof=the MOS structure,
where L denotes the length of the channel t OX
ε0 (3)
is dielectric permeability of free
air, and ε ox relative dielectric permeability of silicon oxide.
where L denotes the length of the channel of the MOS structure, ε0 is dielectric permeability of free air,
and εCapacitance between the gate and the collector is described by the dependence of the form:
ox relative dielectric permeability of silicon oxide.
Capacitance betweenthe C1 ⋅gate
w ifand < Vcollector
VGC1the GC min + e ⋅ T j − T0( )
is described by the dependence of the form:
i ⋅ q   −M +n⋅(T −T )
CGC = C2 ⋅ C  C+1 ·w i f VGC1 < VGCmin + e · T j −VT0  j 2 j 0
[ ]

(4)
CGC = C2 · k·T +
T jh  CGDO + y ⋅ (T j −
iC ·q k ⋅

iT0 ) ⋅w ⋅ 1V+ −M j2+n·(T j −T0 ) if VGC1 ≥ VGC min + e ⋅(T j − T0)
 C1 E 
(4)
j  + y · T j − T0 · w · 1 + V jC 
 CGD0

 C1E V i f VGC1 ≥ VGCmin + e · T j − T0
jC

where C
where CGD0 isiscapacitance
capacitanceper perthe theunit
unit of
of channel
channel width
width between
between the
the gate
gate and
and the
the drain
drain on
on the
the unit of
unit of
GD0
the channel
channel width,
width, CC1,, CC2,, y,
y, e,e, n,
n,VVGCmin—other parameters of the model, Mj2—parameter describing
the 1 2 GCmin —other parameters of the model, Mj2 —parameter describing
the doping profile of this junction, V jC—potential of the base-emitter junction, q—electron charge
the doping profile of this junction, VjC —potential of the base-emitter junction, q—electron charge
k—the Boltzmann
k—the Boltzmann constant,
constant, iiC—collector current.
C —collector current.
In practice,
In practice, inin order
order to to model
modeleach eachofofthese
thesecapacitances,
capacitances,the
theuse
useofofaasubcircuit
subcircuitshown
shownininFigure
Figure3
3 is needed.
is needed.

Figure 3.
Figure Manner of
3. Manner of modelling
modelling internal
internal capacitances
capacitances of
of the
the transistor.
transistor.

This subcircuit consists of linear capacitor C1 of the fixed value of capacitance, voltage source VC1
This subcircuit consists of linear capacitor C1 of the fixed value of capacitance, voltage source
of the zero value and the controlled current source GC1 . The voltage source VC1 is used to monitor the
VC1 of the zero value and the controlled current source GC1. The voltage source VC1 is used to monitor
value of current iC1 , which is proportional to time derivatives of voltage on the current source GC1 and
the value of current iC1, which is proportional to time derivatives of voltage on the current source GC1
on the capacitor C1 . The current flowing through the controlled current source GC1 modelling parasitic
and on the capacitor C1. The current flowing through the controlled current source GC1 modelling
capacitance CX is given by the following formula:
parasitic capacitance CX is given by the following formula:
Cx − C1
IGC1 = · iC1 (5)
C1

In the presented dynamic model of the IGBT output currents of the considered controlled current
source (GCCE , GCGE and GCGC ) describing current flowing through parasitic capacitances of the IGBT
are described by Equation (5), in which capacitance Cx is equal to the appropriate capacitances described
with Equations (1)–(4).
 In the presented measurement set-up, voltage source VCC feeds the collector of the investigated
device. The control signal is generated by the function generator and is amplified by the driver
MCP1305. Resistor RL limits collector current and resistor RG limits the maximum current of the gate
of the tested IGBT. In the measurement set-up the oscilloscope Rigol DS1052E, the current probe
Energies 2019, 12,
Tektronix TCPA1894 300, the feeder NDN of the type DF1760SL10A and the functional generator5of of the
12

type NDN JC5603P are used. The case temperature of the investigated device is measured by the
pyrometer Optex PT-3S. The band of the applied oscilloscope is 50 MHz, and the current probe - 100
3. Results of Computations and Measurements
MHz. The applied driver is characterised with the maximum output current of 4.5 A and with the
In orderoutput
maximum to verify usefulness
voltage of the to
amounting worked out dynamic
18 V. During IGBT model
measurements themany computations
investigated andis
transistor
measurements of waveforms
situated in the thermostat. of collector current while switching-on and switching-off this device
were performed. Measurements were realised in the measurement set-up shown in Figure 4.

Current probe

IC
Oscilloscope

RL

DUT
RG VCC
driver

thermostat
VGEN

Figure 4. Diagram of a set-up to measure waveforms of voltage and currents of the IGBT while switching.
Figure 4. Diagram of a set-up to measure waveforms of voltage and currents of the IGBT while
Inswitching.
the presented measurement set-up, voltage source VCC feeds the collector of the investigated
device. The control signal is generated by the function generator and is amplified by the driver
MCP1305. Resistor Rwere
Investigations L limits collectorfor
performed current
type and
the resistor
IRG4PC40UDRG limits the maximum
transistor current of the
[28] manufactured by
gate of the tested IGBT. In the measurement set-up the oscilloscope Rigol DS1052E,
International Rectifier company. During measurements this transistor was screwed to a large the current probe
Tektronix
aluminium TCPA 300, the situated
heat-sink feeder NDN of the
in the type DF1760SL10A
thermostat. The gate and the functional
of this transistor generator of the type
was controlled by a
NDN JC5603Ppulses
rectangular are used. The
train. Thecase temperature
amplitude of the
of this investigated
signal was equal device
to 15isV,measured
whereas by its the pyrometer
frequency was
Optex PT-3S. The band of the applied oscilloscope is 50 MHz, and the current probe
equal to 20 kHz. Resistor RG of resistance equal to 210 Ω was connected in series with the gate of the −100 MHz.
The applied driver
transistor. In orderis characterised
to minimisewith the maximum
influence output current
of a self-heating of 4.5 A andon
phenomenon withthetheinvestigated
maximum
output voltage
waveforms, allamounting to 18 V. presented
the measurements During measurements
in this sectionthe investigated
were obtained justtransistor is situated inor
after switching-on
the thermostat.the control signal.
switching-off
Investigations were performed
In Figure 5 influence for type
of temperature themeasured
on the IRG4PC40UD transistor
waveforms [28] manufactured
of collector current obtained by
International Rectifier company. During measurements this transistor was screwed
at selected temperature values in the range from 21 to 114 °C is shown. Such a range of to a large aluminium
heat-sink situated
investigations wasin selected
the thermostat. Thetaking
arbitrarily gate ofinto
thisaccount
transistor wasreasons.
three controlled by a rectangular
Firstly, the lowest valuepulsesof
train. The amplitude of this signal was equal to 15 V, whereas its frequency was equal to 20 kHz.
Resistor RG of resistance equal to 210 Ω was connected in series with the gate of the transistor.
In order to minimise influence of a self-heating phenomenon on the investigated waveforms, all the
measurements presented in this section were obtained just after switching-on or switching-off the
control signal.
In Figure 5 influence of temperature on the measured waveforms of collector current obtained at
selected temperature values in the range from 21 to 114 ◦ C is shown. Such a range of investigations
was selected arbitrarily taking into account three reasons. Firstly, the lowest value of temperature
should be equal to typical room temperature. Secondly, the highest value of temperature must be
lower than the maximum allowable temperature of operation of the considered transistor. Thirdly,
differences between the highest and lowest temperature should be possibly big to visibly illustrate
influence of temperature on dynamic properties of the tested transistor.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13
temperature should be equal to typical room temperature. Secondly, the highest value of
temperature
temperaturemust be lower
should than the
be equal to maximum allowable
typical room temperature
temperature. of operation
Secondly, of the considered
the highest value of
transistor.
temperature Thirdly,
must bedifferences
lower than between the highest
the maximum and lowest
allowable temperature
temperature shouldofbe
of operation possibly
the big
considered
to visibly
transistor.
Energies
illustrate
Thirdly,
2019, 12, 1894
influence of temperature on dynamic properties of the tested transistor.
differences between the highest and lowest temperature should be possibly 6 ofbig
12
to visibly0.7illustrate influence of temperature on dynamic properties of the tested transistor.
a) 0.7
b)
0.6
0.7 VCC = 65.5 V
a) 0.6
0.7 RL = 100 Ω
b)
0.5
0.6 0.5
21oC VCC = 65.5 V
0.6
21oC RL = 100 Ω
0.4
0.5 VCC = 65.5 V 0.4
114oC 0.5 o
71oCC
21
IC [A]IC [A]

RL = 100 Ω

IC [A] IC [A]
0.3
0.4 21oC 0.3
0.4 114oC
114oC 71oC VCC = 65.5 V
RL = 100 Ω 0.2 71oC
0.2
0.3 0.3 114oC
71oC 0.1
0.1
0.2 0.2
0
0 0.1
0.1
-0.1
-0.10 0
0 1 2 3 4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 t [μs]
t[μs] -0.1
-0.1 0 1 2 3 4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 t [μs]
t[μs]
Figure 5. Measured waveforms of collector current of the considered transistor in (a) switching-on
and (b)5.switching-off
Figure
Figure 5.Measured the IGBT at
Measuredwaveforms
waveforms different
ofof
collector values
current
collector of
of temperature.
current the considered
of the transistor
considered in (a)inswitching-on
transistor and
(a) switching-on
(b) switching-off the IGBT at different values of temperature.
and (b) switching-off the IGBT at different values of temperature.
During measurements, the collector circuit of the tested IGBT was fed from the source VCC of
During
constant
Duringvoltage measurements,
equal to 65.5
measurements, the
theVcollector
Resistor circuit
collector Rcircuit of
ofthe
thetested
L of resistance 100 IGBT
tested ΩIGBT was
whichwaswas fed from
fromthe
fedconnected thesource
between
source VV CC of
this
CC of
constant
source andvoltage
the equal
collector toof65.5
the V Resistor
tested R
transistor.
L of resistance
As it is 100
visible,
constant voltage equal to 65.5 V Resistor RL of resistance 100 Ω which was connected between this Ω which
temperature was connected
very weakly between this
influences
source
sourceand
waveforms andthe Ithe
C(t)collector of
ofthethetested
while switching-on,
collector testedtransistor.
whereas As
Asititisisvisible,
transistor.influenced temperature
of temperature
visible, temperature onverythese
very weakly influences
waveforms
weakly was
influences
waveforms
strong
waveforms I (t)
whileICswitching while
C(t) while off.
switching-on,
In particular,
switching-on, whereas influenced
considerable
whereas influenced of
extension temperature
of the so-called
of temperature on these
on these waveforms
current tail couldwas
waveforms was
be
strong
observed whileat aswitching
temperature off. In
rise.particular,
The considerable
temperature rise extension
caused of the
acceleration
strong while switching off. In particular, considerable extension of the so-called current tail could be so-called
of the current
switching-on tail could be
process
observed
of
observed at
ataatemperature
the investigated transistor
temperature rise.byThe
rise. temperature
50 ns
The and a slowdown
temperature rise
risecausedof theacceleration
caused switching-off
acceleration of
ofthe
theswitching-on
process process
of this transistor
switching-on process
of
by the investigated
of almost transistor by 50 ns and a slowdown of the switching-off
500 ns. transistor by 50 ns and a slowdown of the switching-off process of this transistor
the investigated process of this transistor by
almost 500 500
Using
by almost ns.
the ns.presented in the previous section dynamic model of the IGBT, waveforms of voltages
Using
and currents
Using the the presented
ofpresented
the consideredin
inthetheprevious
device
previous section
during
section thedynamic
switching
dynamic model process
model of
ofthe
theatIGBT,
fixed waveforms
IGBT, values
waveforms of
ofvoltages
of temperature
voltages
and
were currents
computed. of the
The considered
results of device during
computations the switching
obtained using
and currents of the considered device during the switching process at fixed values of temperatureprocess
the at
authors’ fixednew values
model of temperature
are presented
were
in
were computed.
Figures 6–8 asThe
computed. redresults
The lines. They
results of
ofcomputations
are compared
computations obtained
with the
obtained using the
results
using theauthors’
of new
newmodel
measurements
authors’ model are
arepresented
(points) and the
presented
in Figures
results
in Figures 6–8 as
of computations red
6–8 as red lines.lines. They
obtained
They areare compared
by means
compared of twowith the
withpopular results
the results of
literaturemeasurements
models—the(points)
of measurements (points)
Hefnerand and the
modelthe
results
[27,29] of computations
built-in in the obtained
SPICE by
(black means
lines) of two
and popular
the model literature
results of computations obtained by means of two popular literature models—the Hefner model available models—the
at the Hefner
website of model [27,29]
International
built-in
[27,29] in
Rectifier the(blue
[15]
built-in SPICE (black
in lines).
the SPICE lines) and lines)
(black the modeland available
the model at available
the website at of
theInternational
website of Rectifier
International[15]
(blue lines).
The [15]
Rectifier considered
(blue lines).literature models were described in detail in paper [16]. Figure 6 shows
The
waveforms considered
of collector
The considered literatureliterature
current models
during were
models described
thewere
switching-off in detail
described inindetail
process paper
of the [16].
in Figure
considered
paper 6device
[16].shows
Figure waveforms
supplied
6 shows in
of
thecollector
identicalof
waveforms current
manner during
collector as in the
current switching-off
case considered
during process of the
in Figure 5.process
the switching-off considered
The results device
of theshown supplied
consideredin Figure in the identical
6a correspond
device supplied in
manner
to as in the
thetemperature
identical case considered
equal
manner astoin22the °C,casein Figure
whereas 5. The
the
considered inresults
results shown
Figure shown
5. The in in Figureshown
Figure
results 6b6acorrespond
correspond
in Figureto to6atemperature
correspond
equal to 114◦ C,
to 22
to temperature °C.whereas
equal tothe 22results shownthe
°C, whereas in Figure
results6bshown correspondin Figure to temperature
6b correspond equalto to 114 ◦ C.
temperature
equal to 114 °C.
a) 0.7 b) 0.7
T = 22oC
T = 114oC
a) 0.6
0.7
Hefner model 0.6
b) 0.7
T = 22oC
T = 114oC
0.5
0.6 0.5
Hefner model 0.6
Hefner model
0.4
0.5 0.4
0.5 new model
IC [A]IC [A]

IC [A] IC [A]

producer model Hefner model

0.3
0.4 0.3
0.4 new model
producer model
new model producer model
0.2
0.3 0.2
0.3
producer model
0.1
0.2 new model 0.1
0.2

0
0.1 0
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 t[μs] 0 t[μs]
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
t[μs] t[μs]
Figure 6. Computed
Figure 6. Computed and
andmeasured
measuredwaveforms
waveformsofofcollector
collectorcurrent
currentduring
duringthe switching-off
the process
switching-off at
process
temperature equal to (a) ◦
22measured
C °C
and ◦
(b)waveforms
114114C.°C. of collector current during the switching-off process
at temperature
Figure equal
6. Computed to
and(a) 22 and (b)
at temperature equal to (a) 22 °C and (b) 114 °C.
As it is visible, good agreement was obtained between the results of computations and
measurements at both the considered values of temperatures only for the authors’ model. For the
producer model [15], the switching-off process ran too quickly, especially for temperature T = 22 ◦ C.
In temperature equal to 114 ◦ C, essential improvement in accuracy of computations performed with
the described model within the range of current values below 300 mA could be observed. In turn,
Energies
Energies 2019,
2019, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 77 of
of 13
13

As
As it it is
is visible,
visible, good
good agreement
agreement was was obtained
obtained between
between the the results
results ofof computations
computations and and
measurements
measurements at both the considered values of temperatures only for the authors’ model.
at both the considered values of temperatures only for the authors’ model. For For the
the
producer
producer modelmodel [15],
[15], the
the switching-off
switching-off process
process ran ran too
too quickly,
quickly, especially
especially forfor temperature
temperature T T == 22
22 °C.
°C.
Energies
In 2019, 12, 1894
temperature equal to 114 °C, essential improvement in accuracy of computations performed 7 with
of 12
In temperature equal to 114 °C, essential improvement in accuracy of computations performed with
the
the described
described modelmodel within
within the
the range
range of of current
current values
values below
below 300
300 mA
mA could
could bebe observed.
observed. In In turn,
turn, the
the
results
results
the of
results computations
of ofcomputations
computations obtained
obtained
obtained with
with the
withthe use
theuse of the
useofofthe Hefner
the Hefner model
Hefner model were
model were characterised
characterised by
were characterised by the
by the
the
overlong switching-off
switching-off process.
overlong switching-off
overlong process. Similarly,
process. Similarly,as
Similarly, asasit
ititwas
was
was presented
presented
presented for dc
forfor
dc dccharacteristics
characteristics in
in paper
characteristics paper
in paper[16], this
[16],[16],
this
model
model
this modeldoes
does doesnot take
notnot
take
takeinto
into account
account
into account influence
influence
influence of
ofoftemperature
temperatureon
temperature onthe
on theshape
the shape of
shape of characteristics
of characteristics of
characteristics of the
of the
the
considered device.
considereddevice.
considered device.
Figure
Figure7 7shows
Figure 7 shows
shows waveforms
waveforms
waveforms of
of collector
of collector currentcurrent
collector current of
of the
the investigated
of the investigated IGBT duringIGBT
investigated IGBT during
during the
the switching-on the
switching-on
switching-on process
process for
for temperature
temperature ◦ equal
equal to
to 22
22 °C
°C
process for temperature equal to 22 C (Figure 7a) and 114 C (Figure 7b). (Figure
(Figure◦ 7a)
7a) and
and 114
114 °C
°C (Figure
(Figure 7b).
7b).
At temperature
At temperature
At temperature equal equal
equal to to 22
to 2222 ◦°C
°C good agreement
good agreement
C good agreement between between
between the the results
the results
results ofof measurements
of measurements
measurements and and
and
computations
computations was
was obtained
obtained for
for all
all the
the tested
tested models.
models. In
In contrast,
contrast, for
computations was obtained for all the tested models. In contrast, for temperature T = 114 C good
for temperature
temperature T
T == 114
114 ◦°C
°C good
good
agreement between
agreementbetween
agreement betweenthe the results
theresults
resultsof of computations
ofcomputations
computationsand and measurements
andmeasurements
measurementswas was obtained
wasobtained
obtainedwithwith the
withthe use
theuseuseofof the
ofthe
the
authors’ model,
authors’model,
authors’ model, andand acceptable
andacceptable agreement
acceptable agreement between
agreement between
between these these results
these results was
results was assured
was assured also
assuredalso by
alsoby the
bythe literature
theliterature
literature
models.
models. The
The producer
producer model
model is
is characterised
characterised by
by good
good accuracy
accuracy only
only
models. The producer model is characterised by good accuracy only within for values of collector within
within for
for values
values of
of collector
collector
current below
currentbelow
current below300 300 mA.
300mA.
mA.

a) 0.7 b) 0.7
b) 0.7 new
a) 0.7 producer new model
model
producer model
model
0.6 0.6
0.6
0.6 o
o
TT == 114
114oC C
TT == 22
22oCC 0.5 Hefner
0.5
0.5 Hefner
Hefner model
model 0.5 Hefner model
model producer
producer model
model
0.4 new 0.4
new model 0.4
[A]
0.4
[A]

model
IICC[A]
IICC[A]

0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3

0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2

0.1
0.1 0.1
0.1

00 00
00 0.5 11 1.5 22
0.5 tt [μs]
[μs] 1.5 00 0.5
0.5 11 1.5
1.5 22
tt [μs]
[μs]

Figure
Figure 7. Measured
7.Measured
Figure7. Measuredandand computed
andcomputed waveforms
computedwaveforms of
waveformsof collector
ofcollector current
collectorcurrent while
currentwhile switching-on
whileswitching-on at
switching-onat temperature
attemperature
temperature
equal
equal to (a) 22◦°C and (b) 114◦ °C.
equalto
to(a)
(a)22 C and
22 °C and(b)
(b)114
114 C.
°C.

Figure
Figure888illustrates
Figure illustrateswaveforms
illustrates waveforms of
waveforms ofcollector
of collector current
collector currentduring
current during the
during theswitching-on
the switching-on process
switching-on process (Figure
process (Figure 8a)
(Figure 8a)
8a)
and
and the
the switching-off
switching-off process
process (Figure
(Figure8b)
8b)of
of the
the tested
tested IGBT
IGBT operating
operating at
at room
room temperature
temperature
and the switching-off process (Figure 8b) of the tested IGBT operating at room temperature and load and
and load
load
resistance
resistanceRR
resistance RLLL equal
equal to
equal to 14.7 Ω.
to 14.7
14.7 Ω.
Ω.

a) 55
a) b) 5
5
producer b)
4.5
4.5 producer model
model 4.5
4.5 T = 22ooC
44 4
T = 22 C
o 4
3.5 TT == 22
22oCC
3.5 3.5
3.5
33 3 new model
new model Hefner model
3 Hefner model
[A]

[A]
ICIC[A]

Hefner
Hefner model
ICIC[A]

2.5
2.5 model 2.5
2.5 producer model
producer model
22 2
2
1.5 new
new model
model
1.5
1.5
1.5
11 1
1
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
0
00 0
0 1 2 3 4
00 11 22 33 44 0 1 2 3 4
t[μs]
t[μs]
tt [μs]
[μs]

Figure
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Measuredand
8. Measured
Measured andcomputed
and computedwaveforms
computed waveforms
waveforms ofof
of collector
collector
collector current
current
current while
while
while (a) (a)
(a) switching-on
switching-on
switching-on andand
and (b)
(b)
(b) switching-off
switching-off
switching-off at at R =
RLL ==L14.7
at R 14.7
14.7 Ω.
Ω. Ω.

Only
Only for aa new model good agreement between the results of measurements and computations
Only for
for a new
new model
model good
good agreement
agreement between
between thethe results
results of
of measurements
measurements and and computations
computations
was
was obtained. Computations performed with the use of both the literature models showed incorrectly
was obtained. Computations performed with the use of both the literature models
obtained. Computations performed with the use of both the literature models showed
showed
too short duration
incorrectly time of the switching-on process. In turn, the computed with the use ofwith
these models
incorrectly too
too short
short duration
duration time
time of
of the
the switching-on
switching-on process.
process. In
In turn,
turn, the
the computed
computed with thethe use
use of
of
waveform of collector current during the switching-off process showed too short duration time of this
process for the producer model and too long—for the Hefner model.
Comparing the results of measurements and computations obtained for different values of load
resistance (Figures 6a, 7a and 8), it is visible that at a higher value of this resistance both the considered
switching times are shorter than for a lower value of resistance RL .
Energies 2019, 12, 1894 8 of 12

Table 1 shows the values of times ton and toff computed with the use of three considered models
and measured values which correspond to different values of resistance RL and temperature. As one
can notice, in five out of six considered cases the value of the mentioned times was computed with
the use of the author0 s model. In the case of time toff computed at temperature 114 ◦ C and resistance
RL = 100 Ω the value of this time was obtained with the use of the producer model. However, as it is
visible in Figure 6b, this model does not describe exactly the whole course of collector current during
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
the switching-off process, so the accurately computed value of time toff results from good modelling
of the coordinates of only two points in the waveform IC (t) used in computing values of parameters
shown in this table. Table 1. Computed and measured values of times ton and toff.

ton[ns] and measured values of times ton and tofft.off[ns]

Table 1. Computed
RL[Ω] Ta[°C] Producer Hefner Authors’ Producer Hefner Authors’
Measured Measured
Model Model ton [ns] Model Model Modeltoff [ns]Model
R L [Ω]
100 Ta [◦ C]
22 525
Producer 794
Hefner 560
Authors’ 618 1736
Producer 2722
Hefner 1882
Authors’ 1880
Measured Measured
100 114 1033
Model 808
Model 460
Model 566 2312
Model 2725
Model 2243
Model 2370
14.7
100 22 22 542525 870
794 1072
560 1336
618 1295
1736 2592
2722 2460
1882 2236
1880
100 114 1033 808 460 566 2312 2725 2243 2370
14.7 22
As it visible 542 presented
in the 870 comparison
1072 of1336
the results1295 2592
of computations 2460 2236
and measurements
(Table 1), only the authors’ model assured good accuracy. The computed by means of both literature
models
As itwaveforms
visible in theof collectorcomparison
presented current while
of theswitching significantly and
results of computations differ from the results
measurements of
(Table 1),
measurements.
only the authors’The proposed
model assuredmodel
goodisaccuracy.
correct overThea computed
wide rangeby of means
changes ofofboth
temperature
literatureand load
models
resistance. of collector current while switching significantly differ from the results of measurements.
waveforms
As it canmodel
The proposed be observed,
is correctthe literature
over models
a wide range of assured
changes ofgood agreement
temperature andbetween the results of
load resistance.
computations
As it can be and measurements
observed, only models
the literature in the assured
case of good
the process
agreementof between
switching-on at room
the results of
temperature. and
computations In other operating only
measurements conditions visible
in the case differences
of the between
process of the results
switching-on at roomof computations
temperature.
and
In measurements
other were observed.
operating conditions In turn, between
visible differences the authors’ model
the results correctly described
of computations influence of
and measurements
temperature
were observed.on In waveforms of collector
turn, the authors’ current both
model correctly while
described switching-on
influence and switching-off
of temperature on waveforms the
transistor.
of collector current both while switching-on and switching-off the transistor.
Using the
Using the authors’
authors’ model,
model,waveforms
waveformsofofthe collector
the current
collector currentwhile switching-off
while switching-off (Figure 9) and
(Figure 9)
switching-on
and switching-on (Figure 10) 10)
(Figure thetheconsidered
considered transistor
transistorarearecomputed
computedand and the
the obtained results of
obtained results of
computationsare
computations arecompared
comparedto tothe
theresults
resultsofofmeasurements.
measurements.
InFigure
In Figure99ititisisvisible
visiblethat
thatthe
thetime
timeof ofswitching-off
switching-offincreases
increasestogether
togetherwith
withan anincrease
increase ofofthe
the
switchedcurrent.
switched current. In
In the
theinvestigated
investigatedrangerangeofofcurrent
currentiiCC values,
values, time
time of
of switching-off
switching-off increases
increasesfrom
from
1.22µs
1.22 μstoto2.34
2.34
µs.μs. This
This increase
increase is linear
is linear and time
and time of switching-off
of switching-off increases
increases with anwith an increase
increase of current of
current
with the with
slopethe slope
equal equal to
to about 94 about
ns/A. 94 ns/A.

6
VCC = 65.5 V
5
RL = 14.7 Ω Ta = 21oC
4
IC[A]

3 RL = 25 Ω

1 RL = 100 Ω

0
0 1 2 3 4
t[μs]

Figure9.9. Computed
Figure Computed and
and measured
measuredwaveforms
waveformsof
ofcurrent
currentiC
iC while
while switching-off
switching-offthe
thetransistor.
transistor.
 0
0 1 2 3 4
t[μs]

Figure 9. Computed and measured waveforms of current iC while switching-off the transistor.
Energies 2019, 12, 1894 9 of 12

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Energies Figure
2019, 12,10.
Figure x10.
FOR PEER REVIEW
Computed
Computedand
andmeasured
measuredwaveforms
waveformsofofcurrent
currentiCiCwhile
whileswitching-on
switching-onthe transistor. 10 of 13
thetransistor.
In Figure 10 it is visible that the on-time increases together with an increase of the switched
current.
In In the10
In Figure
Figure investigated
10 visiblerange
ititisisvisible that of
thatthethevalues
on-time
on-timeof increases
currents
increasesitogether
, the on-time
Ctogether with increases
with anan increasefrom
increase of 620
of the ns to 1.69
theswitched
switched
current. In the investigated range of values of currentsC iC, the on-time increases from 620 ns to This
μs. This
current. Inincrease
the is linear,
investigated and
range the
of on-time
values of increases
currents i with
, the an increase
on-time of
increasescurrent
from of
620186
ns ns/A.
to 1.69 µs.
1.69
increase
This
μs. increase
This is double
increase iscompared
is linear, and the
linear, and to the case
on-time of switching-off.
increases
on-time with anwith
increases increase of current
an increase of of 186 ns/A.
current of 186This increase
ns/A. This
From
isincrease
double the point
compared
is double toofthe
comparedview
case of switched-mode
toof switching-off.
the electronic circuits energy losses during the switching
case of switching-off.
process
From
From are
theessential.
the point
pointof ofIn Figures
view
view of 11 and 12 theelectronic
ofswitched-mode
switched-mode computed and measured
electroniccircuits
circuits energy waveforms
energylosses
losses during
during ofthepower
the losses
switching
switching
in the investigated
process
process are
areessential.
essential. transistor
InInFigures
Figuresat11
two
11and different
and1212the
the values
computed
computedof temperature
andand measured arewaveforms
measured presented.
waveforms ofFigure
power
of power11losses
shows ina
losses
theshift between the maxima of courses p(t) obtained while switching-off
in the investigated transistor at two different values of temperature are presented. Figure 11 showsaa
investigated transistor at two different values of temperature are presented. in the
Figure 11considered
shows
temperatures,
shift
shift between
between whereas
the maxima
the the
maxima corresponding
of courses waveforms
p(t) obtained
of courses p(t) p(t)while
while switching-off
while switching-off
obtained switching-on shown
in the considered
in the inconsidered
Figure 12
temperatures,
differs between
whereas
temperatures, one another
the corresponding
whereas imperceptibly.
thewaveforms
corresponding p(t) while switching-on
waveforms p(t) whileshown in Figure 12 shown
switching-on differs between
in Figureone 12
another imperceptibly.
differs between one another imperceptibly.

Ta = 22oC
Ta = 22oC
Ta = 114oC
Ta = 114oC

Figure 11. Measured and computed waveforms of power dissipated in the transistor while
switching-on.
Figure
Figure 11.11.Measured
Measuredandand computed
computed waveforms
waveforms ofdissipated
of power power dissipated in the
in the transistor transistor
while while
switching-on.
switching-on.

Ta = 22oC
Ta = 22oC
Ta = 114oC
Ta = 114oC

Figure12.12.
Figure Measured
Measured and computed
and computed waveforms
waveforms of powerofdissipated
power dissipated in the
in the transistor transistor
while while
switching-off.
switching-off.
Figure 12. Measured and computed waveforms of power dissipated in the transistor while
In Figure 13 the computed and measured waveforms of gate-emitter voltage while charging the
switching-off.
gate ofInthe
Figure 13 the computed
investigated transistorand
are measured
presented.waveforms of gate-emitter
These waveforms voltage and
were measured while chargingfor
computed the
gate In
of Figure
collector the
current = 20
investigated
13ICthe Atransistor
computed aremeasured
and voltage
and presented.
feeding the These
collector
waveforms Vof
CC =
waveforms 400 were
V.
gate-emitter measured
Current of
voltage and
the computed
gate
while during
charging for
the
the
collector
test current
amounted to I
100 =
mA.20 A
Asand
it is voltage
visible, feeding
the the
results ofcollector V
computations = 400
and V. Current
measurements
gate of the investigated transistor are presented. These waveforms were measured and computed for
C CC of the
are gate during
convergent
the test amounted
collector current IC =to20100 mA.voltage
A and As it isfeeding
visible,the
thecollector
results of computations
VCC and of
= 400 V. Current measurements
the gate duringare
convergent and satisfactory; the differences between them do not exceed
the test amounted to 100 mA. As it is visible, the results of computations and measurements are 10%. This confirms
correctness of
convergent andthesatisfactory;
description oftheinput capacitance
differences of the them
between considered
do not transistor.
exceed 10%. This confirms
correctness of the description of input capacitance of the considered transistor.
 Figure 12. Measured and computed waveforms of power dissipated in the transistor while
switching-off.

In Figure 13 the computed and measured waveforms of gate-emitter voltage while charging the
gate of the investigated transistor are presented. These waveforms were measured and computed for
Energies 2019, 12, 1894 10 of 12
collector current IC = 20 A and voltage feeding the collector VCC = 400 V. Current of the gate during
the test amounted to 100 mA. As it is visible, the results of computations and measurements are
convergent
and and the
satisfactory; satisfactory;
differencesthe differences
between them between them10%.
do not exceed do not
Thisexceed
confirms10%. This confirms
correctness of the
correctness of input
description the description
capacitanceof of
input
the capacitance of the considered transistor.
considered transistor.

Figure 13. Computed and measured waveforms of gate-emitter voltage while charging the gate of
the transistor.

4. Conclusions
In this article a new form of the IGBT model dedicated for the SPICE software is proposed.
This model takes into account influence of temperature on dynamic properties of the considered
device. In the description of the proposed model new dependences of device parasitic capacitances
on temperature and on the co-ordinates of the device operating point are included in the form of
analytical formulas.
The usefulness of the elaborated model is verified for the transistor operating as a switch.
Waveforms of collector current are computed with the use of the new model and two models given
in the literature. Computations are performed at different values of temperature and load resistance.
The results of computations are compared to the results of measurements. The waveforms of collector
current while switching-on and switching-off obtained using the new model fit well the results of
measurements in the whole considered range of changes of temperature and load resistance. In contrast,
the results of computations obtained using the considered literature models visibly differ from results
of measurements. The difference increase while load resistance decreases.
The performed computations and measurements prove correctness of the new model. It is also
visible that temperature strongly influences the value of off-time, but its influence on on-time could
be omitted. Moreover, it is also shown that the new model properly describes waveform of power
dissipated in the investigated transistor while it is being switched. Correctness of the used description
of the transistor input capacitance prove good agreement between the computed and measured
waveforms of gate-emitter voltage while charging the gate.
The disadvantage of the proposed model is a complicated description of internal capacitances
making use of splines. It could result in some problems with convergence of the analysis performed
for a long time—equal to hundreds or thousands of periods of the signal controlling the gate of the
considered transistor.
The presented dynamic model of the IGBT could be useful for designers of power electronics
circuits, making possible realisation of more accurate computer simulation of such circuits. This model
could be also useful in didactics to present influence of temperature changes on switching-on and
switching-off processes in power converters including IGBTs.
As it is commonly known, temperature of the IGBT could change as a result of self-heating
phenomena [17]. Therefore, in further investigations the authors will elaborate an electrothermal
model of the IGBT on the basis of the dynamic model presented in this article.

Author Contributions: The measurements presented in this manuscript and their evaluation was carried out
by P.G. Manuscript was prepared and the equations were formulated by P.G. and K.G. Finally, K.G. supervised
the research.
Energies 2019, 12, 1894 11 of 12

Funding: The scientific work was financed with the Polish science budget resources in the years 2017–2021, as the
investigation project within the framework of the program “Diamentowy Grant”. The project was financed within
the program of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education called “Regionalna Inicjatywa Doskonałości” in the
years 2019–2022, the project number is 006/RID/2018/19, the sum of financing is 11 870 000 PLN.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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