Activity 1
1. Fill a small glass jar all the way to the top with water.
2. What do you think would happen if you were to add
twenty-five centavo coins to it?
3. Try adding coins one at a time. What happens to the
water in the cup?
4. How many coins can you add without causing the
water to overflow?
Activity 2
1. Take some water with a straw and put a few drops on
plastic sheet.
(a) What is the shape of the drop?
(b) Move a drop around with your straw. Does the drop
change?
2. Move one of the drops close to another one with
your straw. What happens when two drops meet?
3. Put a small amount of one of the solids (salt, pepper,
sugar, talcum powder) on one of the drops. Does the
shape change?
4. Try this again with the other solids.
Activity 3
1. Put some water in your cup.
2. Sprinkle black pepper all over the surface. What does
the pepper do? Record your observations.
3. Add a drop of dish soap to the water. What does the
pepper do? Record your observations.
The Unique Properties of Water
• Water is a good solvent.
A unique property of water is its ability to dissolve a
large variety of chemical substances. It dissolves salts
and other ionic compounds, as well as polar covalent
compounds such as alcohols and organic substances
that are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.
Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide will dissolve in
water meaning that some animals do not need to
breathe air in order to respire but they must still be able
to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide. Water is
sometimes called the universal solvent because it can
dissolve so many things.
Plants are able to absorb nutrient ions dissolved in
water.
Issues can be caused however by the ease of which
pollutants from farming and industrial plants are
dissolved.
• Water has a high specific heat.
Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by 1oC. The specific heat of water is 1
calorie/g-oC (4.18 J/g-oC), one of the highest for many
liquids.
Water can absorb a large amount of heat even if its
temperature rises only slightly. To raise the
temperature of water, the intermolecular hydrogen
bonds should break. The converse is also true; water
can give off much heat with only a slight decrease in its
temperature. This allows large bodies of water to help
moderate the temperature on earth.
Property to changing climate and the capacity of bodies
of water to act as temperature buffer:
In summer months this means that water must absorb a
great deal of energy in the form of heat from the
sun in order for the temperature to increase. Since most
bodies of water are large enough not to be significantly
affected by the heat from the sun, water provides an
almost constant temperature for the plants and animals
living there.
It takes about 4.5 times greater amount of energy to
heat up water than an equal amount of land.
Hence, large bodies of water heat up and cool down
more slowly than adjacent land masses.
• The boiling point of water unusually high.
Many compounds similar in mass to water have much
lower boiling points. The strong intermolecular forces in
water allow it to be a liquid at a large range of
temperatures.
In the plot on the top, the broken lines direct one to the
estimated boiling points of HF, H2O and NH3 if H-
bonding was not present in these three
substances.
Figure 14. Boiling points of Group 14-17 hydrides. The dotted lines
direct to the boiling points of H2O, HF, and NH3 in the absence of H-
bonding.
Small water bodies drying up:
Small water bodies like ponds are at risk of drying up in
the summer. But since the amount of energy
required to vaporize or evaporate water is so high, this
is not expected to happen quickly.
• Solid water is less dense, and in fact floats on liquid
water.
Unlike all other liquids, the molecules in solid water are
actually farther apart than they are in liquid water.
When solid water forms, the hydrogen bonds result in a
very open structure with unoccupied spaces, causing
1
the solid to occupy a larger volume than the liquid. This
makes ice less dense than liquid water, causing ice to
float on water.

Figure 15. The structure of ice.

The survival of aquatic organisms in temperate

countries: Table 5. Formula Masses and Boiling Points for Selected Compounds.
Water bodies freeze from the top down. If ice is not
able to float, the water bodies would freeze from top
to bottom, and aquatic life will be killed. Because ice
floats, aquatic organisms survive under the surface, Intermolecular Forces of
which remain liquid. The ice surface also acts as an
insulating layer protecting the water beneath from
Liquids and Solids; Solids and
further freezing, and maintains a temperature adequate their Properties
for survival. Without this feature, there would be no
aquatic life in temperate and Polar Regions. Fluid
A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
• Why is it necessary for birds to have a
Crystal or crystalline solid
natural coat of wax on their feathers?
• Why is the application of wax in surfaces A solid material whose components, such as atoms,
considered as a protection of the molecules or ions, are arranged in a highly
surface? ordered microscopic structure.
• How does the use of soap and
detergents affect the surface tension of
water?
Ion
An atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or
At 50. ° C the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, negative charge.
acetic acid is 0.08 atm, water is 0.12 atm, and acetone is
0.84 atm. Ionic crystal
A. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates A solid that consists of positively and negatively charged
of evaporation. ions held together by electrostatic
B. Arrange these substances in order of increasing forces.
boiling point temperature.
C. Arrange these substances in order of increasing Electrostatic bonding
intermolecular forces. The attraction between oppositely charged ions in a
chemical compound.

Ionic bond
The electrostatic force that holds ions together in an
ionic compound.

Network solid or covalent network crystal

A solid that may be a chemical compound (or element)
in which atoms are bonded by covalent bonds in a
continuous network extending throughout the material.

Molecular crystal
A solid composed of molecules held together by van der
Waals forces (dispersion force, dipoledipole
attraction, hydrogen bonding).
2
Covalent bond ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate (CuSO4),
A bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are diamond, graphite, and sugar (C12H22O11). The ordered
shared by two atoms. arrangement of their units maximizes the space they
occupy and are essentially incompressible.
Dispersion forces Amorphous solids have a random orientation of
Interactions that are the result from temporary dipole particles. Examples of amorphous solids are glass,
moments induced in ordinarily nonpolar plastic, coal, and rubber. They are considered super-
molecules. cooled liquids where molecules are arranged in a
random
Dipole-dipole forces manner similar to the liquid state.
Attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially
that possess permanent dipole prepared solids are crystalline. Minerals, sand, clay,
moments). limestone, metals, alloys, carbon (diamond and
graphite), salts (e.g. NaCl and MgSO4), all have
Hydrogen bond crystalline
A special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the structures. They have structures formed by repeating
hydrogen atom in a polar bond such as N‒H, three dimensional patterns of atoms, ions, or
molecules.
O‒H, or F‒H, and any of the electronegative atoms O, N,
The repetition of structural units of the substance over
or F. long atomic distances is referred to as long-range order.
Amorphous solids (e.g. glass), like liquids, do not have
Crystal lattice long range order, but may have a limited,
The regular repeating structure of a crystalline solid. localized order in their structures.

Unit cell
The smallest subunit of a crystal lattice that can be
repeated over and over to make the entire crystal.
What is a solid?
How is a solid described in terms of the Kinetic
Molecular Theory?
a. Average kinetic energy Figure 1. Crystalline and amorphous quartz
b. Distance among particles
c. Arrangement/order of particles 2. Behavior when heated
d. Attractive forces between particles The presence or absence of long-range order in the
Describe the properties of a solid as a result of the structure of solids results in a
behavior of its particles: difference in the behavior of the solid when heated.
a. Volume/Shape The structures of crystalline solids are built from
b. Density repeating units called crystal lattices.
c. Compressibility The surroundings of particles in the structure are
d. Motion of molecules uniform, and the attractive forces
e. Rate of diffusion experienced by the particles are of similar types and
strength. These attractive forces
are broken by the same amount of energy, and thus,
A. What are the two general types of solids? crystals become liquids at a
What features can be used to distinguish a crystalline specific temperature (i.e. the melting point). At this
solid from an amorphous solid? temperature, physical properties of
Solids can be categorized into two groups: the the crystalline solids change sharply.
crystalline solids and the amorphous solids. The
differences in properties of these two groups of solids
arise from the presence or absence of long range order
of
arrangements of the particles in the solid.
1. Arrangement of particles
The components of a solid can be arranged in two
general ways: they can form a regular repeating
Figure 2. Examples of crystalline solids
three-dimensional structure called a crystal lattice, thus
Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are
producing a crystalline solid, or they can aggregate with
heated. They tend to melt over a wide range of
no particular long range order, and form an amorphous
temperature. This behavior is a result of the variation in
solid (from the Greek ámorphos, meaning
the arrangement of particles in their structures, causing
“shapeless”).
some parts of the solid to melt ahead of other
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric
parts.
patterns or lattices. Examples of crystalline solids are
3

Figure 3. Examples of noncrystalline solids
Properties of Liquid and Intermolecular Forces
The properties of liquids that were observed are
consequences of the interactions of particles that
make up the liquid.
B. What is the distinguishing feature of crystalline
solids? How are the structures of crystals
determined?
The Crystal Lattice
Crystalline solids are characterized by a regular
repeating structure called the crystal lattice.
• Cane stalks are shredded and squeezed to extract its natural juice,
which is boiled unt i l i t thi c kens and mol a s ses -
rich sugar crystals begin to settle. The molasses-rich crystals are sent
to a rapidly spinning centrifuge to remove molasses and leave pure,
naturally white sugar crystals. The sugar crystals are then dried.
• http://www.sugar.org/how-we-get-sugar/
• Amethyst is formed in silica-rich liquids deposited in gas cavities of
lava that occur in crystalline masses. Such cavities occur in the
earth's crust for several reasons such as gas bubbling in circular
cavities or filling of veins.
• academic.emporia.edu/abersusa/go336/has/
• Uric acid is the byproduct of protein digestion, and among healthy
individuals, it is removed from the blood stream and excreted by the
kidneys. Excess uric acid is deposited in the joints in crystal form
and creates a painful arthritic condition known as gout.
• http://www.livestrong.com/article/31308-uric-acid-formed/
• Snow is formed when temperatures are low and there is moisture -
in the form of tiny ice crystals - in the atmosphere.
When these tiny ice crystals collide they stick together in clouds to
become snowflakes. If enough ice crystals stick together, they'll
become heavy enough to fall to the ground.
• www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/snow/how-is-snow-formed
X-ray Diffraction is a technique used to determine the
atomic and molecular structure of a crystal,
wherein atoms cause a beams of incident X-rays to
diffract into many specific directions.
A stream of X-rays directed at a crystal diffracts and
scatters as it encounters atoms. The scattered rays
interfere with each other and produce a pattern of
spots of different intensities that can be recorded on
film, such as that shown in the figure below. X-ray
diffraction has provided much of our knowledge about
crystal structure. Below is an image of a diffraction
pattern produced by an 8 keV electron beam incident
on a graphite crystal.
Figure 5. An X-ray diffraction
pattern of a graphite crystal.
C. What are the four types of crystals? What form of
unit particles makes up each type of crystal?
What forces bind the unit particles of each type of
crystal? What are the properties of each type
of crystal?
The four types of crystals differ in the kind of particles
that make up the crystal and the attractive forces
that hold these particles together.
1. METALLIC CRYSTALS
Ask the learners to enumerate the properties of metals.
Guide the learners on how to make inferences
about the arrangement of atoms in the metallic crystal
that are consistent with the properties they listed. The
table below gives a sample of the output of the activity.
Metallic crystals are made of atoms that readily lose
electrons to form positive ions (cations), but no
atoms in the crystal would readily gain electrons. The
metal atoms give up their electrons to the whole
crystal, creating a structure made up of an orderly
arrangement of cations surrounded by delocalized
electrons that move around the crystal. The crystal is
held together by electrostatic interactions between the
cations and delocalized electron. These interactions are
called metallic bonds. This model of metallic bonding is
called the “sea of electrons” model.
Figure 6. Positive ions
surrounded by delocalized
electrons
This model is able to explain
many physical properties of
metals, such as their high melting points, malleability,
ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity, and luster.
4
Explanation of properties:
• High melting point – a large amount of energy is
needed to melt the crystal since the forces of
attraction to be broken are numerous and extend
throughout the crystal.
• Dense – atoms are packed closely together. Metals
exhibit close-packing structures, a most
economical way by which atoms utilize space.
• Electrical conductivity – then delocalized electrons
move throughout the crystal.
• Thermal or heat conductor – the delocalized electrons
collide with each other as they move
through the crystal, and it is through these collisions
that kinetic energy is transferred.
• Malleability/ductility – when stress is applied to the
metal, the metal cations shift in position,
but the mobile electrons simply follow the movement of
the cations. The attractive forces
between cations and mobile electrons are not broken.
• Luster – the motion and collisions of electrons allow it
to gain and lose energy, some of these
in the form of emitted light that is observed as luster.
2. IONIC CRYSTALS
Ask the learners to enumerate the properties of ionic
compounds Guide the learners on how to make
inferences about the arrangement of particles in the
ionic crystal that are consistent with the properties they
listed. The table below gives a sample of the output of
the activity.
Ionic crystals are made of ions (cations and anions).
These ions form strong electrostatic interactions
that hold the crystal lattice together. The electrostatic
attractions are numerous and extend throughout the
crystal since each ion is surrounded by several ions of
opposite charge, making ionic crystals hard and of high
melting points. The figure below shows a model of NaCl
crystal, where one Na+ ion is surrounded by six Clions,
and a Cl- ion is likewise surrounded by six Na+ ions.
Figure 7 . Sodium ion, Na+ and chloride ion, Cl- at lattice
points of NaCl crystal
The energy needed to break the crystal of ionic
substances will depend on the magnitude of charges on
the ions (the 2+ and 2- ions attract each other stronger
in MgO than 1+ and 1- in NaCl), and the sizes of the ions
(attractions are less between the bigger ions in RbI and
as such less heat energy is needed to separate them
than the smaller ions in NaCl).
Ionic substances can conduct electricity in the liquid or
molten state or when dissolved in water,
indicating that in these states, charged particles are able
to move and carry electricity. However, the solid state
is generally nonconducting since the ions are in fixed
positions in the crystal lattice and are unable to move
from one point to another.
Ionic crystals are brittle, and would shatter into small
pieces when deformed or when pressure is applied
on the crystal. The shifting of ions cause repulsions
between particles of like charges.
Figure 8. Shifting of ions cause repulsions in ionic crystal
3. MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
Similar to the starting activity in the discussion of the
two earlier types of crystals, ask the students to list
the properties of molecular crystals, and infer from
these the arrangements and attractive forces that hold
the particles in the crystal.
Molecular crystals are made of atoms, such as in noble
gases, or molecules, such as in sugar, C12H22O11,
iodine, I2, and naphthalene, C10H8. The atoms or
molecules are held together by a mix of hydrogen
bonding/ dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and these
are the attractive forces that are broken when the
crystal melts. Hence, most molecular crystals have
relatively low melting points.
The valence electrons of molecular substances are used
in bonding, and cannot move about the crystal
structure. Hence, the crystals are nonconducting. The
absence of any mobile particles make molecular crystals
unable to transmit heat fast. The crystals are brittle
because the attractive forces that hold the molecules in
the crystal are highly directional and a shift in positions
of the molecules would break them.
5
 Show illustrations of the structure of diamond and
Figure 9. Arrangement graphite. Ask the students to spot any difference in
of water molecules in the bonding behavior of the carbon atoms in the two
ice crystal forms. They should notice that in graphite, each carbon
atom is bonded to only three other carbon atoms, while
in diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four
others. In addition, graphite is made up of layers of
rings of carbon atoms. The broken lines connecting the
layers are weak dispersion forces.
4. COVALENT NETWORK CRYSTALS
Using diamond and silicon dioxide as examples, ask the
learners to list properties of covalent network
crystals, and infer from these the structure of the
crystal.
Covalent network crystals are made of atoms in which
each atom is covalently bonded to its nearest
neighbors. The atoms can be made of one type of atom
(e.g. Cdiamond and Cgraphite) or can be made of different Figure 10. Two allotropes of carbon: graphite and
atoms (e.g. SiO2 and BN). In a network solid, there are diamond
no individual molecules and the entire crystal may be
considered one very large molecule. Formulas for Each carbon atom has four valence electrons, making it
network solids, like those for ionic compounds, are capable of forming four single covalent bonds
simple ratios of the component atoms represented by a with other atoms, like in diamond. In graphite, only
formula unit. three of these four valence electrons are used for
The valence electrons of the atoms in the crystal are all bonding, leaving the fourth electron free. Every carbon
used to form covalent bonds. Because there are atom in graphite has an extra electron that can move
no delocalized electrons, covalent network solids do not about the layer, allowing graphite to conduct electricity.
conduct electricity. Covalent bonds are the only type The layers in graphite are held by weak intermolecular
of attractive force between atoms in the network solid. forces, and with sufficient pressure, the layers can
Rearranging or breaking of covalent bonds requires slide past one another. When one uses a pencil to write,
large amounts of energy; therefore, covalent network layers of graphite are transferred to the paper as one
solids have high melting points. Covalent bonds are presses the pencil down on the paper.
extremely strong, so covalent network solids are very
hard. Generally, these solids are insoluble in water due
to the difficulty of solvating very large molecules.
Diamond is the hardest material known, while cubic
boron nitride (BN) is the second-hardest. Silicon carbide
(SiC) is very structurally complex and has at least 70
crystalline forms.

Diamonds are an example of a covalent network solid in

which atoms are covalently bonded with each
other. They tend to be hard and have high melting
points.
Silicon dioxide, SiO2 is an example of a covalent network
solid in which atoms are covalently bonded to
each other. Notice that each silicon atom is bridged to
its neighbors by an oxygen atom.
Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, differs in properties
from other network solids. It is soft and is used as a
solid lubricant. It is also a good conductor of electricity,
indicating the presence of charged particles that move
through the crystal.

6
Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and What phase(s) of matter exist in the following images?

Solids; Phase Changes

Fluid-A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.

Phase-A homogeneous part of a system in contact with

other parts of the system, but separated by
well-defined boundaries. Pan of boiling water

Solid-A phase of matter with definite shape and volume.

Liquid-A phase of matter with definite volume but no

definite shape.

Gas-A phase of matter with no definite shape or volume

of its own. Glass of ice water

Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between
molecules.

Phase changes
Transformations of matter from one phase to another.
Solid iodine subliming in a
test tube
Melting
A phase change from solid to liquid.
Figure 1: Examples of phase changes
Vaporization
Give other examples of phase changes that they have
A phase change from liquid to gas.
seen.
Sublimation
What causes the phase change in matter?
A phase change from solid to gas.
Phase changes are transformations of matter from one
Condensation
physical state to another. They occur when energy
A phase change from gas to liquid.
(usually in the form of heat) is added or removed from a
substance. They are characterized by changes in
Freezing
molecular order; molecules in the solid phase have the
A phase change from liquid to solid.
greatest order, while those in the gas phase have the
greatest randomness or disorder.
Deposition
What changes in molecular order occur during phase
A phase change from gas to solid.
changes?
The figure below illustrates the difference in molecular
Exothermic process
order of a substance in the solid, liquid and gaseous
Process that gives off or release heat to the
states.
surroundings.

Endothermic process
Process that absorbs heat from the surroundings.

Specific heat of a substance

The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 gram of a substance by 1 OC.

What makes a gas different from a liquid or solid?

Why are some substances gases at room temperature,
while others are not?
How does the intermolecular force of attraction in a
substance relate to its phase?

Figure 2. Molecular order in solid, liquid and gas

7
The next figure shown below summarizes the types of
phase changes.
• The change from solid to liquid is melting, liquid to gas
is vaporization, and solid to gas is
sublimation. These changes take place when heat is
absorbed (heat gained). They are
endothermic processes.
• The reverse change from gas to liquid is condensation,
gas to solid is deposition, and liquid
to solid is freezing. These changes give off heat (heat
lost) and are exothermic processes.
Figure 3: The different changes in state that matter
undergoes
How does a change in energy affect phase changes?
Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed
from a substance.
When a substance is heated, the added energy is used
by the substance in either of two ways:
a. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the
particles and the particles move faster. The increase
in kinetic energy is accompanied by an increase in
temperature.
b. The added heat is used to break attractive forces
between particles. There is no observed increase in
temperature when this happens. Often a change in the
physical appearance of the substance is
observed, such as a phase change.
c.
Conversely, the removal or release of heat results in
two ways:
a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The
motion of the particles slow down. A decrease in
temperature is observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase change
may occur. No change in temperature is observed.
Figure 4: Heating curve
The change in temperature of a substance as it is being
heated can be shown in a graph called the
heating curve, such as the figure shown in the previous
page. The heating curve is a plot of
temperature and heat added to the substance. Often,
time is used instead of heat added in the
abscissa, because it is assumed that heat is uniformly
added per unit time.
Figure 5. Cooling curve
In both the heating and cooling curves, there are certain
portions where the temperature changes as heat is
being added or removed, and portions where the
temperature remains constant even if heat is being
added or removed. What is happening at these
portions?
1. When heat change is accompanied by a change in
temperature, a change in kinetic energies of the
particles in the substance is occurring. The particles are
either moving faster or slowing down.
2. When temperature remains constant during heat
change, the particles move at the same speed. The
heat added or removed is involved in breaking or
forming attractive forces. A phase change occurs at
this temperature: solid melts or liquid freezes at the
melting point,which is also the freezing point; liquid
boils, or gas condenses at the boiling point, which is also
the condensation point.
During phase changes, two physical states of the
substance exist at the same time. When addition or
removal of heat is stopped at this temperature, the two
physical states will interconvert from one state to the
other, and will be at equilibrium.
MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM
When a solid is heated, its temperature increases until it
reaches its melting point. At this temperature, the
average kinetic energy of the molecules has become
sufficiently large to begin overcoming the
intermolecular
forces that hold the molecules of a solid state together.
The heat absorbed is used to break apart more and
more of the molecules in the solid. The transformation
of solid to liquid is called melting, and the reverse
process is called freezing.
• During the transition, the average kinetic energy of
the molecules does not change, so the temperature
8
stays constant. The melting point of a solid or the
freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which
solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium.
• Melting points are distinct for each substance. It is
dependent on the strength of attractive forces that
hold the particles in the solid. The stronger the
attractive forces that hold the particles in the solid, the
higher is the melting point of the substance.
• The melting (or freezing) point of a substance when
the external pressure is 1 atm pressure is called its
normal melting (or freezing) point. For water, this is 0oC.
• At 0OC and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for water
and ice is represented by:
ice ⇋ water
A practical illustration of this dynamic equilibrium is
provided by a glass of ice water. As the ice cube melts to
form water, some of the water between ice cubes may
freeze, thus joining the cubes together.
• When heat is added to this system at equilibrium, ice
will continue to melt until all have been
transformed to the liquid state. The amount of heat
needed to convert the solid to the liquid state at the
melting point is called the heat of fusion of the
substance.
MOLAR HEAT OF FUSION AND MELTING POINT
Heat of fusion is an extensive property. The actual
amount of energy involved in the transformation of a
substance from solid to liquid is dependent on the
amount of sample used. Thus, this property is often
expressed in terms of molar quantities of sample.
Molar heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the energy required
to melt 1 mole of a solid.
• For water, the molar heat of fusion is 6.01 kJ / mol.
and its vaporization is 40.7 kJ/mol. If the heat input is
constant, a longer period is needed for one mole of
water to evaporate than the time needed for the ice
to melt. An 18-gram sample of ice at 0oC will need 6.01
kJ of energy to be completely transformed into
liquid water, still at 0oC.
• Like melting points, heats of fusion are influenced by
the strength of attractive forces that exist between
particles in the solid. The stronger the attractive forces
that hold the particles of the solid together, the
larger is the heat of fusion.
• The molar heat of fusion is equal to the amount of
energy released when one mole or 18 grams of liquid
water at 0oC freezes to ice, still at 0oC.
Cooling a substance has the opposite effect of heating
it, as can be seen from the cooling curve.
• If heat is removed from a liquid at a steady rate, its
temperature should decrease until the freezing point
is reached. As the solid is being formed, heat is given off
by the system, as attractive forces form and become
stronger between particles. Even if heat is being
removed, the temperature of the system remains
constant over the freezing period.
• After all the liquid has frozen, the temperature of the
solid drops.
• The heat change (q) for a given sample during freezing
or melting may be calculated using the following
equation: is given by
BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
In the liquid phase, there are still attractions among its
particles. The particles are still in contact with each
other but are not locked into fixed positions and are
free to move past each other. Although they lack the
total freedom of gaseous molecules, these molecules
are in constant motion.
• When a liquid is heated, its temperature increases as
the kinetic energy of the molecules increases.
When the molecules have sufficient energy to escape
from the surface, a phase change occurs.
Evaporation or vaporization is the process in which a
liquid is transformed into a gas. The temperature
at which this occurs is the boiling point of the
substance. While the liquid vaporizes, the temperature
remains constant.
• The boiling point is a characteristic of each substance,
and is dependent on the strength of attractive
forces that hold the particles or molecules in the liquid
state. It is also dependent on the external or
atmospheric pressure. The boiling point of a liquid at 1
atm pressure is called its normal boiling point.
For water, this is at 100oC.
• The reverse of vaporization or boiling is called
condensation, the change from the gas phase to the
liquid phase. Condensation occurs because a molecule
strikes the liquid surface and becomes trapped
by intermolecular forces in the liquid. This process
occurs at the same temperature when the liquid
vaporizes into the gaseous state. The boiling point can
thus be also called condensation point (dew
point), and occur at the same temperature.
• At the boiling point, both liquid and gaseous states of
the substance are present, and the
transformations of liquid to gas and gas to liquid
happen at the same time.
• At 100 OC and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for
water and steam is represented by
water ⇋ steam
As heat is absorbed, some water will boil off but the
temperature remains at 100 OC (373.15 K) until all
the liquid has vaporized. The amount of heat absorbed
by the sample as the liquid transforms into gas is called
heat of vaporization.
9
When all of the sample has turned into gas, further
heating will cause the temperature of the gas to
increase again.
MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (ΔHvap) AND BOILING
POINT
The heat of vaporization is an extensive property and is
thus dependent on the amount of sample undergoing
phase change. Hence, published quantities of heats of
vaporization specify the amount of substance, and is
often expressed as molar heat of vaporization.
Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is defined as the
energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1
mole of a liquid at a given temperature, usually, at the
boiling point. The molar heat of vaporization of water at
100oC is 40.8 kJ/mol.
Both the boiling point and molar heat of vaporization of
a substance are influenced by the strength of attractive
forces that hold the particles in the liquid state. This can
be seen from the table given below.
• The boiling point is related to molar heat of
vaporization: the higher ΔHvap , the higher the boiling
point, as shown in the table:
SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
In a solid, the particles may be in fixed positions, but
they are able to vibrate in place and with increasing
intensity as temperature increases. When particles are
able to acquire enough energy to break attractive forces
with adjacent particles, the energetic particles may
move into the gaseous state. This phase change is called
sublimation. One of the most familiar examples of
sublimation is that of dry ice. The figure below shows
iodine subliming into a purple gas.
Sublimation is the process in which molecules go
directly from solid into vapor phase. The reverse
process is called deposition, where molecules make a
transition directly from vapor to solid. The process may
be represented by the following equilibrium:
Figure. 6 Sublimation of solid iodine in the bottom of
the tube produces a purple gas that subsequently
deposits as solid iodine on the colder part of the tube
above.
Solid ⇋ vapor
MOLAR HEAT OF SUBLIMATION
Molar heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) of a substance is the
amount of energy that must be added to a mole of
solid at constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas,
without passing through the liquid phase. This enthalpy
change associated with sublimation is always greater
than that of vaporization even if both sublimation and
evaporation involve changing a substance into its
gaseous state because in sublimation, the starting
physical state of the substance is the solid state, which
is lower in energy than the liquid state where
vaporization starts. , Sublimation requires that all the
forces are broken between the molecules (or other
species, such as ions) in the solid as the solid is
converted into a gas. A comparison of the magnitudes
of these thermochemical quantities can be seen from
the heating curve shown below.
Figure 7 . Heating curve showing relative amounts of
heats of fusion, vaporization and sublimation
The molar heat of sublimation is generally expressed as
Hsub in units of Joules per mole. The sum of the heat
of fusion and the heat of vaporization can give a good
estimate of the heat of sublimation of a substance.
HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
When a system contains only one phase (solid, liquid, or
gas), the temperature will change when it receives
energy during heating or when energy is removed
during cooling. The amount of heat received or
removed from the sample to effect a given change in
temperature can be calculated using the specific heat of
the substance. This is the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1OC.
It is also equal to the amount of heat lo0st by 1 gram of
substance when its temperature drops by 1oC. The
specific heat of a substance differs for the solid, liquid,
and gaseous states Water as an example, has the
following specific heat at different phases:
H2O(l) = 4.18 J / g OC
H2O(s) = 2.06 J / g OC
H2O(g) = 2.02 J / g OC
The heat change (q) for this process is given by:
q = m S ΔT
where m = mass of sample in grams
S = specific heat of the sample in the appropriate
physical state
10
T = change in temperature
Sample Problem:
You found a piece of copper metal weighing 3.10 g
imbedded in an ice block. How much heat is absorbed
by the piece of metal as it warms in your hand from the
temperature of the ice block at 1.5 oC to your body
temperature of 37.0 oC? The specific heat of copper is
0.385 J/g-oC. Assume that the metal is pure copper.
q = m S ΔT
= (3.10 g)(0.385 J/g-oC)(37.0 oC – 1.5 oC)
= 42.4 J
PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
Use the following examples to show how to deal with
problems involving changes of state.
Sample Problem 1: How much energy is required to
change 2600 gram of ice at 0°C into water at the same
temperature?
The curve on a phase diagram which represents the
transition between the gaseous and liquid states.
Sublimation (or deposition) curve
The curve on a phase diagram which represents the
transition between the gaseous and solid states.
Triple point
The point on a phase diagram at which the three states
of matter coexist.
Critical point
The point in temperature and pressure on a phase
diagram where the liquid and gaseous phases of a
substance merge together into a single phase. The
temperature and pressure corresponding to this
are known as the critical temperature and critical
pressure.
Normal melting and boiling points
Melting and boiling points when the pressure is 1 atm.
How can this effect be achieved using CO2 or dry ice?

Sample Problem 2: How much energy is required to

change 2600 gram of water at 100°C into steam at the
same temperature?

Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in

kJ) needed to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0 OC
to 182 OC. Assume that the specific heat of water is
4.184 J/g OC over the entire liquid range and the specific
heat of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
Figure 1: Stage light effects as dry ice sublimes
Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids; Phase
Diagrams What does LPG stand for? How can a gas be liquefied?
Fluid What conditions are needed to convert a gas into a
A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow. liquid?
Solid
A phase of matter with definite shape and volume. What is a phase diagram?
Liquid A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the
A phase of matter with definite volume but no definite physical states of a substance under different conditions
shape. of temperature and pressure. It gives the possible
Gas combinations of pressure and temperature at which
A phase of matter with no definite shape or volume of certain physical state or states a substance would be
its own. observed. Each substance has its own phase diagram. A
Vapor typical phase diagram is shown below.
A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a liquid or
solid at normal temperature.
Melting
A phase change from solid to liquid.
Vaporization
A phase change from liquid to gas.
Sublimation
A phase change from solid to gas.
Condensation
A phase change from gas to liquid.
Freezing
A phase change from liquid to solid.
Deposition
A phase change from gas to solid.
Melting (or freezing) curve What are the features of a phase diagram?
The curve on a phase diagram which represents the
transition between the liquid and solid states.
Vaporization (or condensation) curve
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Phase diagrams are plots of pressure (usually in
atmospheres) versus temperature (usually in degrees
Celsius or Kelvin). The diagram is divided into three
areas: solid, liquid and gaseous states. The boundary
between the
liquid and gaseous regions stop at point C, the critical
temperature for the substance.

A. The Three Areas

The three areas are marked solid, liquid, and vapor.
Under a set of conditions in the diagram, a substance
can exist in a solid, liquid, or vapor (gas) phase. The
labels on the graph represent the stable states of a
system in equilibrium.
Suppose a pure substance is found at three different
sets of conditions of temperature and pressure
corresponding to A, B, and C as shown in the following
diagram:
Figure 4: The freezing (or melting) curve
2. The blue line divides the liquid and gas phases, and
represents vaporization (liquid to gas) and
condensation (gas to liquid) points.
Vaporization (or condensation) curve – the curve on a
phase diagram which represents the transition
between gaseous and liquid states. It shows the effect
of pressure on the boiling point of the liquid. Anywhere
along this line, there will be equilibrium between the
liquid and the vapor.

Figure 3: Phase diagram with three sets of conditions

Under the set of conditions at A in the diagram, the
substance would be a solid as it falls into that
area of the phase diagram. At B, it would be a liquid;
and at C, it would be a vapor (gas). Figure 5: The vaporization or condensation curve

B. Three Lines (Curves)
The lines that serve as boundaries between physical
states represent the combinations of pressures
and temperatures at which two phases can exist in
equilibrium. In other words, these lines define
phase change points.
1. The green line divides the solid and liquid phases, and
represents melting (solid to liquid) and
freezing (liquid to solid) points.
Melting (or freezing) curve – the curve on a phase
diagram which represents the transition
between liquid and solid states. It shows the effect of
pressure on the melting point of the
solid. Anywhere on this line, there is equilibrium
between the solid and the liquid.
3. The red line divides the solid and gas phases, and
represents sublimation (solid to gas) and deposition
(gas to solid) points.
Sublimation (or deposition) curve – the curve on a
phase diagram which represents the
transition between gaseous and solid states. It
represents the effect of increased temperature
on a solid at a very low constant pressure, lower than
the triple point.

Figure 6: Sublimation or deposition curve.

12
C. Two Important Points
There are two important points on the diagram, the
triple point and the critical point.

The triple point

The triple point is the combination of pressure and
temperature at which all three phases of matter are at
equilibrium. It is the point on a phase diagram at which
the three states of matter coexist. The lines that
represent the conditions of solid-liquid, liquid-vapor,
and solid-vapor equilibrium meet at the triple point
It is a unique combination of temperature and pressure
where all three phases are in equilibrium
together. Figure 8: Locating the normal melting point and
normal boiling point T
The critical point
These can be found from the phase diagram by drawing
The critical point terminates the liquid/gas phase line. It
a line across pressure at 1 atm.
is the set of temperature and pressure on a phase
diagram where the liquid and gaseous phases of a
How does the phase diagram of water look like?
substance merge together into a single phase. Beyond
the temperature of the critical point, the merged single
The Phase Diagram for Water
phase is known as a supercritical fluid.
The temperature and pressure corresponding to this are
There is only one difference between the phase diagram
known as the critical temperature and critical
for water and the other phase diagrams
pressure.
discussed. The solid-liquid equilibrium line (the melting
point curve) slopes backwards rather than forwards.
If the pressure on a gas (vapor) is increased at a
temperature lower than the critical temperature, the
For water, the melting point gets lower at higher
liquid vapor equilibrium line will eventually be crossed
pressures. This is because solid ice is less dense than
and the vapor will condense to give a liquid.
liquid water. This phenomenon is caused by the crystal
structure of the solid phase. In the solid forms of water
and some other substances, the molecules crystallize in
a lattice with greater average space between molecules,
thus resulting in a solid occupying a larger volume and
consequently with a lower density than the liquid.
When it melts, the liquid water formed occupies a
smaller volume
ice ⇋ water

An increase in pressure will move the above equilibrium

Figure 7: Temperature and pressure values at the
critical point
to the side with the smaller volume. Liquid
water is produced. To make the liquid water freeze
again at this higher pressure, the temperature should
be reduced. Higher pressures mean lower melting
(freezing) points.

How is the normal melting and boiling points

determined in a phase diagram?
The normal melting and boiling points are those when
the pressure is 1 atmosphere.

13
Figure 9: Phase diagram for H2O
Identifying data from the phase diagram of water
Notice that the triple point for water occurs at a very
low pressure, 0.006 atm and at 273.2 K temperature.
Also notice that the critical temperature is 647 K
(374°C). It would be impossible to convert water from a
gas to a liquid by compressing it above this
temperature. The critical pressure is 218 atm.
The normal melting and boiling points of water are
found in exactly the same way as we have already
discussed - by determining where the 1 atm pressure
line crosses the solid-liquid, and then the liquid-vapor
equilibrium lines.
The normal melting point of water is 273 K (0 oC), and its
normal boiling point is 373 K (100 oC).
How does the phase diagram for carbon dioxide look
like?
The Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide
The only thing special about this phase diagram is the
position of the triple point, which is well above
atmospheric pressure. It is impossible to get any liquid
carbon dioxide at pressures less than 5.2 atmospheres.
At 1 atm pressure, carbon dioxide will sublime at a
temperature of 197.5 K (-75.5 °C). This is the reason
why solid carbon dioxide is often known as "dry ice."
There is no liquid carbon dioxide under normal
conditions - only the solid or the vapor.
Figure 10: Phase diagrams for CO2
PRACTICE (10 MINS)
Interpreting a Phase Diagram
Refer to the following phase diagram of a certain
substance to answer the following questions.
1. In what phase is the substance at 50 °C and 1 atm
pressure?
2. At what pressure and temperature conditions will all
three phases of the substance be present?
3. What is the normal melting point of the substance?
4. What phase(s) will exist at 1 atm and 70 °C?
ENRICHMENT (10 MINS)
Constructing a Phase Diagram
Visualize a substance with the following points on the
phase diagram: a triple point at 0.05 atm and 150 K; a
normal melting point at 175 K; a normal boiling point at
350 K; and a critical point at 2.0 atm and 450 K. The
solid liquid line is “normal” (meaning positive sloping).
For this, complete the following:
1. Roughly sketch the phase diagram, using units of
atmosphere and Kelvin. Label the area 1, 2, and 3, and
points T and C on the diagram.
2. Describe what one would see at pressures and
temperatures above 2.0 atm and 450 K.
3. Describe the phase changes from 50 K to 250 K at 1.5
atm.
4. What exists in a system that is at 1 atm and 350 K?
5. What exists in a system that is at 1 atm and 175 K?
14