CHAPTER 11: Radiation Fundamentals

Heat transfer by conduction and convection requires the presence of a temperature gradient in
some form of matter. In contrast, heat transfer by thermal radiation requires no matter. The mechanism
of emission is related to energy released as a result of oscillations or transitions of the many electrons
that constitute matter. These oscillations are, in turn, sustained by the internal energy, and therefore
the temperature, of the matter. Hence we associate the emission of thermal radiation with thermally
excited conditions within the matter.
Radiation may be viewed as the propagation of a collection of particles termed photons or
quanta. Alternatively, radiation may be viewed as the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In any
case we wish to attribute to radiation the standard wave properties of frequency  and wavelength .
For radiation propagating in a particular medium, the two properties are related by c =   , where c
is the speed of light. For propagation in a vacuum, co = 2.998  108 m/s. The unit of wavelength is
commonly the micrometer (m), where 1 m = 10-6 m.

All forms of matter emit radiation. For gases and for semi-transparent solids, such as glass and
salt crystals at elevated temperatures, emission is a volumetric phenomenon. That is, radiation
emerging from a finite volume of matter is the integrated effect of local emission throughout the
volume. However, in most solids and liquids, radiation emitted from interior molecules is strongly
absorbed by adjoining molecules. Accordingly, radiation that is emitted from a solid or a liquid
originates from molecules that are within a distance of approximately 1 m from the exposed surface.
It is for this reason that emission from a solid or a liquid into an adjoining gas or a vacuum can be
viewed as a surface phenomenon, except in situations involving nanoscale or microscale devices.
Thermal radiation emitted by a surface encompasses a range of wavelengths. As shown in
Figure a, the magnitude of the radiation varies with wavelength, and the term spectral is used to refer
to the nature of this dependence. The second feature radiation relates to its directionality. As shown in
the Figure, a surface may emit preferentially in certain directions, creating a directional distribution of
the emitted radiation. To quantify the emission, we must be able to treat both spectral and directional
effects.

Radiation Intensity
Radiation that leaves a surface can propagate in all possible directions. Also, radiation incident
upon a surface may come from different directions, and the manner in which the surface responds to
this radiation depends on the direction. Such directional may be treated by introducing the concept of
radiation intensity.
Plane angle and solid angle: The differential plane angle d is defined by a region between the rays
of a circle and is measured as the ratio of the arc length dl on the circle to the radius r of the circle.
Similarly, the differential solid angle d is defined by a region between the rays of a sphere and is
measured as the ratio of the area dAn on the sphere to the sphere’s radius squared. Accordingly,
𝑑𝐴𝑛
𝑑𝜔 ≡
𝑟2

FIGURE: Mathematical definitions. (a) Plane angle. (b) Solid angle. (c) Emission of radiation from a
differential area dA1 into a solid angle d subtended by dAn at a point on dA1. (d) The spherical
coordinate system.
Consider emission in a particular direction from an element of surface area dA 1, as shown in
the figure c. The direction may be specified in terms of the zenith and azimuthal angles,  and ,
respectively, of a spherical coordinate system (Figure d ). The area dAn, through which the radiation
passes, subtends a differential solid angle d when viewed from a point on dA1.
FIGURE: The solid angle subtended by dAn at a point on dA1 in the spherical coordinate system.

As shown in the following Figure, the area dAn is a rectangle of dimension 𝑟𝑑𝜃 × 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝑑𝜙, thus
𝑑𝐴𝑛 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙. Accordingly,

𝑑𝜔 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
When viewed from a point on an opaque surface area element dA1, radiation may be emitted
into any direction defined by a hypothetical hemisphere above the surface. The solid angle associated
with the entire hemisphere may be obtained by integrating over the limits  = 0 to 2 and  = 0 to /2.
Hence,
2𝜋 𝜋/2 𝜋/2
∫ 𝑑𝜔 = ∫ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋 𝑠𝑟
ℎ 0 0 0

where the subscript h refers to integration over the hemisphere. Note that the unit of the solid angle is
the steradian (sr), analogous to radians for plane angles.
Spectral Intensity: It is defined as the rate at which radiant energy (dq) is emitted at the wavelength
 in the (, ) direction, per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction, per unit solid
angle about this direction, and per unit wavelength interval d about .

Note that the area used to define the intensity is the component of dA1 perpendicular to the
direction of the radiation. From the above Figure, we see that this projected area is equal to dA1cos.
In effect it is how dA1 would appear to an observer situated on dAn. The spectral intensity, which has
units of W/m2-sr-m, is then,
𝑑𝑞
𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙) ≡
𝑑𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝜔. 𝑑𝜆

where (dq/d) = dq is the rate at which radiation of wavelength  leaves dA1 and passes through dAn.
Rearranging the above Equation, it follows that

𝑑𝑞𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑑𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝜔

where dq has the units of W/m.

This expression allows us to compute the rate at which radiation emitted by a surface propagates into
the region of space defined by the solid angle d about the (, ) direction. However, to compute this
rate, the spectral intensity I,e of the emitted radiation must be known.

Expressing the above Equation per unit area of the emitting surface and substituting the d, the spectral
radiation flux associated with dA1 is

𝑑𝑞𝜆′′ = 𝑑𝑞𝜆 /𝑑𝐴1 = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

If I,e (, , ) is known, the heat flux associated with emission into any finite solid angle or over any
finite wavelength interval may be determined by integrating the above Equation.

FIGURE: Emission from a differential element of area dA1 into a hypothetical hemisphere centered at
a point on dA1.

Spectral, hemispherical emissive power E (W/m2.m) is defined as the rate at which radiation of
wavelength  is emitted in all directions from a surface per unit wavelength interval d about  and
per unit surface area. Thus, E is the spectral heat flux associated with emission into a hypothetical
hemisphere above dA1, or
 2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐸𝜆 (𝜆) = 𝑞𝜆′′ (𝜆) = ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
0 0

Note that E is a flux based on the actual surface area, whereas I,e is based on the projected area. The
cos term appearing in the integrand is a consequence of this difference.
Total, hemispherical emissive power, E (W/m2), is the rate at which radiation is emitted per unit
area at all possible wavelengths and in all possible directions. Accordingly,
∞ ∞ 2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐸 = 𝑞 ′′ = ∫ 𝐸𝜆 (𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
0 0 0 0

Since the term “emissive power” implies emission in all directions, the adjective hemispherical” is
redundant and is often dropped. One then speaks of the spectral emissive power E, or the total
emissive power E.
Although the directional distribution of surface emission varies according to the nature of the surface,
there is a special case that provides a reasonable approximation for many surfaces.
For a diffuse emitter, the intensity of the emitted radiation is independent of direction.
Therefore, Spectral Intensity,

𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆)

Hence, Spectral Emissive Power,

𝜋
2𝜋
2
𝐸𝜆 (𝜆) = ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
0 0
𝜋
2𝜋
2
= 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆) ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = 𝜋 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆)
0 0

Total Emissive Power,

𝐸 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒

where Ie is the total intensity of the emitted radiation, given by,

∞
𝐼𝑒 = ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
0

Note that the constant appearing in the above expressions is , not 2, and has the unit steradians (sr).

Relation to Irradiation
Incident radiation may originate from emission and reflection occurring at other surfaces and will have
spectral and directional distributions determined by the spectral intensity.

Spectral Intensity of Irradiation 𝑰𝝀,𝒊 (𝝀, 𝜽, 𝝓) is defined as the rate at which radiant energy of
wavelength  is incident from the (, ) direction, per unit area of the intercepting surface normal to
this direction, per unit solid angle about this direction, and per unit wavelength interval d about .
The intensity of the incident radiation may be related to an important radiative flux, termed the
irradiation, which encompasses radiation incident from all directions.

Spectral irradiation G (W/m2.m) is defined as the rate at which radiation of wavelength  is

incident on a surface per unit wavelength interval d about  and per unit surface area. Accordingly,
2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐺𝜆 (𝜆) = ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑖 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
0 0

where 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑 𝑑 is the unit solid angle. The cos factor originates because G is a flux based on the
actual surface area, whereas I,i is defined in terms of the projected area.
Total irradiation, G (W/m2), is the rate at which radiation is incident per unit area from all possible
wavelengths and from all possible directions. Accordingly,
∞ ∞ 2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐺 = ∫ 𝐺𝜆 (𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑖 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
0 0 0 0

If the incident radiation is diffuse, I,i is independent of  and  and it follows that
∞
𝐺𝜆 (𝜆) = 𝜋 𝐼𝜆,𝑖 (𝜆) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 = 𝜋𝐼𝑖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐼𝑖 = ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑖 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
0

Relation to Radiosity
Radiosity accounts for all the radiant energy leaving a surface, which includes the reflected portion of
the irradiation, as well as direct emission and hence, is different from the emissive power.

Spectral radiosity J (W/m2.m) represents the rate at which radiation of wavelength  leaves a unit
area of the surface, per unit wavelength interval d about . Accordingly,
 2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐽𝜆 (𝜆) = ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒+𝑟 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
0 0

𝐼𝜆,𝑒+𝑟 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙) is the intensity associated with emission and reflection.

Total radiosity, J (W/m2), associated with the entire spectrum is,

∞ ∞ 2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐽 = ∫ 𝐽𝜆 (𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒+𝑟 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
0 0 0 0

If the surface is both a diffuse reflector and a diffuse emitter, I,e+r is independent of  and  and it
follows that
∞
𝐽𝜆 (𝜆) = 𝜋 𝐼𝜆,𝑒+𝑟 (𝜆) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 = 𝜋𝐼𝑒+𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐼𝑒+𝑟 = ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒+𝑟 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
0

Again, note that the radiation flux, in this case the radiosity, is based on the actual surface area, while
the intensity is based on the projected area.
Blackbody Radiation
To quantify the spectral intensities, it is useful and necessary to first introduce the concept of a
blackbody.
1. A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.
3. Although the radiation emitted by a blackbody is a function of wavelength and temperature, it is
independent of direction. That is, the blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
As the perfect absorber and emitter, the blackbody serves as a standard against which the
radiative properties of actual surfaces may be compared. Although closely approximated by some
surfaces, it is important to note that no surface has precisely the properties of a blackbody. The closest
approximation is achieved by a cavity whose inner surface is at a uniform temperature. If radiation
enters the cavity through a small aperture, it is likely to experience many reflections before
reemergence. Hence it is almost entirely absorbed by the cavity, and blackbody behavior is
approximated.

FIGURE: Characteristics of an isothermal blackbody cavity. (a) Complete absorption. (b) Diffuse
emission from an aperture. (c) Diffuse irradiation of interior surfaces.
 From thermodynamic principles it may then be argued that radiation leaving the aperture
depends only on the surface temperature and corresponds to blackbody emission (Figure b). Since
blackbody emission is diffuse, the spectral intensity I,b of radiation leaving the cavity is independent
of direction. Moreover, since the radiation field in the cavity, which is the cumulative effect of emission
and reflection from the cavity surface, must be of the same form as the radiation emerging from the
aperture, it also follows that a blackbody radiation field exists within the cavity. Accordingly, any
small surface in the cavity (Figure c) experiences irradiation for which G = E,b(, T ). This surface
is diffusely irradiated, regardless of its orientation. Blackbody radiation exists within the cavity
irrespective of whether the cavity surface is highly reflecting or absorbing.
The Planck Distribution
The blackbody spectral intensity is well known, having first been determined by Planck. It is

Equation 12.24, known as the Planck distribution, is plotted for selected temperatures. Several
important features should be noted.
1. The emitted radiation varies continuously with wavelength.
2. At any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature.
3. The spectral region in which the radiation is concentrated depends on temperature, with
comparatively more radiation appearing at shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases.
4. A significant fraction of the radiation emitted by the sun, which may be approximated as a
blackbody at 5800 K, is in the visible region of the spectrum. In contrast, for T  800 K emission
is predominantly in the infrared region of the spectrum and is not visible to the eye.

Wien’s Displacement Law

From the above Figure, we see that the blackbody spectral distribution has a maximum and that
the corresponding wavelength max depends on temperature. The nature of this dependence of max and
T may be obtained by differentiating Equation for 𝐸𝜆,𝑏 (𝜆, 𝑇) with respect to  and setting the result
equal to zero, since at  = max, 𝐸𝜆,𝑏 is maximum.

Thus,
 𝑑 𝑑 𝐶1 𝜆−5
(𝐸𝜆,𝑏 ) = [ ]
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 exp ( 𝐶2 ) − 1
𝜆𝑇
−5𝐶1 𝜆−6 (−𝐶2 /𝜆2 𝑇)exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇)𝐶1 𝜆−5
= −
exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇) − 1 [exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇) − 1]2

−𝐶1 𝜆−6
= [5{exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇) − 1} − (𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇)exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇)]
[exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇) − 1]2

Using,
𝑑
(𝐸 ) = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝜆 𝜆,𝑏
We obtain

5{exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇) − 1} − (𝐶2 /𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇)exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇) = 0

Let,
𝐶2
=𝑥
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇
Hence, the above equation becomes,

5(𝑒 𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥. 𝑒 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 5(1 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )

By trial and error, we get,

𝐶2 𝐶2
𝑥 = 4.965 = ⇒ 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = = 𝐶3
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 4.965

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝐶3

Where, 𝐶3 is the third radiation constant, given by

𝐶2 1.439 × 104
𝐶3 = = = 2898 𝜇𝑚. 𝐾
4.965 4.965
The above Equation is known as Wien’s displacement law, and the locus of points described by the
law is plotted as the dashed line of Figure 12.12. According to this result, the maximum spectral
emissive power is displaced to shorter wavelengths with increasing temperature. This emission is in
the middle of the visible spectrum (  0.50 m) for solar radiation, since the sun emits approximately
as a blackbody at 5800 K. For a blackbody at 1000 K, peak emission occurs at 2.90 m, with some of
the emitted radiation appearing visible as red light. With increasing temperature, shorter wavelengths
become more prominent, until eventually significant emission occurs over the entire visible spectrum.
For example, a tungsten filament lamp operating at 2900 K (max = 1 m) emits white light, although
most of the emission remains in the IR region.
The Stefan–Boltzmann Law
Substituting the Planck distribution in the equation for emissive power, the total emissive power of a
blackbody Eb may be expressed as
 ∞ ∞
𝐶1
𝐸𝑏 = ∫ 𝐸𝜆,𝑏 𝑑𝜆 = ∫ 𝑑𝜆
0 0 𝜆5 [exp(𝐶2 /𝜆𝑇) − 1]

Performing the integration, it may be shown that (see derivation at the end)

𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4
where the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, which depends on C1 and C2, has the numerical value

𝜎 = 5.670 × 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾 −4

This simple, yet important, result is termed the Stefan–Boltzmann law. It enables calculation of the
amount of radiation emitted in all directions and over all wavelengths simply from knowledge of the
temperature of the blackbody. Because this emission is diffuse, it follows that the total intensity
associated with blackbody emission is

𝐼𝑏 = 𝐸𝑏 /𝜋

Band Emission
Emission from Real Surfaces
The blackbody is an ideal emitter in the sense that no surface can emit more radiation than a blackbody
at the same temperature and is considered as a reference in describing emission from a real surface. A
surface radiative property known as the emissivity may then be defined as the ratio of the radiation
emitted by the surface to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. A spectral,
hemispherical emissivity is therefore defined as
2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐸𝜆 (𝜆, 𝑇) ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝜀𝜆 (𝜆, 𝑇) = = 0 2𝜋0 𝜋/2
𝐸𝜆,𝑏 (𝜆, 𝑇) ∫0 ∫0 𝐼𝜆,𝑏 (𝜆, 𝑇)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

The total, hemispherical emissivity, which represents an average over all possible directions and
wavelengths, is defined as
∞ 2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝐸(𝑇) ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
𝜖(𝑇) = = 0∞ 02𝜋 0𝜋/2
𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
0 0 0 𝜆,𝑏

Representative values of the total emissivity are shown in the following figure. Several generalizations
may be made.
1. The emissivity of metallic surfaces is generally small, achieving values as low as 0.02 for highly
polished gold and silver.
2. The presence of oxide layers may significantly increase the emissivity of metallic surfaces, the
values of 0.3 and 0.7 for stainless steel at 900 K, depending on whether it is polished or heavily
oxidized.
3. The emissivity of non-conductors is comparatively large, generally exceeding 0.6.
4. The emissivity of conductors increases with increasing temperature; however, depending on the
specific material, the emissivity of non-conductors may either increase or decrease with increasing
temperature.
Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission by Real Surfaces
In the most general situation the irradiation interacts with a semi-transparent medium, such as a layer
of water or a glass plate. For a spectral component of the irradiation, portions of this radiation may be
reflected, absorbed, and transmitted. From a radiation balance on the medium, it follows that

𝐺𝜆 = 𝐺𝜆.𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝐺𝜆,𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝐺𝜆,𝑡𝑟

In general, determination of these components is complex, depending on the upper and lower surface
conditions, the wavelength of the radiation, and the composition and thickness of the medium.
Moreover, conditions may be strongly influenced by volumetric effects occurring within the medium.

FIGURE: Absorption, reflection, and transmission processes associated with a semi-transparent

medium.
In most engineering applications, the medium is opaque to the incident radiation. In this case,
𝐺𝜆,𝑡𝑟 = 0 and the remaining absorption and reflection processes may be treated as surface phenomena.
That is, they are controlled by processes occurring within a fraction of a micrometer from the irradiated
surface.
Absorptivity: The absorptivity is a property that determines the fraction of the irradiation absorbed
by a surface. Spectral, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆 (𝜆), is defined as
𝐺𝜆,𝑎𝑏𝑠 (𝜆)
𝛼𝜆 (𝜆) =
𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)

The total, hemispherical absorptivity, , is defined as the fraction of the total irradiation absorbed by
a surface
∞
𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 ∫0 𝛼𝜆 (𝜆)𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
𝛼= = ∞
𝐺 ∫0 𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆

Reflectivity: The reflectivity is a property that determines the fraction of the incident radiation
reflected by a surface. Spectral, hemispherical reflectivity, 𝜌𝜆 (𝜆), is defined as
𝐺𝜆,𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝜆)
𝜌𝜆 (𝜆) =
𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)
The total, hemispherical reflectivity, , is defined as the fraction of the total irradiation reflected by a
surface
∞
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∫0 𝜌𝜆 (𝜆)𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
𝜌= = ∞
𝐺 ∫0 𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
Surfaces may be idealized as diffuse or specular, according to the manner in which they reflect
radiation. Diffuse reflection occurs if, regardless of the direction of the incident radiation, the intensity
of the reflected radiation is independent of the reflection angle. In contrast, if all the reflection is in the
direction 2, which equals the incident angle 1, specular reflection is said to occur. Although no
surface is perfectly diffuse or specular, the latter condition is more closely approximated by polished,
mirror-like surfaces and the former condition by rough surfaces. The assumption of diffuse reflection
is reasonable for most engineering applications.

Transmissivity: The transmissivity is a property that determines the fraction of the incident radiation
transmitted through a surface. Spectral, hemispherical transmissivity, 𝜏𝜆 (𝜆), is defined as
𝐺𝜆,𝑡𝑟𝑎 (𝜆)
𝜏𝜆 (𝜆) =
𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)

The total, hemispherical transmissivity, , is defined as the fraction of the total irradiation transmitted
through a surface
∞
𝐺𝑡𝑟𝑎 ∫0 𝜏𝜆 (𝜆)𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆
𝜏= = ∞
𝐺 ∫0 𝐺𝜆 (𝜆)𝑑𝜆

From the above definitions, for semi-transparent medium

𝛼𝜆 + 𝜌𝜆 + 𝜏𝜆 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 + 𝜌 + 𝜏 = 1
For an opaque medium, there is no transmission, and

𝛼+𝜌=1
Kirchhoff’s Law
Gray Surface: A gray surface is one for which spectral properties  and  are independent of  over
the spectral region of the irradiation and the surface emission. Thus, for gray surfaces,

𝐼(𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇) = 𝐼(𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇)
Therefore, for a gray and diffuse surface,

𝐼(𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇) = 𝐼(𝑇)