Acknowledgment

Success comes to those who strive it. To achieve one’s goal,

one puts in a lot of hard work and efficiency. In this process, one
takes all the encouraging and helping hands of the people.

I take this opportunity to express my profound sense of

gratitude to the support given by JETKING. At the outset I would
like to thank Mr.Manoj Gupta (MD Of the centre) for giving me the
opportunity to work with the organization.

I am whole heartedly thankful to my Training and placement

officer who had given us the chance to get into the professional
world & let use learn new and important things which we were
lacking in our professional studies.

I am also very thankful to my guide at jetking centre Mr.

Yogesh Kumar (CCNA, CCNP) for this guidance throughout the
training with his technical help and suggestion. I am also grateful
to him for his cooperation

I owe my regards to entire faculty of the department of

Computer Science engineering at MALOUT INSTITUTE OF
MANGEMENT AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, MALOUT
from where I have learnt the basics and whose informal
discussions and able guidance was a beacon light for me in this
entire duration.

1
2
 CCNA (Certified Network Associate)

Cisco was founded in 1984 with a small commercial gateway

server product. That changed networking forever. In 1992 the
name was changed to cisco system inc. the first product the
company marked was called the Advanced Gateway Server (AGS).
Then came the Mid Range Gateway Server (AGS). Then came the
Mid Range Gateway Server (MGS), the Compact Gateway Server
(CGS), the Integrated Gateway Server (IGS) and the AGS+. Cisco
calls these “the old alphabet soup product.”

In 1993 cisco came out with amazing 4000 router and than
created the more amazing 7000, 2000 and 3000 series routers.
These are still around and evolving. Cisco has since become an
unrivaled worldwide leader in networking for the internet. Its
networking solutions can easily connect users who work from
diverse devices on disparate. Cisco products make it simple for
people to access and transfer information without regards to
differences in time, place or platform.

Cisco system offers a broad range of networking and internet

services and capabilities, users who need to regularly access their
local network and internet can do in hindered, making Cisco’s
ware in dispensable.

3
4
5
Network

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in

order to share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs),
exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone
lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

The three basic types of networks include:

• Local Area Network (LAN)

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a

relatively small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area
such as a writing lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN
computers more than a mile apart.

6
In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the
file server. It stores all of the software that controls the network,
as well as the software that can be shared by the computers
attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server
are called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful
than the file server, and they may have additional software on
their hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to connect the
network interface cards in each computer. See the Topology,
Cabling, and Hardware sections of this tutorial for more
information on the configuration of a LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic

areas, such as cities or school districts. By interconnecting smaller
networks within a large geographic area, information is easily
disseminated throughout the network. Local libraries and
government agencies often use a MAN to connect to citizens and
private industries.

7
One example of a MAN is the MIND Network located in Pasco
County, Florida. It connects all of Pasco's media centers to a
centralized mainframe at the district office by using dedicated
phone lines, coaxial cabling, and wireless communications
providers.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas,

such as Florida, the United States, or the world. Dedicated
transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect
this type of network.

Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like

Tokyo in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone
bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local
and metropolitan networks to global communications networks
like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be
much different than a LAN or a MAN.

8
Advantages of Installing a LAN

• Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing

and transferring files. Without a network, files are shared by
copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the
disks from one computer to another. This method of
transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-
consuming.
• Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software
programs are available at considerable savings when
compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides
monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for
easier upgrading of the program. The changes have to be
done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the
individual workstations.
• Security. Files and programs on a network can be
designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not have to
worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can
be established for specific directories to restrict access to
authorized users.
• Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest
benefits of installing a network at a school is the fact that all
of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file
server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent
computers throughout the building.

9
• Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in
which a network exceeds stand-alone computers. Most
schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines,
modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer.
However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a
network, they can be shared by many users.
• Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the
hardware necessary to install an e-mail system. E-mail aids
in personal and professional communication for all school
personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general
information to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a
LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and
peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the
Internet, students can communicate with others throughout
the world.
• Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access
their files from computers throughout the school. Students
can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it
on a public access area of the network, then go to the media
center after school to finish their work. Students can also
work cooperatively through the network.
• Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as
Lotus Notes) allows many users to work on a document or
project concurrently. For example, educators located at
various schools within a county could simultaneously

10
 contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the
same document and spreadsheets.

Disadvantages of Installing a LAN

• Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally

save money over time, the initial costs of installation can be
prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a
technician.
• Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a
network requires considerable time and expertise. Many
schools have installed a network, only to find that they did
not budget for the necessary administrative support.
• File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more
susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the
files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a
halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access
to necessary programs and files.

Topology

There are two types of topology: physical and logical. The physical
topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals. Logical topology is the method
used to pass the information between workstations. Issues
involving logical topologies are discussed in the section on
protocols.

11
The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in
networks and other related topics.

Bus Linear

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a

terminator at each end (See fig.). All nodes(file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
Ethernet and LocalTalk networks use a linear bus topology.

Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main

cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

12
 • Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts
down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large
building.

Star

A star topology is designed with each node (file server,

workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central
network hub or concentrator (See fig.).

Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator

before continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator
manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as
a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with
twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable
or fiber optic cable.

The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or

LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-
wired ring.

13
 Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.

• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing
devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the
cost of the concentrators.

14
Tree

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star

topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig.).Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and
enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

• Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Tree topology

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of

cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

15
Ring

A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same

as a star topology. Internally, the MAU (multistation access unit) of
a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass
from one device to another in a circle or ring (See fig.). The Token
Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology.

Ring topology

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

• Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive

way to install a network; you do not have to purchase
concentrators.
• Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses
shorter lengths of cable.

16
 • Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network
is easily done by adding another concentrator.
• Cable type. The most common cable in schools is
unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with star
topologies.

Summary Chart:

Physical Common Common

Topology Cable Protocol

Coax
Ethernet
Linear Bus Twisted Pair
LocalTalk
Fiber

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Star
Fiber LocalTalk

Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Coax
Tree Twisted Pair Ethernet
Fiber

Cabling

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves

from one network device to another. There are several types of
cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a
network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use
a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is

17
related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and
how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the
development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in

networks and other related topics.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and

unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and
is generally the best option for school networks (See fig. ).

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to

extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires
inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs
and other electrical devices. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has
established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

18
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type
Use

Category1 Voice Only(telephone line)

Category2 Data to 4Mbps(Local Talk)
Category3 Data to 10Mbps(Ethernet)
Category4 Data to
20Mbps(Token Ring) Category5
Data to 100Mbps(Fast Ethernet)

One difference between the different categories of UTP is the

tightness of the twisting of the copper pairs. The tighter the
twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the
greater the cost per foot. Buy the best cable you can afford; most
schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5. Category 5 cable is
highly recommended.

If you are designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and are

considering the cost savings of buying Category 3 wire instead of
Category 5, remember that the Category 5 cable will provide more
"room to grow" as transmission technologies increase. Both
category 3 and category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length
of 100 meters. In Florida, Category 5 cable is required for retrofit
grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for unshielded twisted
pair cable (category 3, 4, or 5) carrying Ethernet signals.

19
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an

RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large
telephone-style connector (See fig.). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be
inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that
the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone
industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin
inside the connector.

RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and

electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is
suitable for environments with electrical interference; however,
the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

20
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A

plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and
a braided metal shield (See fig.). The metal shield helps to block
any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and
other computers.

Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant

to signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable
lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two
types of coaxial cabling are: thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to

the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being
200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185
meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school networks,
especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers

to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet
signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500

21
meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover
that helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This
makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in
a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is

the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector (See fig.). Different
types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-
connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the
cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid
problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that
crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

BNC connector

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by

several layers of protective materials (See fig). It transmits light
rather than electronic signals, eliminating the problem of electrical
interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that
contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made

22
it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to
its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much
longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the
capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services
such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of
fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is
more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the
specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fiber optic cable

Facts about fiber optic cables:

• Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.

• Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent
breakage.
• A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
• Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

23
Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST

connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a BNC connector. A newer
connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared
face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum

length

10BaseT UTP 100meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial
185meters 10Base5 Thick
Coaxial 500meters
10BaseF Fiber Optic
2000meters

Wireless LANs

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are
wireless. Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals or
infrared light beams to communicate between the workstations
and the file server. Information is relayed between transceivers as
if they were physically connected. For longer distance, wireless
communications can also take place through cellular telephone
technology or by satellite.
24
Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers or
remote computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are
also beneficial in older buildings where it may be difficult or
impossible to install cables. Wireless LANs also have some
disadvantages. They are very expensive, provide poor security,
and are susceptible to electrical interference from lights and
radios. They are also slower than LANs using cabling.

FlexibleCable
The most common type of cable used for the carrier-band
trunk is known as "RG-11 type". This cable is flexible and is about
0.4" in diameter. RG-11 cable is easier to install than semi-rigid
cable. The electrical characteristics of the RG-11 are not as good
as the semi-rigid cable, therefore, the cable-system distance is
limited to about 800 meters. However, this distance is adequate
for most carrier-band network applications.

RG-11 type cable can also be armored. Armoring consists of an

additional layer of corrugated aluminum and a tough plastic
coating for the cable. The armoring has many benefits. It allows
the cable to be easily installed without risk of damaging the
signal-carrying inner cable. Armored cable can be directly buried
without putting it into conduits. The cable can be directly hung
between posts without using messenger wires for support.
Armoring also protects the cable from moisture and damage.

25
Ethernet

An IEEE 802.3 standard for contention networks. Ethernet uses a

bus or star topology and relies on the form of access known as
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
to regulate communication line traffic. Network nodes are linked
by coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, or by twisted-pair wiring. Data
is transmitted in variable-length frames containing delivery and
control information and up to 1,500 bytes of data. The Ethernet
standard provides for baseband transmission at 10 megabits (10
million bits) per second. The Internet revolution is impacting the
building-automation industry in several ways, including increasing
awareness of the local-area-network (LAN) technology called
Ethernet. Ethernet is one of the approved LAN types in the BACnet

26
standard (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 135-2001, BACnet--a Data
Communication Protocol for Building Automation and Control
Networks). With the newer BACnet/IP LAN type defined in BACnet
Annex J, and with more and more building owners demanding the
use of Web-browser technology and Internet protocols to view the
status of their buildings, interest in Ethernet, which is perceived to
be the simplest way to link to the Internet, is only going to grow.
Connecting a Web browser to a TCP/IP Ethernet network is easy,
but is that all that is needed to be known about using Ethernet?
There are indeed rules to follow if an Ethernet network is to
perform as intended. This article will discuss some of the issues to
consider.

Ethernet is an Evolving standard

The Ethernet in application today is much different than the

Ethernet introduced during the mid-1970s. Instead of using bulky
coaxial cable with transceivers mounted in ceilings, modern
Ethernet uses inexpensive twisted-pair (10BASE-T) or fiber-optic
(10BASE-FL) cabling to interconnect Ethernet stations.
Recommendations on cabling, connectors, and how commercial
buildings should be wired can be found in standards such as
ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.The original Ethernet data rate of 10 Mbps still
is supported, but some newer equipment can automatically
configure a station to operate at either 10 or 100 Mbps using the
auto-negotiating protocol.

27
Originally, Ethernet operated only in half- duplex mode, which
allowed transmissions in both directions, but not at the same time
because coaxial cable had only a single shared path for signaling.
Now with twisted-pair and fiber-optic cabling, which have two
distinct paths for signaling, it is possible to configure Ethernet
stations to operate in full-duplex mode with simultaneous
transmitting and receiving over separate paths, assuming star
topology is used.Ethernet is not an easy technology to fully
understand, as evidenced by the fact that the ever-changing IEEE
802.3 specification--and its international version, ISO8802-3--
which governs the technology, is more than 1,500 pages.

Understanding the Collision Domain

It is quite possible that, upon perceiving a clear channel, two

Ethernet stations will initiate transmission simultaneously.
Eventually, the two transmissions will collide, disrupting the data.
All other stations on the network will note the collision and discard
the frame. The two transmitting stations will note the collision as
well and cease transmitting, backing off for a time before
attempting the transmission process again. Usually, one will
proceed before the other, and both eventually will have the
opportunity to transmit alone. This process is the basic
mechanism by which Ethernet stations arbitrate access to a
common medium. The process is based on time. Because it takes
time for signals to propagate down wires, there is a limit to how
far away stations can be located in a shared Ethernet

28
environment. If a station is too far away, a late collision can occur.
With a late collision, some stations will accept the frame as good,
while others will discard the frame. This is an undesirable situation
that should be avoided.

An Ethernet bus is one collision domain of limited length.

The distance between the two farthest stations on a shared

Ethernet network is called the network diameter. Because these
two stations could have interconnected repeating hubs in the path
between them, the cabling between all interconnecting devices is
included in the network-diameter calculation. For the collision-
arbitration mechanism to function, the round-trip propagation
time between the two farthest stations must be less than the time
needed to send 72 bytes. At the slowest Ethernet speed of 10
Mbps, this translates to 57.6 µs. At 100 Mbps,it translates to only
5.76 µs

29
Ethernet hubs extend network length, but only within one
collision domain.

What does this mean in terms of distance? The IEEE 802.3

standard provides a detailed analysis of the collision-domain
issues and makes recommendations regarding the limitations on
both twisted-pair and fiber-optic cabling running at either 10 or
100 Mbps. At 10 Mbps, the recommended limit is five twisted-pair
segments interconnected with four cascaded repeating hubs,
yielding a maximum network diameter of 500 m. At 100 Mbps,
only one repeating hub can be used, yielding a network diameter
of only 200 m. This restriction in hub use ensures that the
maximum network diameter does not exceed the collision domain.
For shared Ethernet networks, all stations, hubs, and cabling must
be confined to one collision domain. Fiber-optic networks are even
trickier when determining maximum network diameter. For
example, at both 10 and 100 Mbps, the maximum segment length
of a multimode fiber- optic link is 2 km. At 100 Mbps, however,
this exceeds the collision domain; therefore, segment length is
limited to 412 m. At 10 Mbps, a single network can consist of two
100-m twisted-pair end segments and two 1-km fiber-optic

30
midsegments incorporating a total of three hubs. These distance
constraints are limiting, especially in campus settings; however,
there is a way to avoid the confusing rules of shared Ethernet to
achieve greater distances.

Star Topology Requires Use of a Hub

Traditionally, Ethernet has been wired in a bus topology using

coaxial (10BASE2) or transceiver (10BASE5) cable. Modern
Ethernet usually is wired in a star topology requiring the use of
one or more central hubs. Hubs are active devices (requiring
power) and can be either of two varieties. The repeating hub
operates on the symbols sent by Ethernet stations representing
the 1s and 0s of a signal stream, while a switching hub operates
on the frames sent by the stations. A repeating hub basically
retimes signals and compensates for any loss in their strength as
it directs a received signal stream on one of its ports to all
remaining ports on the hub.

For example, the maximum length of an Ethernet twisted-pair

segment is 100 m. Spanning a distance of 300 m would require
the use of two cascaded repeating hubs, each located 100 m from
a station. Another 100-m-long cable would link the two hubs. This
application would require the use of a two-port hub, which
basically is a repeater. A hub is considered a device with three or
more ports. For greater distances, more repeating hubs would be
needed; however, there is a limit to the number of cascaded hubs.

31
If too many repeating hubs are cascaded, unreliable operation will
occur because the limits of the collision domain would be violated.

The Use of Switch Technology

The second approach to implementing star topology is called

switching. A switching hub functions much like a repeating hub;
however, it operates on a much different principle. Instead of
operating on the individual symbols sent down the cable, a
switching hub first consumes the entire frame sent by an Ethernet
station. The maximum length of an Ethernet frame is 1,518 bytes.
A port on the switch generally receives the complete frame,
checks the integrity of the frame by performing a cyclic
redundancy check, and then forwards the frame to all other ports
on the switch. How is this process different from that of a
repeating hub? The storing and forwarding of complete frames
introduces data latency, which usually is not an issue with slow-
responding control systems found in building automation. The
benefit of switch technology is that it terminates the collision
domain at each of the switch ports. Although a switch port is not
the same as an Ethernet station, it acts very much like one and
functions as one of the end stations. Each switch port complies
with the same arbitration rules as an Ethernet station. The switch
itself functions as a bridge, and the two terms are
interchangeable. Unlike a repeater, which operates at the physical
layer, a bridge operates one layer up on the ISO reference model,
at the data-link layer. A repeater must reside within the collision

32
domain, while a bridge connects two distinct collision domains.
Why is this important? If a network is limited by distance because
of collision-domain constraints, the addition of a switch effectively
doubles the available distance. This could be important when
connecting buildings and especially important when fiber optics
are used.

Ethernet switches extend network length, but isolate

collision domains.

A switch can do more than extend distance. It can minimize

unnecessary traffic on a network by restricting the forwarding of
frames to particular ports. To do this, the switch learns the
location of Ethernet stations by observing the source address of
transmissions and noting in a table which port received a
particular station address. This feature is unique to switching-hub
technology and improves the performance of Ethernet networks.

33
ISDN

A digital phone line used to provide higher bandwidth. ISDN in

North America is typically available in two forms: Basic Rate
Interface (BRI) consists of 2 B-channels at 64 kilobits per second
(Kbps) and a D-channel at 16 Kbps; Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
consists of 23 B-channels at 64 Kbps and a D-channel at 64 Kbps.
An ISDN line must be installed by the phone company at both the
calling site and the called site

To enhance connection speeds, you can use an Integrated

Services Digital Network (ISDN) line. Whereas standard phone
lines typically transmit from 28.8 to 56 kilobits per second (Kbps),
typical ISDN devices are capable of 64 or 128 Kbps. This is slower
than local area networks supported by high-speed data
communications technology, but faster than analog telephone
lines. ISDN provides end-to-end digital connectivity between your
computer and a remote computer or network by using a local
telephone line for network connection.

An ISDN line must be installed by the phone company at your site

and at the remote access server. Also, an ISDN adapter must be
installed in place of a modem in both your computer and the
remote access server. Costs for ISDN equipment and lines may be
higher than standard modems and phone lines. However, the
speed of communication reduces the duration of the connection
time, thereby possibly saving toll charges.
34
An ISDN line comes with two B channels that transmit data at
64 Kbps, and one D channel for signaling that transmits data at
16 Kbps. You can configure each B channel to operate as a port.
With this configuration, line speed increases to 128 Kbps. Channel
aggregation schemes are specific to each driver, so you must use
the same driver and equipment on the client and server.

Multilink dialing over ISDN combines multiple physical links into a

logical bundle. This aggregate link increases your bandwidth. To
use Multilink, both your connection and the remote access server
must have Multilink enabled. Multilink is automatically enabled in
Windows XP Home Edition and Windows XP Professional.

Broadband integrated services digital network (B-

ISDN)

An ITU-T communication standard for high-speed networking that

provides new services, including voice, video, and data on the
same network.

ISDN access

To enhance your network connection speed, you can use an

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line. Standard phone

35
lines typically transmit at up to 56 kilobits per second (KBps),
while ISDN lines can transmit at speeds of 64 or 128 KBps.

An ISDN line must be installed by the phone company at both the

server and at the remote site. ISDN also requires that you install
an ISDN card in both the server and in your computer. Costs for
ISDN equipment and lines can be higher than standard modems
and phone lines. However, the speed of communication reduces
the duration of the connection, possibly saving some toll charges.

An ISDN line comes with two B channels that transmit data at

64 KBps, and one D channel for signaling that transmits data at
16 KBps. You can configure each B channel to operate as a port.
With some ISDN drivers, you can aggregate the channels. This
means you can statically assign a higher bandwidth by configuring
both B channels to act as a single port. With this configuration,
line speed increases to 128 KBps.

The Multilink feature performs channel aggregation for ISDN.

Multilink combines multiple physical links into a logical bundle.
This aggregate link increases the bandwidth of a connection. In
addition, you can allocate multiple links dynamically, which means
ISDN lines are used only as they are required. This eliminates
excess bandwidth, representing a significant efficiency advantage
to users.

Connectors
F-connectors are used to connect the drop cable to the station

36
and to attach cables to taps. F-connectors are the type of
connector commonly used to attach antennas to TV sets. For this
reason. there is a wide variety of connectors available with
varying quality Most F-connectors are not suitable for industrial
use.Consumer-grade connectors use the center conductor of the
cable as the center pin of the connector. This wire makes a
questionable contact and has a good chance of damaging the
female contact of the mating connector. In order to define the
characteristics of an F-connector suitable for industrial use, the
Electronic Industries Association, EIA, has formulated the FD
connector specification, Standard 550.

One of the most important parts of the FD standard is to specify a

captive center conductor male pin for the F-connector. The size of
the male pin and the corresponding female contact are well
defined to insure good contact. The FD connector standard also
specifies tin plating for the mating parts.Tin is adequate for most
applications. Some environments, however, mandate the use of
gold plating. F-connectors are available with either kind of plating.
Care should be taken to make sure that the mating connectors are
either all tin or all gold. Mixing gold with tin can produce bad
contacts at the mating surfaces.The FD standard also lists a
number of important mechanical and environmental
characteristics. FD-type connectors should be used on the carrier-
band network.Another characteristic to look for in a connector is
the amount of skill and the kinds of tools required to attach the

37
connector to the cable. Most connector failures are a result of
improper installation.

RG-11 and RG-6 cables with two types of

quality F-connectors

Terminators
In order to minimize the reflections on the cable system,
everything must be terminated: Precision 75 ohm terminators or
terminating taps must be used at the ends of the trunk cable. The
terminators commonly used in cable television are not adequate.
They do not have a good center pin and do not absorb all of the
signal. If a drop port on a tap is not used, it must be terminated
with 75 ohms. The drop port terminators do not have to be
precise-the common cable television terminators are adequate. If
a drop cable attached to a tap is not attached to a station, it must
be terminated with 75 ohms. The cable television terminators are
adequate for this.

In situations where stations are disconnected from the drop cable

while the network is operating, some time may lapse before a

38
terminator can be attached to the unused drop cable. In the
meantime, the cable is unterminated. A single unterminated drop
cable will not materially affect the network's operation, but
several unterminated cables might. To preclude this, self-
terminators can be used. The way the self-terminations work is as
follows:

The self-termination is attached to the station-end of a drop cable.

When a station is not attached, the self-terminator terminates the
drop cable. When a station is attached, the station itself becomes
the terminator and the self-terminator disconnects itself. If the
station is removed, the self-terminator again provides the needed
termination.

Self-terminators are useful in situations where the people

connecting and disconnecting stations on the network may not be
knowledgeable enough to terminate unused drop cables.

Hubs

In data communication, a hub is the pivot of convergence

where data arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded
out in more or more directions. A hub usually includes a switch (in
telecommunication, a switch is a network device that selects a
path or circuit for sending a unit of data to its next destination) of
some kind. The distinction seems to be that the hub is the point
where data comes together and the switch is what determines
how and where data is forwarded from the place where data

39
comes together. A hub is a hardware that acts as a central
connecting point and joins lines in a star network configuration.

Types of Hubs
As you may have already guessed, hubs perform a crucial
function on networks with a star topology. There are many
different types of hubs, each offering specific features that allow
you to provide varying levels of service.

Passive Hub
Passive hubs, as the name suggests, are rather quiescent
creatures. They do not do very much to enhance the performance
of your LAN, nor do they do anything to assist you in
troubleshooting faulty hardware or finding performance
bottlenecks. They simply take all of the packets they receive on a
single port and rebroadcast them across all ports-the simplest
thing that a hub can do. Passive hubs commonly have one
10base-2 port in addition to RJ-45 connectors that connect each
LAN device.

As you have already read, 10base-5 is 10Mbps Ethernet that is run

over thick-coax. This 10base-2 connector can be used as your

40
network backbone. Other, more advanced passive hubs have AUI
ports that can be connected to the transceiver of your choice to
form a backbone that you may find more advantageous.

Active Hub
Active hubs actually do something other than simply
rebroadcast data. Generally, that have all of the features of
passive hubs, with the added bonus of actually watching the data
sent out. Active hubs take a larger role in Ethernet communication
by implementing a technology called store and forward where the
hubs actually look at the data they are transmitting before
sending it. This is not to say that the hub prioritizes certain
packets of data. It does, however, repair certain “damaged”
packets and will retime the distribution of other packets.

It a signal received by an active hub is weak but still

readable, the active hub restores the signal to a stronger state
before rebroadcast it. This feature allows certain devices that are
not operating within optimal parameters to still be used on your
network. If a device is not broadcasting a signal strong enough to
be seen by other devices on a network that uses passive hubs, the
signal amplification provided by an active hub may allow that
device to continue to function on you LAN. Additionally, some
active hubs will report devices on your networks that are not fully
functional. In this way, active hubs also provide certain diagnostic
capabilities for your network.

41
 Active hubs will also retime and resynchronize certain
packets when they are being transmitted. Certain cable runs may
experience electromagnetic (EM) disturbances that prevent
packets from reaching the hub or the device at the end o the
cable run in timely fashion. In other situations, the packets may
not reach the destination at all.

Bridges :

Bridges are devices that operate at Layer 2 of the OSI

reference model. That is why they are widely referred to as Data
Link Layer devices.m They analyze incoming frames make
forwarding decisions based on information contained in the
frames and forward the frames toward the destination. l Local and
remote bridges connect LAN segments in specific areas. bridge
consists of a computer unit two or more network interface cards
connecting two types of networks.

42
 Routers :

A router is similar to a bridge but can handle more complex

types of communication between dissimilar networks. Routers are
usually employed by wide area networks which often connect
networks using different communication protocols and dissimilar
addressing schemes. The routers work in the Network layer thus
giving them the ability to understand the protocols being used to
carry the data over the network. Since routers can understand
protocols they can use the rules to decide what to do with a
specific data.

l TCP/IP uses the term gateway to refer to routers.

Features of Router

Multiple Active paths

43
 Routers are able to keep track of multiple active paths. They
keep track of multiple active paths between any given source and
destination network.

• l Identify address

Routers work at the network layer and can access more

information than a bridge. Routers can identify source and
destination network addresses within packets.

• Traffic Management

Routers provide excellent traffic management using

intelligent path selection. Routers select the best route which is
based on traffic loads line speeds number of hops or administrator
pre set costs.

• Sharing information

Routers can share status and routing information with other

routers. By doing this they can listen to the network and identify
which connections are busy and which are not.

• Filtering bad data

Routers do not forward any information that does not have a

correct network address. This is the reason they don't forward bad
data. Routers also filter broadcast traffic by not routing broadcast
packets. .

• Performance

44
 Routers perform complex tasks. This means they are slower
than bridges because they keep processing data intensively. A
router can be a dedicated box with a port to all networks.
Routable protocols contain information in each packet relating to
the network address of the source and destination nodes.

• Routers routing packet

This kind of information allows a router to forward the packet

to a particular network rather than a particular node. Different
protocols address networks using a variety of naming schemes.

45
 INTERNETWOR
KING

46
INTRODUCTION
When we take two or more LANs or WANs and connect them via a
router, and configure a logical network addressing scheme with a
protocol such as IP.Routers are used to connect networks together
and route packets of data from one network to another. Two
advantage of using routers in our network are:-

• They don’t forward broadcast by default.

• They can filter the network based on layers 3(network layer)

information i.e. IP address.

Four router functions in network are:

• Packet switching

• Packet filtering

• Internetworking communication

• Path selection

47
 Packet switching: Here routers use data in packets
whose IP addressing is provided.

Packet filtering: Packet filtering is provided by access

lists.

Path selection: Routers use routing table to make path

selections and forward packets to remote networks.

INTERNETWORKING MODELS
When networks first came into being, computers could typically
communicate only with computersfrom the same manufacturer.
For example, companies ran either a complete DECnet solutionor
an IBM solution—not both together. In the late 1970s, theOpen
Systems Interconnection (OSI)reference model was created by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to breakthis
barrier.

The OSI model was meant to help vendors create interoperable

network devices and softwarein the form of protocols so that
different vendor networks could work with each other.Like world
peace, it’ll probably never happen completely, but it’s still a great
goal. The OSI model is the primary architectural model for
networks. It describes howdata and network information are
communicated from an application on one computerthrough the
network media to an application on another computer. The OSI
referencemodel breaks this approach into layers.

Advantages of Reference Models

The OSI model is hierarchical, and the same benefits and
advantages can apply to any layered model. The primary purpose
of all such models, especially the OSI model, is to allow different
vendors’ networks to interoperate. Advantages of using the OSI
layered model include, but are not limited to, the following:

48
  It divides the network communication process into smaller
and simpler components, thus aiding component
development, design, and troubleshooting.
 It allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.
 It encourages industry standardization by defining what
functions occur at each layer of the model.
 It allows various types of network hardware and software to
communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers,
so it does not hamper development.

The OSI Reference Model

Concept behind the OSI model:-
The ISO developed the 'Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)
reference model' in 1977.l It was designed to aid understanding of
a network system functions. l The model is called ISO OSI (Open
systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems i.e. systems that are open for
communication with other systems.

The OSI model has 7 layers as follows:

49
Network communication and the OSI model
• Two computers should be running on the same protocol in
order to communicate with each other.l Each layer
communicates with its equivalent 'peer' layer on the other
computer via the lower layers of the model.

• Each layer provides services for the layer above and uses the
services of the layer below.

• The Network layer of one computer communicates with the

Network layer of another computer by using the services of
the Data Link layer and the subsequent lower layers.

• Both Network layers provide services to their respective

Transport layers when required.

• When a message is sent from one computer to another it

travels down the stack of layers on the sending computer. It
then reaches the receiving computer using the transmission
media and then passes up the stack on this computer. At
each level (except the Physical layer) a header is added.
50
 These headers provide control information and are read by
the corresponding layer on the other computer.

OSI Header Information

OSI-TCP/IP

• This picture demonstrates how the OSI model compares with

TCP / IP protocol stack.

• The TCP / IP and ISO models were developed concurrently

and therefore show limited agreement.

• Some of the OSI layers are performed by single protocol

some layers are performed by several protocols and some
protocols cover many layers.

51
PHYSICAL LAYER:

• Being the bottom-most layer the Physical layer of the OSI

model is responsible for the transmission and receiption of
bits from one computer to another computer. l This layer
includes the cables cable length connectors etc. l The
electrical signal transmitting data in binary values of 0's and
1's also forms a part of this layer i.e. this layer is responsible
for translating bits of binary data from the upper layers into
signals to be sent over the transmission media. l Similarly it
is also efficient in converting incoming signals into bits which
is then sent to the layer above i.e. the Data Link layer.

• In short it performs the function of encoding and

transmission.l It is this layer that defines the signaling
methods used in network media. l Whereas Analog
(broadband) signaling intensifies signals into frequencies
Digital (baseband) signaling uses high and low voltage levels
to represent binary 1's and 0's.

It specifies the following:

52
 • The network medium

• Physical network topologies

Connectivity devices found at the Physical layer include the

following:

• Hub

• Repeater

• Media converter

Data Link Layer :

• The Data Link layer assigns a meaning to the bits and bytes
that are being transmitted over the network and ensures that
they are structured. In fact the Physical layer only deals with
bits of data (1s and 0s) but the Data Link layer organises
data into frames. The main task of the Data Link layer is to
take a raw transmission facility and transform it into a line
that appears free of transmission errors in the Network layer.
Addressing frames to specific computers on the network.
Error control allows the detection and correction of errors
between adjacent nodes.

• Typical errors include frames lost on route and those

recognizable as damaged frames from using cyclic
redundancy checks (CRCs) .Controlling the data flow
prevents fast transmitters from slow receivers with data.

IEEE divides the function of the Data Link layer into two sub
layers.

• These two sub layers are known as Media Access Control

(MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC).

• The Media Access Control sub layer defines the way in which
multiple NICs share a single transmission medium.

53
It covers the following:

 Logical topology

bus or ring

 Media access method

contention token passing or demand priority.

 Addressing

Network Layer
 This layer is efficient in converting the frames of Data Link
layer into packets . Each network has an address called
the IP address or network address. It helps in translating
between hardware address (address of the NIC card) and
network address. Thus the layer becomes important when
a network uses a device called router to link two different
networks each having a different network address.
Basically routers are hardware devices that work at the
Network layer.l This characteristic makes them useful for
extended networks like WAN (Wide Area Networks).

Connectivity devices found within the Network layer include:

 Routers

 Brouters (acting as routers)

Transport Layer
• The basic function of the Transport layer is to accept data
from the Session layer split it up into smaller units if need be
pass these to the Network layer and ensure that all the

54
 pieces arrive correctly at the other end. The Transport layer
is a true source-to-destination or end-to-end layer.The
Transport layer is also responsible for splitting 'messages'
from the Session layer into smaller packet format where
sequence numbers are used by the receiver to rebuild the
messages correctly.

Other Layers of the OSI Model

Session Layer
The Session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.

This layer maintains a groundwork or connection between the

nodes on the network so that when two applications need to
communicate or share data over the network the Session layer
establishes a communication session between them. l This has to
be done before the data is transmitted over the network and
hence the Session layer has to maintain co-ordination between
the nodes and the data exchange.

The other services of the Session layer are:

• The Session layer can provide a synchronization service for

long transactions in which checkpoints are inserted into the
data stream. If a problem occurs only the data is transferred
after the last checkpoint is resent. The Session layer
manages dialog control and can select the mode for the
dialog.

Presentation Layer :
• The Presentation layer transforms data between the format
required for the network and the format required for the
application. l The Presentation layer is responsible for
converting the data sent by the layer above i.e. the

55
 Application layer into a proper format for communication
over the network.

• The Presentation layer also supports data compression.

Application Layer :
• This is the highest layer of the OSI model. The Application
layer is the layer at which the users interact with the
network. All the operating systems fall in this category. Note:
It is not just the applications running on the operating
systems that make up the Application layer but the operating
system itself. lOne of the most utilized services provided by
the Application layer is file transfer.Other services provided
by the Application layer include:

• Network print

• Electronic mail

The Cisco Three-Layer Hierarchical

Model
Most of us were exposed to hierarchy early in life. Anyone with
older siblings learned what it was like to be at the bottom of the
hierarchy. Regardless of where you first discovered hierarchy,
today most of us experience it in many aspects of our lives. It is
hierarchy that helps us understand where things belong, how
things fit together, and what functions go where. It brings order
and understandability to otherwise complex models. If you want a
pay raise, for instance, hierarchy dictates that you ask your boss,
not your subordinate. That is the person whose role it is to grant
(or deny) your request. So basically, understanding hierarchy
helps us discern where we should go to get what we need.

Hierarchy has many of the same benefits in network design that it

does in other areas of life. When used properly, it makes networks
56
more predictable. It helps us define which areas should perform
certain functions. Likewise, you can use tools such as access lists
at certain levels in hierarchical networks and avoid them at
others. Let’s face it: Large networks can be extremely
complicated, with multiple protocols, detailed configurations, and
diverse technologies. Hierarchy helps us summarize a complex
collection of details into an understandable model. Then, as
specific configurations are needed, the model dictates the
appropriate manner in which to apply them.

The Cisco hierarchical model can help you design, implement, and
maintain a scalable,reliable, cost-effective hierarchical
internetwork. Cisco defines three layers of hierarchy.

The following are the three layers and their typical functions:

 The core layer: backbone

 The distribution layer: routing

 The access layer: switching

Each layer has specific responsibilities. Remember, however, that

the three layers are logical and are not necessarily physical
devices. Consider the OSI model, another logical hierarchy. The
seven layers describe functions but not necessarily protocols,
right? Sometimes a protocol maps to more than one layer of the
OSI model, and sometimes multiple protocols communicate within
a single layer. In the same way, when we build physical
implementations of hierarchical networks, we may have many
devices in a single layer, or we might have a single device
performing functions at two layers. The definition of the layers is
logical, not physical. Now, let’s take a closer look at each of the
layers.

The Core Layer

57
The core layer is literally the core of the network. At the top of the
hierarchy, the core layer is responsible for transporting large
amounts of traffic both reliably and quickly. The only purpose of
the network’s core layer is to switch traffic as fast as possible. The
traffic transported across the core is common to a majority of
users. However, remember that user data is processed at the
distribution layer, which forwards the requests to the core if
needed. If there is a failure in the core, every single user can be
affected. Therefore, fault tolerance at this layer is an issue. The
core is likely to see large volumes of traffic, so speed and latency
are driving concerns here. Given the function of the core, we can
now consider some design specifics. Let’s start with some things
we don’t want to do:

 Don’t do anything to slow down traffic. This includes using

access lists, routing between virtual local area networks
(VLANs), and implementing packet filtering.

 Don’t support workgroup access here.

 Avoid expanding the core (i.e., adding routers) when the

internetwork grows. If performance becomes an issue in the
core, give preference to upgrades over expansion. Now,
there are a few things that we want to do as we design the
core:

 Design the core for high reliability. Consider data-link

technologies that facilitate both speed and redundancy, such
as FDDI, Fast Ethernet (with redundant links), or even ATM.

 Design with speed in mind. The core should have very little
latency.

 Select routing protocols with lower convergence times. Fast

and redundant data-link connectivity is no help if your
routing tables are shot!

58
The Distribution Layer
The distribution layer is sometimes referred to as the workgroup
layer and is the communication point between the access layer
and the core. The primary functions of the distribution layer are to
provide routing, filtering, and WAN access and to determine how
packets can access the core,if needed.The

distribution layer must determine the fastest way that network

service requests are handled—for example, how a file request is
forwarded to a server. After the distribution layer determines the
best path, it forwards the request to the core layer if
necessary.The core layer then quickly transports the request to
the correct service.

The distribution layer is the place to implement policies for the

network. Here you can exercise considerable flexibility in defining
network operation. There are several actions that generally should
be done at the distribution layer:

 Routing

 Implementing tools (such as access lists), packet filtering,

and queuing

 Implementing security and network policies, including

address translation and firewalls

 Redistributing between routing protocols, including static

routing

 Routing between VLANs and other workgroup support

functions

 Defining broadcast and multicast domains

Things to avoid at the distribution layer are limited to those

functions that exclusively belong to one of the other layers.

59
The Access Layer
The access layer controls user and workgroup access to
internetwork resources. The access layer is sometimes referred to
as the desktop layer. The network resources most users need will
be available locally. The distribution layer handles any traffic for
remote services. The following are some of the functions to be
included at the access layer:

IP
ADDRESSING

60
INTRODUCTION:

One of the most important topics in any discussion of TCP/IP is IP

addressing. An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each
machine on an IP network. It designates the specific location of a
device on the network.

An IP address is a software address, not a hardware address—the

latter is hard-coded on a network interface card (NIC) and used for
finding hosts on a local network. IP addressing was designed to
allow hosts on one network to communicate with a host on a
different network regardless of the type of LANs the hosts are
participating in.Before we get into the more complicated aspects
of IP addressing, you need to understand some of the basics. First
I’m going to explain some of the fundamentals of IP addressing
and its terminology.Then you’ll learn about the hierarchical IP
addressing scheme and private IP addresses.

IP Terminology
Bit:- A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.

61
Byte:- A byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used.
For the rest of this chapter,always assume a byte is 8 bits.

Octet :-An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary

number. In this chapter,the terms byte and octet are completely
interchangeable.

Network address:- This is the designation used in routing to send

packets to a remote network—for example, 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0,
and 192.168.10.0.

Broadcast address :-The address used by applications and hosts to

send information to all nodes on a network is called the broadcast
address. Examples include 255.255.255.255,which is all networks,
all nodes; 172.16.255.255, which is all subnets and hosts on
network 172.16.0.0; and 10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all
subnets and hosts on network 10.0.0.0.

THE HIERARCHICAL IP ADDRESSING SCHEME:

• An IP addressing consist of 32 bits of information.

These bits are divided into four sections, referred to as
octets or bytes, each containing 1 byte. It can be
represent by three methods:

 Dotted- decimal, as in 172.16.30.56

 Binary , as in
10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000

 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38

62
All these examples truly represent the same IP address.
Hexadecimal is not often used as dotted-decimal is used.
The window registry is a good examples of program that
stroes a mechine’s IP address in hex. The advantage of
hierarchical is that it can handle a large addresses namely
4.3 billon. The disadvantage of the flat addressing scheme, an
the reason it’s not used for IP addressing, relates to routing.

If every address were unique, all routers on the internet

would need to store the address the address of each and
every machine on the internet. This would make efficient
routing impossible, even if only a fraction of the possible
address were used.

The solution to this problem is to use two-or three level ,

hierarchical addressing scheme that is structured by
network and host, or network, subnet, and host. IP addresses
use the same layered structure.

Network Addressing
The network address (which can also be called the network
number) uniquely identifies each network. Every machine on the
same network shares that network address as part of its IP
address. In the IP address 172.16.30.56, for example, 172.16 is
the network address.The node address is assigned to, and
uniquely identifies, each machine on a network. This part of the
address must be unique because it identifies a particular machine
—an individual—as opposed to a network, which is a group. This
number can also be referred to as a host address. In the sample IP
address 172.16.30.56, the 30.56 is the node address.The
designers of the Internet decided to create classes of networks

63
based on network size. For the small number of networks
possessing a nodes. The class distinction for networks between
very large and very by the class designation of one’s network.
Summary of the three classes of networks

8 BIT 8BIT 8BIT 8BIT

CLASS A NETWORK HOST HOST HOST

CLASS B NETWORK NETWORK HOST HOST

CLASS C NETWORK NETWORK NETWORK HOST

MULTICAS
CLASS D
T

CLASS E RESEARCH

Network Address Range: Class A

The designers of the IP address scheme said that the first bit of
the first byte in a Class A network address must always be off, or
0. This means a Class A address must be between 0 and 127 in
the first byte, inclusive.Consider the following network address:

0xxxxxxx

If we turn the other 7 bits all off and then turn them all on,
we’ll find the Class A range of network addresses:

00000000 = 0

64
 01111111 = 127

So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0

and 127, and it can’t be less or more. (Yes, I know 0 and 127 are
not valid in a Class A network. I’ll talk about reserved addresses in
a minute.)

Network Address Range: Class B

In a Class B network, the RFCs state that the first bit of the first
byte must always be turned on but the second bit must always be
turned off. If you turn the other 6 bits all off and then all on, you
will find the range for a Class B network:

10000000 = 128

10111111 = 191

As you can see, a Class B network is defined when the first

byte is configured from 128 to 191.

Network Address Range: Class C

For Class C networks, the RFCs define the first 2 bits of the first
octet as always turned on, but the third bit can never be on.
Following the same process as the previous classes, convert from
binary to decimal to find the range. Here’s the range for a Class C
network:

Class A Addresses
In a Class A network address, the first byte is assigned to the
network address and the three remaining bytes are used for the
node addresses. The Class A format is as follows:

network.node.node.node

For example, in the IP address 49.22.102.70, the 49 is the network

address and 22.102.70 is the node address. Every machine on this

65
particular network would have the distinctive network address of
49.

Class A network addresses are 1 byte long, with the first bit of
that byte reserved and the 7 remaining bits available for
manipulation (addressing). As a result, the maximum number of
Class A networks that can be created is 128. Why? Because each
of the 7 bit positions can be either a 0 or a 1, thus 27, or 128. To
complicate matters further, the network address of all 0s (0000
0000) is reserved to designate the default route (see Table 2.4 in
the previous section). Additionally, the address 127, which is
reserved for diagnostics, can’t be used either, which means that
you can really only use the numbers 1 to 126 to designate Class A
network addresses. This means the actual number of usable Class
A network addresses is 128 minus 2, or 126. The IP address
127.0.0.1 is used to test the IP stack on an individual node and
cannot be used as a valid host address.

Each Class A address has 3 bytes (24-bit positions) for the node
address of a machine. This means there are 224—or 16,777,216—
unique combinations and, therefore, precisely that many possible
unique node addresses for each Class A network.

Class A Valid Host IDs

Here’s an example of how to figure out the valid host IDs in a
Class A network address:

 All host bits off is the network address: 10.0.0.0.

 All host bits on is the broadcast address: 10.255.255.255.

The valid hosts are the numbers in between the network address
and the broadcast address:

10.0.0.1 through 10.255.255.254. Notice that 0s and 255s can be

valid host IDs. All you need to remember when trying to find valid

66
host addresses is that the host bits can’t all be turned off or all be
on at the same time.

Class B Addresses
In a Class B network address, the first 2 bytes are assigned to the
network address and the remaining 2 bytes are used for node
addresses. The format is as follows:

network.network.node.node

For example, in the IP address 172.16.30.56, the network address

is 172.16 and the node address is 30.56. With a network address
being 2 bytes (8 bits each), there would be 216 unique
combinations. But the Internet designers decided that all Class B
network addresses should start with the binary digit 1, then 0.
This leaves 14 bit positions to manipulate, therefore 16,384 (that
is, 214) unique Class B network addresses.

A Class B address uses 2 bytes for node addresses. This is 216

minus the two reserved patterns (all 0s and all 1s), for a total of
65,534 possible node addresses for each Class B network

Class B Valid Host IDs

Here’s an example of how to find the valid hosts in a Class B
network:

 All host bits turned off is the network address: 172.16.0.0.

 All host bits turned on is the broadcast address:

172.16.255.255.

The valid hosts would be the numbers in between the network

address and the broadcast address: 172.16.0.1 through
172.16.255.254.

67
Class C Addresses
The first 3 bytes of a Class C network address are dedicated to the
network portion of the address, with only 1 measly byte remaining
for the node address. Here’s the format:

network.network.network.node

Using the example IP address 192.168.100.102, the network

address is 192.168.100 and the node address is 102.

In a Class C network address, the first three bit positions are

always the binary 110. The calculation is as follows: 3 bytes, or 24
bits, minus 3 reserved positions leaves 21 positions. Hence, there
are 221, or 2,097,152, possible Class C networks.

Each unique Class C network has 1 byte to use for node

addresses. This leads to 28 or 256, minus the two reserved
patterns of all 0s and all 1s, for a total of 254 node addresses for
each Class C network.

Class C Valid Host IDs

Here’s an example of how to find a valid host ID in a Class C
network:

 All host bits turned off is the network ID: 192.168.100.0.

 All host bits turned on is the broadcast address:

192.168.100.255.

RESERVED IP ADDRESS SPACE

68
 RESERVED ADDRESS
ADDRESS CLASS
SPACE

10.0.0.0 THROUGH
CLASS A
10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0 THROUGH
CLASS B
172.31.255.255

192.168.0.0 THROUGH
CLASS C
192.168.255.255

PRIVATE IP ADDRESSES:
The people who created the IP addresses scheme also
created what we call private IP addresses. These addresses
can be used on a private network, but they are not
routable through the Internet.

This is designed for the purpose of creaing a measuring

of well-needed security, but it also conventially saves
valueable IP address space.

SUBNETTING BASICS

Allow to create one larger network and break it into

smaller networks is possible by subnetting.

BENEFITS OF SUBNETTING:

• Reduce network traffic

• Optimized network performance

• Simplified management
69
 • Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances

HOW TO CREATE SUBNETS:

1. Determine the number of required network IDs:

• One for each subnet

• One for each wide area network connection

2. Determine the number of required hosts IDs per subnet:

• One for each TCP?IP host

• One for each router interface

3. Based on the above requriments, create the following:

• One subnet mask for your entire network

• A unique subnet ID for each physical segment

• A range of host IDs for each subnet

Subnet masks:
• A subnet mask is a 32 -bit value that allows the
recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network ID
portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of
the IP address.

• The network administrator creates a 32-bit subnetmask

composed of 1s and 0s. the one 1s in the subnet mask
represent the positions that refer to the network or
subnet addresses.

DEFAULT SUBNET MASK:

70
 DEFAULT
CLASS FORMET
SUBNETMASK

A Network.node.node.node 255.0.0.0

Network.network.node.no
B 255.255.0.0
de

Network.network.network
C 255.255.255.0
.node

CLASSLESS INTER -DOMAIN ROUTING(CIDR)

CIDR is basically a method that ISPs use to allocate an
amount of addresses to a company , a home. They provide
addresses in a certain block size,.

When we receive a block of addresses from an ISP, we will

look something like this: 192.168.10.32/28. This is telling
what is our subnetmask. The slash / means how many bits
are turns on. Maximum could be /32 because a byte is 8
bits there are four bytes in an IP address.

CIDR VALUES:

CIDR VALUES
SUBNET MASK

255.0.0.0 /8

71
 255.128.0.0 /9

255.192.0.0 /10

255.244.0.0 /11

255.240.0.0 /12

255.248.0.0 /13

255.252.0.0 /14

255.254..0.0 /15

255.255.0.0 /16

255.255.128.0 /17

255.255.192.0 /18

255.255.224.0 /19

255.255.240.0 /20

255.255.248.0 /21

255.255.252.0 /22

255.255.254.0 /23

255.255.255.0 /24

255.255.255.128 /25

255.255.255.192 /26

255.255.255.224 /27

255.255.255.224 /27

255.255.255.240 /28

72
 255.255.255.248 /29

SUBNETTING CLASS C ADDRESS

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE WAY TO FIND THE SUBNETTING

MASKS:

 HOW MANY SUBNETS ?

2X= number of subnets.

X is the number of masked bits or the 1s.

 HOW MANY HOSTS PER SUBNET ?

2Y-2= number of hosts per subnet.

Y is the number of unmasked or the 0s.

 WHAT ARE THE VALID SUBNETS ?

256- subnet mask= block size

For example 256-192=64. The block size of a 192

mask is always 64.

 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet ?

As 0,64,128,192, the broadcast address is always

the number right before the next
subnet . the broadcast of the last subnet is always 255 for
class C.

73
  WHAT ARE THE VALID HOSTS ?

Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets,

omitting all the 0s and 1s.

EXAMPLE#: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

192.168.10.0= network address

255.255.255.192= subnetmask

 How many subnets ?

Since 192 is 2 bits on (11000000), the answer is 22 .

 How many hosts per subnet ?

We have 6 hosts bits off (11000000), so the equation

would be 26-2=62 hosts.

 What are host valid subnets :

256-192=64. Our subnets are 0,64,128 and 192.

 What is the broadcast address for each subnet ?

The number right before the value of the next subnet is all
host bit turned on and equals the broadcast address.

74
IP ROUTING

75
ROUTING BASICS:
When an internetwork is created by connecting WANs and
LANs to a router there is a need to configure logical
network address, such as IP addresses to all hosts on the
internetwork so that they can communicate across that
internetwork. The term routing is used for taking a packet
from one device and sending it through the network to
another device on a different network. Routers don’t care
about hosts. They only care about networks and the best
path to each network. The logical network address of the
destination host is used to get packets to a network through
a routed network, then the hardware address of host is used
to deliver the packets from a router to correct destination
host.

To able to route packets, a router must know following:

• Destination address

• Neighbor routers from which it can learn about remote

networks

• Possible routes to all remote networks

• How to maintain and verify routing information

76
The routers learns about remote networks from neighbor
routers or from an administrator. The routers then builds a
routing table that describes how to find the remote network.
If a network is directly connected, then routers already
knows how to get it. If network isn’t connected , the router
must learn how to get to it in two ways:

• Static Routing

• Dynamic Routing

In dynamic routing , a protocol on one router communicate

with the same protocol running on neighbor router. The
router then update each other about all the network they
know about and place this information into routing table. If a
change occur in the network, the dynamic routing protocol
automatically inform all routers about the event. In a large
network, a combination of both dynamic and static routing is
used.

STATIC ROUTING

Static routing occurs when manually add routes in each

router’s routing table. There are pros and cons to static
routing, but that’s true for all routing processes. Static routers
specify the path packets take, allowing precise control over a
network’s routing behavior. Static routes are sometimes used to
define a gateway of last resort .This is where a packet is routed if
no other suitable path can be found. Static router are also used
when routing to a stub network. A stub network is a network
accessed by a single route. Often static routers are the only way
on to or off of a stub network. Static routers are also used for
security reasons or when the network is small. By using static

77
routing, meaning that someone must handtype all network
locations into a routing table. It satic routing is used, the
administrator is responsible for updating all changes by hand
into all routers

BENEFITS OF STATIC ROUTING:

• There is no overhead on the router CPU, which means

we can possibly buy a cheaper router than dynamic
routing.

• There is no bandwidth usage between routers.

• It adds security, because the administrator can choose

to allow routing access to certain networks only.

DISADVANTAGES OF STATIC ROUTING:

• The administrator must really understand the

internetwork and how each router is connected in order
to configure routers correctly.

• If a network is added to the internetwork, the

administrator has to add a route to it on all routers by
hand.

• It’s not feasible in large network because maintaining it

would be a full-time job in itself.

SYNTEX USE TO ADD A STATIC ROUTE TO A ROUTING TABLE:

ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next-hop_address or

exitinterface]

[administrative_distance] [permanent]

Following list describe each command in the string:

78
Ip route : This command used to create the static route.

Destination_ network: The network we are placing in the

routing table. Mask: the subnet mask being used on the
network. Next-hop_address: The address of
the next –hop router that will receive the packet and forward
it to the remote network. This is a router interface that’s on
a directly connected network. We must ping the router
interface before we add the route . If we type in the wrong
next-hop address, or the interface to that router is down, the
static route will show up in the router’s configuration, but
not in the routing table.

Exitinterface: we can use it in place of the next-hop

address if we want , but it’s got to be on a point – to –point
link, such as a WAN. This command will not work on a LAN
such as Ethernet.

Administrative_distance: By default, static routes have an

administrative distance of 1. We can change the default
value by adding an administrative weight at the end of
command.

Permanent: If the interface is shut down, or the router can ‘t

communicate to the next-hop router’ the route will
automatically be discarded from the routing table. Choosing
the permanent option keeps the entry in the routing table
no matter what happens.

DEFAULT ROUTING:

• We use default routing to send packets with a remote

destination networking not in the routing table to the
next- hop router. We can also use default routing on
stub networks those with only one exit path out of
network.
79
 • ROUTER 1- SERIAL 0 (S0)

• ROUTER 2-SERIAL 0(S0)

• PC 1-ETHERNET 0(E0)

• PC2-ETHERNET 0(E0)

• PC3-ETHERNET 0(E0)

DYNAMIC ROUTING:

Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks

and update routing tables on router. It is eaiser than using
static or default routing, but it will cost in terms of router
CPU processes and bandwidth on network links. A routing
protocol defines the set of rules used by a router when it
communicates routing information between neighbor routers.

ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• RIP

• IGRP

• EIGRP

• OSPF

ROUTING PROTOCOLS:
There are three classes of routing protocols:

Distance vector:

80
The distance vector protocols find the best path to a remote
network by judging distance. Each time a packet goes
through a router that’s called a hop. The router with least
number of hops to the network is determined to be the
best path. The vector indicates the direction to the remote
network. Both RIP and IGRP are distance- vector routing
protocols. They send the entire routing table to directly
connected neighbors.

The distance-vector routing algorithm passes complete routing

table contents to neighboring routers , which then combine
the received routing table with their own routing tables to
complete the router’s routing table. This is called routing by
rumer, because a router receiving an update from a
neighbor router believes the information about remote
networks without actually finding out for itself. It’s possible
to have a network that has multiple links to the same
network, and if that’s the case, the administrative distance is
checked firstl. If AD is same, the protocols will have to use
other metrics to determine the best path to use to that
network. RIP uses only hop count to determine the best
path to a network. If RIP finds more than one link to the
same remote network with same hop count, it will
automatically perform a round-robin load balancing. RIP can
perform load balancing for upto six equal cost links(four by
default).

Link state:
In link state protocols, also called shortest-path-first
protocols, the routers each create three separate tables. One
of these tables keep track of directly attached neighbors,
one determines the topology of entire internetwork, and one
is used as the routing table. Link state routers know more

81
about the internetwork than any distance-vector routing
protocol. Link-OSPF is an IP routing protocol that is
completely link state. Link state protocol send updates
containing the state of their own links to all other routers
on the network.

Characteristics of Routing Protocols

A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by a router when it

communicates with neighboring routers. It interprets information
in a network layer address to allow a packet to be forwarded to
the destination network.

• How updates are conveyed

• What knowledge is conveyed.

• When to convey knowledge

How to locate recipients of the updates

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)

• ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP) is a true

distance-vector routing protocol. It send the complete
routing table out to all active interfaces every 30
seconds.

• RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to

remote network, but it has maximum allowable hop
count of 15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed
unreachable.

• RIP works well in small networks , but it’s inefficient on

large networks with slow WANs links or on networks
with a large number of router installed,

The Network Command

82
Each network command enables RIP or IGRP on a set of interface.
However, as a CCNA, you must understand the subtleties to what
that really means (as explained in the next several paragraphs.)
However, what “enables” really means in this case is not obvious
from Cisco IOS documentation. Also, the parameters for the
network command are not intuitive to many people new to Cisco
IOS configuration commands; therefore, routing protocol
configuration, including the network command, is a likely topic for
tricky question on he exam. The network command causes
implementation of the following three functions:

• Routing updates are broadcast or multicast out an interface.

• Routing updates are processed if they enter that same

interface.

• The subnet directly connected to that interface is advertised.

The network command matches some of the interfaces on a

router. The interfaces matched by the network command have the
three functions previously mentioned performed on them.
Examples provide a much easier understating of the network
command, as demonstratekd in.

IGRP Matrics

IGRP uses a composite metric. This metric is calculated as a

function of bandwidth, delay, load, and reliability. By default, only
the bandwidth and delay are considered; the other parameters
are considered only if enabled via configuration. Delay and
bandwidth are not measured values but are set via the delay and
bandwidth interface subcommands. (The same formula is used for
calculating the metric for EIGRP, but with a scaling factor so that
the actual metric values are larger, allowing more granularity in
the metric.) The show up ruter command in Example 6-2 shows
the IGRP metric values in brackets. For example, the router to
10.1.4.0 shows the value [100/8539] beside the subnet number.

83
The 8539 is a single value, as calculated based on bandwidth and
delay. The metric is calculated (by default) as the sum of the
inverse of the minimum bandwidth, plus the cumulative delay on
all links in the route. In other words, the higher the bandwidth, the
lower the metric; the lower the cumulative delay, the lower the
metric.

EIGRP FEATURES AND OPERATION

ENHANCED IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-

vector protocol that gives us a real edge over another Cisco
proprietary protocol, Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP).
Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an autonomous system
to describe the set of contiguous router that run the same
routing protocol and share routing information. But unlike
IGRP, EIGRP includes the subnet mask in its route updates.

• EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid roting

protocol because it has characteristics of both distance-
vector and link -state protocols.

• EIGRP has link state characteristics- it synchronizes

routing tables between neighbors at startup, and then
sends specific updates only when topology change
occur. This makes EIGRP suitable for very large
networks.

• EIGRP has a maximum hop count of 255.

FEATURES OF EIGRP

 Support for IP, IPX, via protocol-dependent modules.

 Considered classless.

 Support for VLSM/CIDR.

84
  Support for summaries and discontiguous networks.

 Efficient neighbor discovery.

 Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP).

 Best path selection via Diffusing Update

Alogrithm(DUAL).

PROTOCOL- DEPENDENT MODULES :

One of the feature of EIGRP is that it provides routing

support for multiple network layer protocol: IP ,IPX and
AppleTalk.

EIGRP supports different network layer through the use of

protocol-dependent modules(PDMs).

Each EIGRP PDM will maintain a seprate series of table

containing the routing information that applies to a specific
protocol. It means that there will be IP/EIGRP tables,
IPX/EIGRP tables and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables.

NEIGHBOUR DISCOVERY :

Before EIGRP roters are willing to exchange routers with

each other, they must become neighbors. There are three
conditions that must be met for neighbor establishment:

 Hello or ACK received

 AS numbers match

 Identical metric

Link-state protocol tend to use Hello message to establish

neighborship because they normally do not send periodic
route updates, and there has to be some mechanism to
help neighbors realize when a new has moved in, or an old

85
one has left or gone down.EIGRP routers must alsi continue
receiving Hellos from their neighbors.

The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is

when it discovers a new neighbor and forms an adjancency
with it through the exchange of Hello packets. When this
happens, both neighbor advertise their entire routing table
to one another. After each has learned its neighbor’s router,
only changes to the routing table are propagated from then
on.

When EIGRP router receive their neighbors update they in a

local topology table. This table contain all known routes are
selected and placed into the routing table.

FEASIBLE DISTANCE:

This is the best metric along all paths to a remote network,

including the metric to the neighbor that is advertising that
ramote network. This is the route you will find in the
routing table, because it is considered the best path. The
metric of a feasible distance is the metric reported by the
neighbor, plus the metric to the neighbor reporting the
route.

REPORTED DISTANCE:

This is the metric of a remote network , as reported by a

neighbor. It is also the routing table metric of the neighbor,
and is the same as the number after the slash in the
topology table.

NEIGHBOR TABLE :

Each router keeps state information about adjacent

neighbors. When a newly discovered neighbor is learned,
the address and interface of the neighbor are recorded, and
this information is held in the neighbor table, stored in RAM .

86
There is one neighbor table for each protocol-dependent
module. Sequence numbers are used to match
acknowledgments with update packets. The last sequence
number received from the neighbor is recorded so that out
of order packets can be detected.

ROUTERS

87
Routers
Routers are network layer equipment which forwards the incoming
packets towards the required destination.

• Cisco 3600 Series

• Cisco 2600 Series

• Cisco 1700 Series

• Cisco 800 Series

Cisco 3600 Series Router:

The Cisco 3600 Series is a family of modular, multi-service access

platforms for medium and large-sized offices and smaller Internet
Service Providers. With over 70 modular interface options, the
Cisco 3600 family provides solutions for data, voice, video, hybrid
dial access, virtual networks (VPNs), and multi-protocol data
routing. The high-performance, modular architecture protects
customer’s investment in network technology and integrates the
functions of several devices into a single, manageable solution.
The Cisco 2600 and 3600 series of multi-service platforms has
been greatly enhanced with many voice capabilities: added
support for voice over Frame relay (VoFR) and Voice over.

ATM (VoATM-AALS) on the digital voice interfaces (TI and EI)

88
ip access group 100 out

ROUTER COMPONENTS

The major router components are as follows:

• RAM (random-access memory): Contains key Cisco IOS

Software and data structures.

• ROM ( read-only memory): Contains startup microcode.

89
• Flash memory : Flash contains the Cisco IOS Software image.
Some routers run the Cisco IOS image directly from flash
and do not need to transfer it to RAM.

• NVRAM (nonvolatile RAM): Stores the configuration. Uses a

battery when power is removed.

• Config reg: Control the boot-up method.

• Interface: Physical connection can include Token Rink, FDDI,

and so on.

VIRTUAL LANs
(VLANs)
90
VLAN Basics
By default, routers allow broadcasts only within the originating
network, but switches forward broadcasts to all segments. The
reason it’s called a flat network is because it’s one broad cast
domain, not because its actual design is physically flat. Another
one—security This one’s a real problem because within the typical
layer 2 switched internetwork, all users can see all devices by
default .Ana you cant’s stop devices from broadcasting, nor users
from trying to respond to broadcasts. Your security options are
dismally limited to placing passwords on the servers and other
devices.

There are several ways that VLANs simplify network management:

• Network adds, moves, and changes are achieved by

configuring a port into the appropriate VLAN.

91
• A group of users needing high security can be put into a
VLAN so that no users outside of the VLAN can communicate
with them.

• As a logical grouping of users by function, VLAN can be

considered independent from their physical or geographic
locations.

• VLANs can enhance network security.

• VLANs increase the number of broadcast domains while

decreasing their size.

Configuring A VLAN
VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) is a layer 2 messaging protocol
that maintains VLAN configuration consistency throughout a
common administrative domain by managing VLAN
additions, deletions, and name changes across multiple
switches. VTP server updates are propagated to all
connected switches in the network, which reduces the need
for manual configuration (promotes scaling) and minimizes
the risk of errors cause by duplicate names or incorrect VLAN
types. VTP operates in server, client or transparent mode.
The default is serer mode. VLAN updates are not propagated
over the network until a management domain name is
specified.

RouterA(config)#int fa0/26

RouterA(config-if)#trunk on desirable

RouterA(config-if)#exit

RouterA(config)#address-violation {s | d | i}

92
RouterA(config)#exit

RouterA#show vtp

RouterA#show trunk A

On the Catalyst 1900, the two Fast Ethernet ports are

interfaces fa0/26 and fa0/27

Here is the procedure for configuring a VLAN:

RouterA#config T

RouterA(Config)# vlan 7 name springfield

RouterA(Config)#int fa0/26

RouterA(Config-if)#vlan-membership static 7

RouterA(Config-if)#exit

RouterA(Config)#exit

Access Lists and their Applications

Introduction to Access Lists:-

An access list is essentially a list of conditions that categorize

packets. They can be really helpful when you need to
exercise control over network traffic. An access list would be
your tool of choice for decision making in these situations.

One of the most common and easiest to understand uses of

access lists is filtering unwanted packets when implementing
security policies. For example, you can set them up to make
very specific decisions about

93
 Frame Relay

Introduction

Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that

operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI
reference model. Frame Relay originally was designed for
use across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
interfaces. Today, It is used over a variety of other network
interfaces as well. This chapter focuses on Frame Relay’s
specifications and application in the context of WAN services.

Frame Relay is an example of a packet-switched technology.

Packet-Switched networks enable end stations to
dynamically share the network medium and the available
bandwidth. The following two techniques are used in packet-
switching technology:

• Variable-length packets

• Statistical multiplexing

Variable-length packets are used for more efficient and flexible

data transfer. These packets are switched between the
various segments in the network until the destination is
reached.

Statistical multiplexing techniques control network access in a

packet-switched network. The advantage of this technique is
that it accommodates more flexibility and more efficient use
94
 of bandwidth. Most of today’s popular LANs, such as Ethernet
and Token Ring, are packet-switched networks.

Frame Relay often is described as streamlined version of

X.25, offering fewer of the robust capabilities, such as
windowing and retransmission of last data that are offered in
X.25. This is because Frame Relay typically whereas X.25
provides services at layer 3 (the network layer) as well. This
enables Frame Relay to offer higher performance and greater
transmission efficiency than X.25 and makes Frame relay
suitable for current WAN applications such as LAN
interconnection.

• (DTE)

• Date Circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)

DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment

for a specific network and typically are located on the
premises of a customer. In fact, they may be owned by the
customer. Examples of DTE devices are terminals, personal
computers, routers and bridges.

DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices. The

purpose of DCE equipment is to provide clocking and
switching in a network, which are the devices that actually
transmit data through the WAN. In most cases, these are
packet switches.

Figure shows the relationship between the two categories of

devices.

95
The connection between a DTE device and a DCE device
consists of both a physical layer component and a link
component.

96
 Cisco’s
Wireless
Technologie
s

97
INTRODUCTION TO WIRLESS TECHNOLOGY

Transmitting a signal using the typical 802.11 specifications works

a lot like it does with a basic Ethernet hub: They’re both two-way
forms of communication, and they both use the same frequency
to both transmit and receive, often referred to as half-duplex and
mentioned earlier in the chapter. Wireless LANs (WLANs) use radio
frequencies (RFs) that are radiated into the air from an antenna
that creates radio waves. These waves can be absorbed, refracted
or reflected by walls, water, and metal surfaces, resulting in low
signal strength. So because of this innate vulnerability to
surrounding environmental factors, it’s pretty apparent that
wireless will never offer us the same robustness as a wired
network can, but that still doesn’t mean we’re not going to run
wireless. Believe me, we definitely will!

We can increase the transmitting power and gain a greater

transmitting distance, but doing so can create some nasty
distortion, so it has to be done carefully. By using higher
frequencies, we can attain higher data rates, but this is,
unfortunately, at the cost of decreased transmitting distances.
And if we use lower frequencies, we get to transmit greater
distances but at lower data rates.

This should make it pretty clear to you that understanding all the
various types of WLANs you can implement is imperative to
creating the LAN solution that best meets the specific
requirements of the unique situation you’re dealing with. Also

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important to note is the fact that the 802.11 specifications were
developed so that there would be no licensing required in most
countries—to ensure the user the freedom to install and operate
without any licensing or operating fees.

This means that any manufacturer can create products and sell
them at a local computer store or wherever. It also means that all
our computers should be able to communicate wirelessly without
configuring much, if anything at all. Various agencies have been
around for a very long time to help govern the use of wireless
devices, frequencies, standards, and how the frequency
spectrums are used.

WIRELESS AGENCIES AND STANDARD

AGENCIES PURPOSE
Creates and maintains
Institute of Electrical and
operational
Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
standards
Regulates the use of
Federal Communications
wireless devices
Commission (FCC)
in the U.S.
European Chartered to produce
Telecommunications common
Standards Institute (ETSi) standards in Europe

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 Promotes and tests for
Wi-Fi Alliance WLAN
interoperability
Educates and raises
consumer
WLAN Association (WLANA) awareness regarding
WLANs

THE 802.11 STANDARDS

Wireless starts with 802.11, and there are various other up-
and-coming standard groups as well, like 802.16 and 802.20.
And there’s no doubt that cellular networks will become huge
players in our wireless future. But for now, we’re going to
concentrate on the 802.11 standards committee and
subcommittees.IEEE 802.11 was the first, original
standardized WLAN at 1 and 2Mbps. It runs in the 2.4GHz
radio frequency and was ratified in 1997 even though we
didn’t see many products pop up until around 1999 when
802.11b was introduced.

IEEE 802.11b Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and

11Mbps
IEEE 802.11c Bridge operation procedures; included in the
IEEE 802.1D standard
IEEE 802.11d International roaming extensions
IEEE 802.11e Quality of service
IEEE 802.11f Inter-Access Point Protocol

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IEEE 802.11g 54Mbps, 2.4GHz standard (backward
compatible with 802.11b)
IEEE 802.11h Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) and
Transmit Power Control (TPC)
at 5Ghz
IEEE 802.11i Enhanced security
IEEE 802.11j Extensions for Japan and U.S. public safety
IEEE 802.11k Radio resource measurement enhancements
IEEE 802.11m Maintenance of the standard; odds and ends
IEEE 802.11n Higher throughput improvements using MIMO
(multiple input, multiple
output antennas)
IEEE 802.11p Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment
(WAVE)
IEEE 802.11r Fast roaming

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