Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
OF
RESEARCH
Kristell C. Lagarde
January 2020
I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Significance of Research
To make changes
Scientific in Mind
Unbiased in Perceptions
Steps in Conducting Research
Review of Literature
Formulate Hypothesis
Purposiveness- research must start with a definite, clear goal and purpose, must
be beneficial.
Testability- hypotheses must be derived from the theories and must be testable.
Parsimony- the simplicity in explaining the solutions to the problems that occur.
A review of related literature is the process of collecting, selecting, and reading books, journals,
reports, abstracts, and other reference materials. The following information may be collected:
Background information about the problem and related concepts.
Theories that explain the existence of the problem and the possible connection between
certain factors and the problem
Data that confirms the existence and seriousness of the problem
General and specific findings of studies related to the problem
Recommendations for further study given in related studies
There are two reasons why theoretical frameworks are important here.
First, no matter how little you think you know about a topic, and how unbiased
you think you are, it is impossible for a human being not to have preconceived
notions, even if they are of a very general nature.
Not knowing what your real framework is can be a problem. The framework
tends to guide what you notice in an organization, and what you don't notice.
In other words, you don't even notice things that don't fit your framework! We
can never completely get around this problem, but we can reduce the problem
considerably by simply making our implicit framework explicit. Once it is
explicit, we can deliberately consider other frameworks, and try to see the
organizational situation through different lenses.
Cases are objects whose behavior or characteristics we study. Usually, the cases are persons. But
they can also be groups, departments, organizations, etc. They can also be more esoteric things like
events (e.g., meetings), utterances, pairs of people, etc.
Variables are characteristics of cases. They are attributes. Qualities of the cases that we measure or
record. For example, if the cases are persons, the variables could be sex, age, height, weight, feeling
of empowerment, math ability, etc. Variables are called what they are because it is assumed that
the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes.
Two key roles are independent variables and dependent variables. Usually there is
only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome variable, the one you are
trying to predict. Variation in the dependent variable is what you are trying to
explain.
The independent variables, also known as the predictor or explanatory
variables, are the factors that you think explain variation in the dependent
variable. In other words, these are the causes
V. ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design Definition
Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that
the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct
research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which
need to be assessed – this can be done with research design.
An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust
on the collected and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least
margin of error in experimental research can be touted as the best.
Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals
and consider those who agree with the derived results.
Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar
results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the research questions can
be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the research
design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research and
nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then valid.
Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just
a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.
Types of Research Design
Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two variables.
4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards
evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a troublesome
situation are evaluated in this research design method.
There are three parts of diagnostic research design:
5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and
thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic.
Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what, how
and why related to the research questions
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative),
accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection
of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
1. Observation:
Observation method has occupied an important place in descriptive sociological
research. It is the most significant and common technique of data collection. Analysis of
questionnaire responses is concerned with what people think and do as revealed by what
they put on paper. The responses in interview are revealed by what people express in
conversation with the interviewer. Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do
by watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations and activities.
2. Interview:
Interview as a technique of data collection is very popular and extensively used in
every field of social research. The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire. Instead of
writing the response, the interviewee or subject gives the needed information verbally in a
face-to-face relationship. The dynamics of interviewing, however, involves much more than
an oral questionnaire.
3. Schedule:
Schedule is one of the very commonly used tools of data collection in scientific
investigation. P.V. Young says “The schedule has been used for collection of personal
preferences, social attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviour patterns, group practices and
habits and much other data”. The increasing use of schedule is probably due to increased
emphasis by social scientists on quantitative measurement of uniformly accumulated data.
Schedule is very much similar to questionnaire and there is very little difference
between the two so far as their construction is concerned. The main difference between
these two is that whereas the schedule is used in direct interview on direct observation and
in it the questions are asked and filled by the researcher himself, the questionnaire is
generally mailed to the respondent, who fills it up and returns it to the researcher. Thus
the main difference between them lies in the method of obtaining data.
4. Questionnaire:
Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data
about groups of individuals scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a
questionnaire form is sent usually by post to the persons concerned, with a request to
answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
5. Projective Techniques:
The psychologists and psychiatrists had first devised projective techniques for the
diagnosis and treatment of patients afflicted by emotional disorders. Such techniques are
conflicts and complexes and his emotional needs. Adoption of such techniques is not an
easy affair. It requires intensive specialized training.
institution.” In the words of Goode and Hatt, “Case study is a way of organizing social data
so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied.” P.V. young
defines case study as a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be that a
person, a family, an institution, cultural group or even entire community.
VII. MEASUREMENT
Types of Data & Measurement Scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
Nominal
Ordinal
With ordinal scales, the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but
the differences between each one is not really known. Take a look at the example
below. In each case, we know that a #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we don’t know–and
cannot quantify–how much better it is. For example, is the difference between “OK” and
“Unhappy” the same as the difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?” We can’t say.
“Ordinal” is easy to remember because is sounds like “order” and that’s the key to
remember with “ordinal scales”–it is the order that matters, but that’s all you really get from
these.
Interval
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know both the order and the exact
differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same. For example,
the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference
between 80 and 70 degrees.
Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical analysis on these data sets
opens up. For example, central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean;
standard deviation can also be calculated.
Like the others, you can remember the key points of an “interval scale” pretty
easily. “Interval” itself means “space in between,” which is the important thing to
remember–interval scales not only tell us about order, but also about the value between
each item.
Ratio
Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to data measurement scales
because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they
also have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential
statistics to be applied. Good examples of ratio variables include height, weight, and
duration.
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