Chapter 1

Nelson & Quick

Introduction: Organizational
Behavior in Changing Times
Organizational Behavior

The study of individual behavior and

group dynamics in organizations
 Organizational Behavior:
Dynamics in Organizations

Psychosocial

Interpersonal
Behavioral
Organizational
Behavior
 Organizational Variables that
Affect Human Behavior

Performance Work
Appraisal Design

Communication

Jobs
Organizational
Structure Human Organizational
Behavior Design
Organizational vs. Individual
Point of View

Clockworks or Snake pit?

Human Behavior
in the
Organization
 Internal/External Perspective of
Human Behavior
Internal Perspective External Perspective
Understand Thoughts,feelings, External events,
behavior in past experiences, environmental forces, &
terms of and needs behavioral consequences

Explain Individuals’ history Surrounding external

behavior by & personal value events & environmental
examining system forces

Each perspective has produced

motivational & leadership theories.
 Sociology
the science
Psychology of society
the science of Engineering
human behavior the applied science
of energy & matter
Interdisciplinary
Anthropology Influences on
the science of the Organizational Medicine
learned behavior
of human beings
Behavior the applied science of
healing or treatment of
diseases to enhance an
Management individual’s health and
the study of overseeing well-being
activities and supervising
people in organizations
 Components of an Organization

Task - an organization’s mission, purpose, or goal for

existing
People - the human resources of the organization
Structure - the manner in which an organization’s work is
designed at the micro level; how departments,
divisions, & the overall organization are designed at the
macro level
Technology - the intellectual and mechanical processes
used by an organization to transform inputs into
products or services that meet organizational goals
(ch02)
 Open Systems
View of Task environment:
Organization Competitors
Unions
Regulatory agencies
Clients

Structure
Inputs:
Material Outputs:
Capital Task Technology Products
Human Services

People
(Actors)
Organizational Boundary
Based on Harold Levitt, “Applied Organizational Change in
Industry: Structural, Technological, and Humanistic Approaches,” in J.G.
March (ed.), Handbook of Organizations, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1965,
p. 1145. Reprinted by permission of James G. March
 Formal vs. Informal
Organization
Formal Organization - the official, legitimate, and
most visible part of the system
Informal Organization - the unofficial and less
visible part of the system

Hawthorne Studies: studies

conducted during the 1920’s and
1930’s that discovered the existence
of the informal organization
 Formal organization
Formal & (overt)
Informal Goals & objectives
Policies & procedures
Elements of Job descriptions
Financial resources
Organizations Authority structure
Communication channels
Products and services
Social
Surface
Informal organization
(covert)
Beliefs & assumptions
Perceptions & attitudes
Values
Feelings, such as fear, joy
anger, trust, & hope
Group norms
Informal leaders
U.S. Gross Domestic Product

Total 17% 6%11%

$9.3 Trillion
8%
38% 20%

Federal purchases State/local purchases

Personal durable goods Personal nondurable goods
Personal Services Fixed investments
 Six Focus Organizations

Š Brinker International
Š Enron*
Š Harley Davidson
Š Hewlett-Packard
Š Patagonia
Š American Heart Association

*NOTE: Enron was in a state of turmoil at the time

the book went to press. Visit the Nelson/Quick web
site for updates on its current situation.
 The Challenge of Change

Š Too much change = chaos

Š Too little change = stagnation

How do you view change?

Threat Opportunity
 International Competition in
Business
Driving forces creating and shaping change at work
Š Globalization Š Diversity
Š Technology Š Ethics

Success will require:

Š positive response to the competition in the
international marketplace
Š responsiveness to ethnic, religious, and gender
diversity in the workforce
 Quality
Š A potential means for giving organizations in viable
industries a competitive edge in international
competition
Š A rubric for products and services that are of high
status
Š A customer-oriented philosophy of management
with implications for all aspects of organizational
behavior
Š A cultural value embedded in successful
organizations
 Cannot be optimized

Quality Is not a fad

Is not an end in itself

Three key questions in evaluating quality-improvement ideas

1. Does the idea improve customer response?
2. Does the idea accelerate results?
3. Does the idea raise the effectiveness of resources?

YES means the idea should improve overall quality

Total Quality Management

The total dedication to continuous

improvement and to customers so that the
customers’ needs are met and their
expectations exceeded
 CEOs Advance Total Quality by:

Š Engaging in participative management

Š Being willing to change everything
Š Focusing quality efforts on customer service
Š Including quality as a criterion in reward systems
Š Improving the flow of information regarding
quality-improvement successes or failures
Š Being actively & personally involved in quality
efforts
Seven Categories in the Malcolm Baldrige
National Quality Award Examination

Š Leadership
Š Information and analysis
Š Strategic quality planning
Š Human resource utilization
Š Quality assurance of products & services
Š Quality results
Š Customer satisfaction
 Challenges to Managing
Organizational Behavior
1. Increasing globalization of organizations’ operating
territory
2. Increasing diversity of organizational workforces
3. Continuing technological innovation with its
companion need for skill enhancement
4. Continuing demand for higher levels of moral &
ethical behavior at work
 Learning about Organizational
Behavior

Mastery of Development of Application

basic objective specific skills** of knowledge
knowledge* and abilities and skills

* Objective knowledge ** Skill development

knowledge that results the mastery of abilities
from research and essential to successful
scholarly activities functioning in organizations
 Learning from Structured Activity

Individual or group
structured activity
(e.g., group decision
New or modified activity) Systematic review
knowledge or skills of the structured
(e.g., consensus activity (e.g.,
group decisions are compare individual
better) & group results)
Conclusions based
on the systematic
review (e.g., the
group did better)
Three Assumptions Required for
Learning from Structured Activity

Š Each student must accept responsibility for his/her

own behavior, actions, & learning
Š Each student must actively participate in the
individual/group structured learning activity
Š Each student must be open to new information,
new skills, new ideas, and experimentation
 Trends Affecting Managers

Š Industrial restructuring
Š Increased amount & availability of information
Š Need to attract & retain the best employees
Š Need to understand human & cultural differences
Š Rapid shortening of response times in all aspects of
business
Watchwords for Organizations
in These Changing Times
 Chapter 2
Nelson & Quick

Organizations &
Managerial Challenges in the
Twenty-First Century
 Remaining Competitive: Four
Major Challenges to Managers

Š Globalizing the firm’s operations

Š Managing a diverse workforce
Š Keeping up with technological change and
implementing technology in the workplace
Š Managing ethical behavior
Changing Business Perspectives
International implies an individual’s
or organization’s nationality is held
strongly in consciousness

Move
to

Globalization implies the world is

free from national boundaries and
that it is really a borderless world
Changing Business Perspectives
In multinational organizations,
the organization is recognized as
doing business with other countries

Move
to

In transnational organizations,
the global viewpoint supersedes
national issues.
Changes in the Global Marketplace

Š Collapse of Eastern Europe

Š Union of East and West Berlin
Š Perestroika
Š Expansion of business with China
Guanxi – The Chinese practice of building
networks for social exchange
Š Creation of the European Union
Š Establishment of the North American Free Trade
Agreement
Understanding Cultural Differences

Individualism Collectivism
High power distance Low power distance
High uncertainty Low uncertainty
avoidance avoidance
Masculinity Femininity
Long-term orientation Short-term orientation
Reprinted with permission of Academy of Management, PO Box 3020, Briar Cliff Manor, NY 10510-8020. Cultural
Constraints in Management Theories (Figure), G. Hofstede, Academy of Management Executive 7, (1993). Reproduced
by permission of the publisher via Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
 Where the U.S. Stands

Individualism Collectivism
High power distance Low power distance
High uncertainty Low uncertainty
avoidance avoidance
Masculinity Femininity
Long-term orientation Short-term orientation
Reprinted with permission of Academy of Management, PO Box 3020, Briar Cliff Manor, NY 10510-8020. Cultural
Constraints in Management Theories (Figure), G. Hofstede, Academy of Management Executive 7, (1993). Reproduced
by permission of the publisher via Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Developing Cross-Cultural Sensitivity

Š Cultural sensitivity training

Š Cross-cultural task forces/teams
Š Global view of human resource functions
z Planning

z Recruitment and Selection

z Compensation

z Training and Development

 Diversity

All forms of individual differences, including

culture, gender, age, ability, personality, religious
affiliation, economic class, social status, military
attachment, and sexual orientation
 Diversity Statistics for the
Workplace

Cultural 2020 Workforce: 68% white non-Hispanic

14% Hispanic
11% African-American
6% Asian

Gender 2020 Workforce: 50% male

50% female
 Women and Obstacles at Work

Today, women make up over 46% of the workforce,

earn 41% of all doctorates, 57% of master’s
degrees, and 56% of undergraduate degrees
BUT
Today, women hold less than 12% of Fortune 500
corporate officer positions, earn 77% of what their
male counterparts do, and encounter the glass
ceiling in the workplace

a transparent barrier that keeps women from

rising above a certain level in organizations
 Diversity Statistics Affecting the
Workplace

Age By 2030, there will be 70,000,000 older

persons. People over 65 will comprise
20% of the population.

Ability An estimated 54 million disabled live in the

U.S.; their unemployment rate exceeds 50%.
 Result in Attract &
Better Retain
Problem Talent
Solving

Diversity
Enhance Benefits Enhance
Organizational Marketing
Flexibility Efforts
Promote
Creativity &
Innovation
 Slower Resistance
Decision- to Change
Making

Diversity
Possibility of Problems Lack of
Conflicts Cohesiveness

Communication
Problems
 Technological Innovation
Technology Examples
The intellectual and Internet – integrates computer,
cable, telecommunications
mechanical processes
technologies
used by an
Expert System - computer-based
organization to application using a
transform inputs into representation of human
products or services expertise in a specialized field
that meet of knowledge to solve problems
organizational goals Robotics - use of robots in
organizations
 Alternative Work Arrangements
Telecommuting - transmitting work from a home
computer to the office using a modem. Employees
z Gain flexibility
z Save the commute to work

z Enjoy the comforts of home

But, they
z Have distractions
z Lack socialization opportunities

z Lack interaction with supervisors

z Identify less with the organization

 Additional Alternative Work
Arrangements
Hoteling - employees have mobile file
cabinets/lockers for personal storage; work spaces
are reserved, not assigned
Satellite Offices - large facilities broken into
smaller workplaces near employees’ homes
Virtual Office- people work anytime, anywhere,
with anyone.
 Technological Change Requires
Managers to
Š Focus on helping workers manage the stress of
their work
Š Take advantage of the wealth of
information available to motivate,
coach, and counsel--not to control
Š Develop technical competence to gain workers’
respect
 Help Employees Adjust by

Š Involving them in decision making regarding

technological change
Š Selecting technology that increases workers’ skill
requirements
Š Providing effective training
Š Establishing support groups
Š Encouraging reinvention (creative application of
new technology)
Ethical Theories Consequential Theory
An ethical theory that
emphasizes the
consequences or results
of behavior
Rule-Based Theory
An ethical theory that
emphasizes the
character of the act Character Theory
itself rather than its effects An ethical theory that
emphasizes the character,
personal virtues, and
integrity of the individual
 Employee Rights Issues

Computerized monitoring
Drug testing
Free speech
Downsizing
Layoffs
Due process
AIDS in the workplace
Sexual Harassment = Unwanted
Sexual Attention
Š Gender Harassment - crude comments; behaviors
that convey hostility toward a particular gender
Š Unwanted Sexual Attention - unwanted touching,
unwanted pressure for dates
Š Sexual Coercion - demands for sexual favors
through job-related threats or promises

Harassment or
Potential Romance?
 Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice- Ex. Companies CEO
vs.
fairness of the outcomes in Danger Salaries
that individuals receive
in an organization

Procedural Justice-
fairness by which the
outcomes are allocated Ex. Competence vs. Race and
in an organization and Skill Gender
 Individual & Organizational
Responsibility

Whistle-Blower - an employee who informs

authorities of the wrongdoing of his or her
company or coworkers
„ Public Hero

„ “Vile Wretch”

Social Responsibility - the obligation of an

organization to behave ethically
 Rotary Four-Way Test
of What We Think, Say, or Do

1. Is it the TRUTH?

2. Is it FAIR to all concerned?

3. Will it build GOODWILL and better friendships?

4. Will it be BENEFICIAL to all concerned?

Four Challenges to Organizations
in the New Millennium

Globalization

Diversity

Technology

Ethics
 Chapter 3
Nelson & Quick
Personality, Perception,
and Attribution
 Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
P
The Person
• Skills & abilities E
The Environment
• Personality • Organization
• Perceptions • Work group
• Attitudes • Job
•Values • Personal life
• Ethics

B
Behavior
B = f(P,E)
 Propositions of
Interactional Psychology
Š Behavior—function of a continuous, multi-directional
interaction between person and situation
Š Person—active in process
„ Changed by situations

„ Changes situations

Š People vary in many characteristics

Š Two situational interpretations
„ The objective situation

„ Person’s subjective view of the situation

 Definition of Personality

Personality - A relatively stable set of

characteristics that influences an individual’s
behavior
 Personality Theories

Trait Theory - understand individuals by breaking

down behavior patterns into observable traits
Psychodynamic Theory - emphasizes the
unconscious determinants of behavior
Humanistic Theory - emphasizes individual growth
and improvement
Integrative Approach - describes personality as a
composite of an individual’s psychological
processes
 Big Five Personality Traits

Extraversion Gregarious, assertive,

sociable
Agreeableness Cooperative, warm,
agreeable
Conscientiousness Hardworking, organized,
dependable
Emotional stability Calm, self-confidant, cool
Openness to Creative, curious,
experience cultured

Sources: P. T. Costa and R. R. McCrae, The NEO-PI Personality Inventory (Odessa, Fla.: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1992); J. F. Salgado, “The
Five Factor Model of Personality and Job Performance in the European Community,” Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 30-43.
 Personality Characteristics
in Organizations

Locus of Control
Internal External
I control what People and
happens to me! circumstances
control my fate!
 Personality Characteristics
in Organizations
Self-Efficacy - beliefs and expectations about one’s ability to
accomplish a specific task effectively

Sources of self-efficacy
„ Prior experiences and prior success

„ Behavior models (observing success)

„ Persuasion

„ Assessment of current physical & emotional

capabilities
Personality Characteristics
in Organizations

Self-Esteem
Feelings of Self Worth

Success tends Failure tends

to increase to decrease
self-esteem self-esteem
 Personality Characteristics
in Organizations
Self-Monitoring
Behavior based on cues from people & situations

Š High self monitors Š Low self monitors

„ flexible: adjust behavior „ act from internal states

according to the rather than from

situation and the situational cues
behavior of others „ show consistency
„ can appear „ less likely to respond to
unpredictable & work group norms or
inconsistent supervisory feedback
 Who Is Most Likely to . . .

Low-self High-self
monitors monitors
Get promoted
Accomplish tasks, meet other’s
expectations, seek out central 9
positions in social networks

Change employers 9
Self-promote
Make a job-related
geographic move 9
Demonstrate higher levels of managerial
self-awareness; base behavior on other’s
cues and the situation
 Personality Characteristics
in Organizations
Positive Affect - an individual’s tendency to
accentuate the positive aspects of oneself, other
people, and the world in general

Negative Affect - an individual’s tendency to

accentuate the negative aspects of oneself, other
people, and the world in general
Personality Characteristics
in Organizations

A strong
situation can
overwhelm the effects
of individual personalities
by providing strong cues
for appropriate
behavior
Personality Characteristics
in Organizations

Strong
personalities
will dominate
in a weak
situation
 How is Personality Measured?

Projective Test - elicits an individual’s response to

abstract stimuli
Behavioral Measures - personality assessments that
involve observing an individual’s behavior in a
controlled situation
Self-Report Questionnaire - assessment involving an
individual’s responses to questions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - instrument
measuring Jung’s theory of individual differences.
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Š Based on Carl Jung’s work

„ People are fundamentally different

„ People are fundamentally alike

„ People have preference combinations for

extraversion/introversion, perception, judgment

Š Briggs & Myers developed the MBTI to understand
individual differences
 MBTI Preferences

Preferences Represents

Extraversion Introversion How one

re-energizes
Sensing Intuiting How one gathers
information
Thinking Feeling How one makes
decisions
Judging Perceiving How one orients to the
outer world
 Social Perception

Barriers
• Selective perception • Projection
• Stereotyping • Self-fulfilling prophecies
• First-impression error

Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
 Social Perception
Perceiver Characteristics
• Familiarity with target
• Attitudes/Mood
• Self-Concept
• Cognitive structure
Target Characteristics
• Physical appearance
• Verbal communication
• Nonverbal cues
• Intentions

Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
Barriers

Situational Characteristics
• Interaction context
• Strength of situational cues
 Impression Management

Impression Management – process by which

individuals try to control the impression others
have of them
„ Name dropping

„ Appearance

„ Self-description

„ Flattery

„ Favors

„ Agreement with opinion

 Attribution Theory

Attribution theory - explains how individuals

pinpoint the causes of their own behavior or that of
others

Information cues for attribution information gathering

„ consensus

„ distinctiveness

„ consistency
 Attribution Biases

Fundamental Attribution Error - tendency

to make attributions to internal causes when
focusing on someone else’s behavior

Self-serving Bias - tendency to attribute one’s

own successes to internal causes and one’s
failures to external causes
 Chapter 4
Nelson & Quick

Attitudes, Values, & Ethics

 Attitude

Attitude - a psychological tendency expressed by

evaluating an entity with some degree of favor or
disfavor

Should poor performance be

blamed on “bad attitude”?
 ABC Model of an Attitude
Component Measured by Example
A ffect Physiological indicators I don’t like my
Verbal statements boss.
about feelings
B ehavioral Observed behavior I want to transfer
intentions Verbal statements to another dept.
about intentions
C ognition Attitude scales I believe my
Verbal statements boss plays
about beliefs favorites.
M.J. Rosenberg and C. I. Hovland, “Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Components
of Attitude,” in M.J. Rosenberg, C.I. Hovland, W.J. McGuire, R.P. Abelson, and J.H.
Brehm, Attitude Organization and Change, 1960
 Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance - a state of tension that is

produced when an individual
experiences conflict between
attitudes and behavior
 Two Influences on
Attitude Formation
Direct Experience

Social Learning

the process of deriving attitudes from family, peer

groups, religious organizations, and culture
Four Processes for Social
Learning through Modeling

The learner must

Š Focus on the model
Š Retain what was observed
Š Practice the behavior
Š Be motivated
 Attitude-Behavior
Correspondence Requirements
Š Attitude Specificity - a specific attitude
Š Attitude Relevance - some self-interest
Š Measurement Timing - measurement close to
observed behavior
Š Personality Factors - ex. self-monitoring
Š Social Constraints - acceptability
 Work Attitudes: Job Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction - a pleasurable or positive

emotional state resulting from the appraisal of
one’s job or job experience
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
„ Behavior that is above and beyond duty

„ Related to job satisfaction

 Work Attitudes: Organizational
Commitment

Affective Commitment
Organizational Desire to remain
Commitment
The strength of an Continuance Commitment
individual’s Cannot afford to leave
identification with
an organization Normative Commitment
Perceived obligation to remain
Process of Persuasion

Source
individual
influences
target

NEW attitude of the

target individual
 Characteristics
Persuadable Target-
Message –
**lower self esteem,
**non-threatening
**moderate attitudes
**acknowledging
**good mood

Influential Source -
**trustworthy
**attractive
**expertise
 Cognitive Routes to Persuasion

Attitude change
High Careful
depending on
Elaboration processing
quantity of arguments
Message Attitude change
Absence of depending on source
Low characteristics or
careful
Elaboration non-substantial aspects
processing
of the message
Adapted from R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo, “The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion,” in L. Berkowitz, ed.,
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 19 (New York: Academic Press, 1986): 123-205.
 Values

Enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or

end state of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end state of existence
 Values

Instrumental - values that represent the acceptable

behaviors to be used in achieving some end state
Examples: honesty, politeness, courage

Terminal - values that represent the goals to be

achieved, or the end states of existence

Examples: happiness, salvation, prosperity

 Work Values

Š Achievement (career advancement)

Š Concern for others (compassionate behavior)
Š Honesty (provision of accurate information)
Š Fairness (impartiality)
 Cultural Differences in Values

Authority is a
right of
office and Decisions should
rank be challenged

France
The Netherlands
 Handling Cultural Differences
Š Learn about others’ values
Š Avoid prejudging business customs
Š Operate legitimately within others’ ethical points of
view
Š Avoid rationalizing “borderline” actions with
excuses
Š Refuse to violate fundamental values
Š Be open and above board
 Ethical Behavior

Acting in ways consistent with one’s personal

values and the commonly held values of the
organization and society
 Qualities Required for Ethical
Decision-making

The competence to identify ethical issues and evaluate

the consequences of alternative courses of action

The self-confidence to seek out different opinions about

the issue and decide what is right in terms of a situation

Tough mindedness--the willingness to make decisions

when all that needs to be known cannot be known and when
the ethical issue has no established, unambiguous solution
 Individual/Organizational Model
of Ethical Behavior
Individual Influences
Value systems
Locus of control
Machiavellianism
Cognitive moral development Ethical
Behavior
Organizational Influences
Codes of conduct
Norms
Modeling
Rewards and punishments
Values, Ethics & Ethical Behavior

Value Systems - systems of beliefs that affect what

the individual defines as right, good, and fair
Ethics - reflects the way values are acted out
Ethical behavior - actions consistent
with one’s values
 Locus of Control

Locus of Control - personality variable that affects

individual behavior
Internal - belief in personal control and personal
responsibility
External - belief in control by outside forces (fate,
chance, other people)
 Machiavellianism

a personality characteristic indicating one’s

willingness to do whatever it takes to get one’s
own way
 Cognitive Moral Development

Cognitive Moral Development - the process of

moving through stages of maturity in terms of
making ethical decisions

Level l Level ll Level lll

Premoral Conventional Principled
 Chapter 5
Nelson & Quick

Motivation at Work
 Definition of Motivation

Motivation - the process of arousing and

sustaining goal-directed behavior
 3 Groups of
Motivational Theories
Š Internal
„ Suggest that variables within the individual give rise

to motivation and behavior

„ Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Š Process
„ Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the
individual and the environment
„ Example: Expectancy theory

Š External
„ Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior

„ Example: Two-factor theory

 Early Philosophers of
Motivational Theories
Š Max Weber—work contributes to salvation; Protestant
work ethic
Š Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind to better
understand a person’s motives and needs
Š Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in
the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other
people
Š Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific management;
emphasized cooperation between management and labor to
enlarge company profits
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

SA
er
rd
Esteem
o
ste
gh
hi
to

Love (Social)
st
we
Lo

Safety & Security

Physiological
 Motivational Theories X & Y

SA Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
Esteem manage individuals
motivated by higher
Love (Social) order needs
Theory X - a set of
Safety & Security assumptions of how to
manage individuals
Physiological motivated by lower
order needs
 McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory X

Š Naturally indolent (lazy)

Š Lack ambition, dislike
responsibility, and prefer to be led
Š Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needs
Š Naturally resistant to change
Š Gullible, not bright, ready dupes

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
http://www.amanet.org.
 McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory Y
Š Experiences in organizations result in passive and
resistant behaviors; they are not inherent
Š Motivation, development potential, capacity for
assuming responsibility, readiness to direct
behavior toward organizational goals are present
in people
Š Management’s task—arrange conditions and
operational methods so people can achieve their
own goals by directing efforts to organizational
goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

SA Growth
Esteem

Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety & Security
Existence
Physiological
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement

Need for Achievement - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns
individuals’ issues of
excellence, competition,
challenging goals, persistence,
and overcoming difficulties
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Power
Need for Power - a manifest
(easily perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s need
to make an impact on others,
influence others, change people
or events, and make a
difference in life
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation

Need for Affiliation - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to establish
and maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships with
other people
 3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Growth Need for
Higher Esteem Achievement
Order self Need for
Needs interpersonal Power
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation

Lower Safety & Security

Order interpersonal
physical
Needs Existence
Physiological
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to

dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
„ maintenance factor

„ contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied

„ contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to the

satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
„ job enrichment

„ leads to superior performance & effort

 Motivation-Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy & Motivation factors
administration increase job satisfaction
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions • Achievement
• Salary • Achievement recognition
• Status • Work itself
• Security • Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction • Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
 Motivation-Hygiene
Combinations

High M Low M
high motivation low motivation
High H
few complaints few complaints
high motivation low motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
 Individual—Organizational
Exchange Relationship
Organization Individual
Contributions Demands

Š Organizational goals Š Physiological needs

Š Departmental objectives Š Security needs
Š Job tasks Š Physical needs
Š Developmental potential
Š Company status
Š Employee knowledge
Š Benefits
Š Employee skills and
Š Income
abilities
SOURCE: Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.
J.S. Adam’s Theory of Inequity

Inequity – the situation in which a person

perceives he or she is receiving less than he
or she is giving, or is giving less than he or
she is receiving
 Motivational Theory
of Social Exchange
Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
 Strategies for
Resolution of Inequity

Š Alter the person’s outcomes

Š Alter the person’s inputs
Š Alter the comparison other’s outputs
Š Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Š Change who is used as a comparison other
Š Rationalize the inequity
Š Leave the organizational situation
 New Perspectives
on Equity Theory

Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity
ratio equal to that of
my comparison other
 New Perspectives
on Equity Theory

Benevolent I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
less than that of my
comparison other
 New Perspectives
on Equity Theory

Entitled

I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
greater than that of
my comparison other
 Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs

Valence - value or importance placed on a particular

reward

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance

Instrumentality - belief that performance is related

to rewards
 Expectancy Model of Motivation

Effort
Effort Performance Reward

Perceived effort - Perceived Perceived

performance performance - value of reward
probability reward probability
“If I work hard, “What rewards “What rewards
will I get the job will I get when do I value?”
done?” the job is well
done?”
 3 Causes of
Motivational Problems
Š Belief that effort will not result in performance
Š Belief that performance will not result in rewards
Š The value a person places on, or the preference a
person has for, certain rewards
 Moral Maturity

Moral Maturity – the measure of a person’s

cognitive moral development

Morally mature Morally immature

people behave and act people behave and act
based on universal based on egocentric
ethical principles. motivations.
 Chapter 6
Nelson & Quick

Learning and Performance

Management
 Definition of Learning

Learning - a change in behavior acquired

through experience
 Conditioning

Classical Conditioning - Modifying behavior

so that a conditioned stimulus is paired with
an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an
unconditioned response

Operant Conditioning - Modifying behavior

through the use of positive or negative
consequences following specific behaviors
Positive & Negative
Consequences

Positive Consequences
Results of a behavior that a person
finds attractive or pleasurable

Negative Consequences
Results of a behavior that a person
finds unattractive or aversive
 Reinforcement, Punishment
& Extinction
Reinforcement - the attempt to develop or
strengthen desirable behavior by either bestowing
positive consequences or withholding negative
consequences
Punishment - the attempt to eliminate or weaken
undesirable behavior by either bestowing negative
consequences or withholding positive
consequences
Extinction - the attempt to weaken a behavior by
attaching no consequences to it
 Reinforcement &
Punishment Strategies
Reinforcement Punishment
(desireable (undesireable
behavior) behavior)
Positive
Consequences Apply Withhold

Negative
Consequences Withhold Apply
 4 Sources of Self-Efficacy

Prior Experiences

Self-Efficacy - Behavior Models

an individual’s beliefs and
expectancies about his
or her ability to perform
a specific task effectively
Persuasion from
Others
Assessment of
Current Physical &
Emotional Capabilities
 Personality Functions &
Learning
Personality Preference Implications for Learning
Information Gathering
Intuitors Theoretical, look for meaning in
material, holistic understanding, look for
possibilities & interrelationships
Sensors Prefer specific, empirical data, practical
applications, master details, look for the
realistic & doable
Decision Making
Thinkers Prefer data & information analysis, fair
minded, evenhanded, seek logical & just
conclusions, objective
Feelers Prefer interpersonal involvement,
tenderhearted, harmonious, seek
subjective, merciful results
Source: O. Kroeger and J. M. Thuesen, Type Talk: The 16 Personality that Determine How We Live, Love, and Work (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1988.)
 Goal Setting at Work

Goal Setting - Goals help

the process of crystallize the
sense of purpose
establishing
and mission
desired results essential to
that guide and success at work.
direct behavior
 Characteristics of Effective
Goals
Specific S

Effective Measurable M
Attainable A
Goals
Realistic R
Time-Bound T
 Goal Level and
Task Performance

High Difficult goals

Task
Performance

Low Easy goals

Low High

Goal Level
 Goal Setting Functions

Increase work motivation and

task performance

Reduce role stress associated

with conflicting or confusing situations

Improve accuracy and validity

of performance evaluation
 Increase Work Motivation &
Task Performance

Š Employee participation

Š Supervisory commitment

Š Useful performance feedback

 Reduce Role Stress

Reduce role stress associated with

conflicting and confusing expectations
„ Clarify task-role expectations

communicated to employees
„ Improve communication

between managers
and employees
 Improve
Performance Evaluation

Š Management by Objectives (MBO) - a goal-

setting program based on interaction and
negotiation between employees and managers
„ Articulates what to do

„ Determines how to do it
 How is Performance
Measured?
Performance appraisal - the evaluation of a
person’s performance
„ Provides feedback to employees

„ Identifies employees’ developmental needs

„ Decides promotions and rewards

„ Decides demotions and terminations

„ Develops information about the organization’s

selection and placement decisions

 Actual & Measured
Performance

Actual Measured
Performance Performance
True
Assessment
 Actual & Measured
Performance
Performance
overlooked Evaluator’s
by evaluator situational
factors

True Unreliability Disagreement

Assessment
Employee’s
Deficiency Invalidity temporary
personal
factors

Actual Measured
Performance Poorly defined Performance
task performance
 Communicating
Performance Feedback
Š Refer to specific verbatim statements & observable
behaviors
Š Focus on changeable behaviors
Š Both supervisor & employee should plan & organize
before the session
Š Begin with something positive
Š Self-evaluations
„ more satisfying and can improve job performance

„ less defensiveness

„ but low level agreement with supervisor evaluation

 Effective Appraisal Systems
Functions
„ Develop people & enhance careers

„ Emphasize individual growth needs &

future performance
Key Characteristics
„ Validity

„ Reliability

„ Responsiveness

„ Flexibility

„ Equitableness
 Individual or Team Rewards?

Individual rewards Team rewards

„ fosters independent „ emphasize cooperation

behavior and joint efforts

„ may lead to creative „ emphasize sharing

thinking and novel information, knowledge,

solutions and expertise
„ encourages competitive

striving within a work

team
Correcting Poor Performance

Identify primary cause or responsibility

If personal, determine problem’s source

Develop corrective plan of action

 Attribution in Organizations

Attribution Theory - explains how individuals

pinpoint the causes of their own and others
behavior
Consensus - the extent to which peers in the same
situation behave the same way
Distinctiveness - degree to which the person behaves
the same way in other situations
Consistency - the frequency of a particular behavior
over time
 Information Cues & Attributions

Customer has complained

about John

There are no complaints John has received similar Complaints about John
about other employees complaints in the past have been coming in steady
(low consensus) (low distinctiveness) (high consistency)

Internal attribution
(John's behavior stems
mainly from internal causes)
 Information Cues & Attributions

Mary has performed

poorly on collections

Other employees are Mary only performs Most of the time

performing poorly poorly on this task Mary handles collections well
on collections (high distinctiveness) (low consistency)
(high consensus)

External attribution
(Mary's behavior stems
mainly from external causes)
 Attribution Model

Information cues
Perceived
• Consensus
source of
• Consistency
responsibility
• Distinctiveness

Attribution of poor
Observation performance Behavior in
of poor • Internal causes response
performance • External causes to attribution
 Mentoring

Mentoring - a work relationship that encourages

development and career enhancement for people
moving through the career cycle

Four phases
„ initiation

„ cultivation

„ separation

„ redefinition
 Chapter 7
Nelson & Quick

Stress and Well-Being

at Work
 What is Stress?

Stress - the unconscious preparation to fight or flee that

a person experiences when faced with any demand
Stressor - the person or event that triggers the stress
response
Distress - the adverse psychological, physical,
behavioral, and organizational consequences that
may arise as a result of stressful events
Strain – distress
Homeostasis – a steady state of bodily functioning and
equilibrium
 4 Stress Approaches:
1.Homeostatic/Medical Approach
Homeostasis
+
External environmental
demand
Fight =
Flight
 4 Stress Approaches:
2.Cognitive Appraisal Approach
Š Individuals differ in their appraisal of events &
people
Š What is stressful for one person is not for another
Š Perception and cognitive appraisal determines what
is stressful
Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping
emphasizes managing emphasizes managing
the stressor your response
 4 Stress Approaches:
3.Person-Environment Fit Approach
Š No undue stress
Good person-environment fit: a
person’s skills & abilities match
a clearly defined, consistent set
of role expectations

Š Stress, strain, and depression

occur when role expectations are
confusing and/or conflicting, or
when the person’s skills &
abilities do not meet the
demands of the social role
 4 Stress Approaches:
4.Psychoanalytic Approach

Ego Ideal - the Self-Image - how a

embodiment of a person sees oneself,
person’s perfect both positively &
self negatively

= the difference
between ego ideal and
self-image
 The Stress Response
• Blood redirected from the
skin & internal organs to
brain and large muscles
Release of • Increased alertness:
Sympathetic
chemical improved vision, hearing,
nervous system
messengers, & other sensory
& the
primarily responses
endocrine
adrenaline, • Release of glucose & fatty
(hormone) system
into the acids for sustenance
activated
bloodstream • Depression of immune
system, digestion, &
similar restorative
processes
 Sources of Stress at Work
Work Demands
Task Demands Rol e Demands
Change & uncertainty Role conflict:
Lack of control • Interrole
Career progress • Intrarole
New technologies • Person-role
Work overload/underload Role ambiguity
Interpersonal Demands Physi cal Demands
Abrasive personalities Extreme environments
Sexual harassment Strenuous activities
Leadership styles Hazardous
substances
 Stress Sources at Work

NonWork Demands
Fami l y Demands Personal Demands
Marital expectations Religious activities
Child-rearing/day care Self-improvement tasks
arrangements Traumatic events
Parental care
 Stress Benefits and Costs

Benefits of Healthy, Normal Stress (Eustress)

Performance Heal th
Increased arousal Cardiovascular efficiency
Bursts of physical strength Enhanced focus in an
emergency
Costs of Distress
Indi vi dual Organi zati onal
Psychological disorders Participation problems
Medical illnesses Performance decrements
Behavioral problems Compensation awards
 Yerkes-Dodson Law
Performance arousal
High

Low
Low Optimum High
(distress) (eustress) (distress)

Stress level

Boredom from Optimum Conditions Distress from

understimulation stress load perceived overstimulation
as stressful
 Positive Stress/Negative Stress

Š Stress response itself is neutral

Š Some stressful activities (aerobic exercise, etc.)
can enhance a person’s ability to manage stressful
demands or situations
Š Stress can provide a needed energy boost
Š Negative stress results from
„ a prolonged activation of the stress response

„ mismanagement of the energy induced by the

response
„ unique personal vulnerabilities
 Individual Stress

Beh
avi o
l ill n ess (sub ral pr
a
Medic se, strokes, o
viole stance a blems
i sea s) nce, b
(h e a r t d
, b a ck a c he acci use,
a ch e s dent
h e ad s)

Work-related psychological disorders

(depression, burnout,
psychosomatic disorders)
 Organizational Stress

Participative Problems - a cost associated with

absenteeism, tardiness, strikes & work stoppages,
& turnover
Performance Decrement - a cost resulting from
poor quality or low quantity of production,
grievances, & unscheduled machine downtime &
repair
Compensation Award - an organizational cost
resulting from court awards for job distress
Dealing with Stress

Achilles’ heel
phenomenon - a
person breaks down at
his or her weakest point
 Are There
Gender-Related Stressors?

Sexual harassment
Early age fatal health problems
Long term disabling health problems
Violence
 Type A Behavior Patterns
Type A Behavior Patterns - a
complex of personality and
behavior characteristics
„ sense of time urgency

“hurry sickness”
„ quest for numbers (of

achievements)
„ status insecurity

„ aggression & hostility

expressed in response to
frustration & conflict
 Personality Hardiness
Personality Hardiness - a personality resistant to
distress & characterized by
„ challenge (versus threat)

„ commitment (versus alienation)

„ control (versus powerlessness)

Transformational Coping - a way of managing

stressful events by changing them into subjectively
less stressful events (versus regressive coping -
passive avoidance of events by decreasing
interaction with the environment)
 Self-Reliance

Self-Reliance - a healthy, secure, interdependent pattern

of behavior related to how people form and maintain
supportive attachments with others
Counterdependence - an unhealthy, insecure pattern of
behavior that leads to separation in relationships with
other people
Overdependence - an unhealthy, insecure pattern of
behavior that leads to preoccupied attempts to achieve
security through relationships.
 Preventative Stress
Management
Preventative Stress Management - an
organizational philosophy that holds that people &
organizations should take joint responsibility for
promoting health and preventing distress & strain
Primary Prevention - designed to reduce, modify, or
eliminate the demand or stressor causing stress
Secondary Prevention - designed to alter or modify
the individual’s or the organization’s response to a
demand or stressor
Tertiary Prevention - designed to heal individual or
organizational symptoms of distress & strain
 Preventative Stress Maintenance
Organizational stressors Primary
• Task demands prevention
• Role demands Health risk factors
• Physical demands
stressor
• Interpersonal demands directed

Secondary
Stress responses
prevention Asymptomatic
• Individual
response disease
• Organizational
directed

Distress
Individual problems Tertiary
• Behavioral •Medical prevention Symptomatic
• Psychological symptom disease
Organizational costs
directed
• Direct • Indirect
Source: J. D. Quick, R. S. Horn, and J. C. Quick, “Health Consequences of Stress,” Journal of Organizational Behavior Management 8, no. 2, figure 1 (Fall 1986): 21. Reprinted with permission of Haworth Press,
Inc., 10 Alice Street, Binghamton, NY 13904. Copyright 1986.
 Organizational Stress
Prevention
Š Focuses on people’s work demands
Š Focuses on ways to reduce distress at work
Š Most organizational prevention is primary
„ job redesign

„ goal setting

„ role negotiation

„ social support systems

 Job Strain Model
Workload Unresolved
Low High
strain
Low

b (ill health)
Self- jo
Passive i n
determination rt a
job - s
h
H ig

b
jo
ain
tr Active
-s
w job
High

L o

SOURCE: B. Gardell, “Efficiency and Health Hazards in Mechanized Work,” in J. C. Quick, R.S. Bhagat, J. E. Dalton, and J. D. Quick, eds., Work Stress: Health Care
Systems in the Workplace. Copyright © 1987. Reproduced with permission of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., Westport, CT.
 Social Support at Work & Home
Organizational Family
Supervisor Spouse Children
Colleagues Parents In-laws
Subordinates
Clients Church/Religious
Group
Minister/Rabbi
Professional Individual Friends
Physicians Support groups
Psychologists Clubs
Counselors Business associations
Lawyers Social clubs
Athletic groups
SOURCE: From J. C. Quick J. D. Quick, D. L. Nelson and J. J. Hurrell, Jr., in Preventive Stress Management in Organizations, 1997, p. 198. Copyright© 1997 by The American
Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.
 Individual Preventive
Stress Management
Primary Prevention
Learned optimism: Alters the person’s internal self-talk & reduces
depression
Time management: Improves planning & prioritizes activities
Leisure time activities: Balance work & non-work activities
Secondary Prevention
Physical exercise: Improves cardiovascular function & muscular
flexibility
Relaxation training: Lowers all indicators of the stress response
Diet: Lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease &
improves overall physical health
Tertiary Prevention
Opening up: Releases internalized traumas & emotional
tensions
Professional help: Provides information, emotional support, &
therapeutic guidance
 Chapter 8
Nelson & Quick

Communication
 Communication

Communication - the evoking of a shared or common

meaning in another person
Interpersonal Communication - communication
between two or more people in an organization
Communicator - the person originating the message
Receiver - the person receiving a message
Perceptual Screen - a window through which we
interact with people that influences the quality,
accuracy, and clarity of the communication
 Communication

Message - the thoughts and feelings that the

communicator is attempting to elicit in the
receiver
Feedback Loop - the pathway that
completes two-way communication
Language - the words, their pronunciation,
and the methods of combining them used
& understood by a group of people
 Communication

Data - uninterpreted and unanalyzed facts

Information - data that have been interpreted,
analyzed, and have meaning to some user
Richness - the ability of a medium or channel
to elicit or evoke meaning in the receiver
 Basic Interpersonal
Communication Model

/ / / /
/
/
Communicator /
/
/
/
Receiver /
/
Event
/
/
/
/ Message
/
/
/
/
X
/ / / /
/ / • Context / /
/ / / /
/ / • Affect / /

Perceptual screens Perceptual screens

Influence message quality, accuracy, clarity

Include age, gender, values, beliefs, culture,
experiences, needs
 Reflective Listening

Reflective Listening - the skill of listening carefully to

another person and repeating back to the speaker the
heard message to correct any inaccuracies or
misunderstandings

This complex What I heard you

process needs say was we will
to be divided to understand the
be understood process better if we
break it into steps
 Reflective Listening

Š Emphasizes receiver’s role

Š Helps the receiver & communicator clearly and

fully understand the message sent

Š Useful in problem solving

 Reflective Listening

Reflective listening emphasizes

Š the personal elements of the communication process
Š the feelings communicated in the message
Š responding to the communicator, not leading the
communicator
Š the role or receiver or audience
Š understanding people by reducing perceptual
distortions and interpersonal barriers
 Reflective Listening:
4 Levels of Verbal Response

Affirm contact

Paraphrase the expressed

Clarify the implicit

Reflect “core” feelings

 One-way vs. Two-way
Communications
One-Way Two-Way
Communication - a Communication - the
person sends a message communicator & receiver
to another person and no interact
questions, feedback, or „ Good for problem
interaction follow solving
„ Good for giving

simple directions
„ Fast but often less

accurate than 2-way

communication
 Five Keys to Effective
Supervisory Communication

Š Expressive speaking
Š Empathetic listening
Š Persuasive leadership
Š Sensitivity to feelings
Š Informative management
 Barriers to Communication

Communication
Š Physical separation
Barriers -
factors that block Š Status differences
or significantly Š Gender differences
distort successful Š Cultural diversity
communication Š Language
 Defensive Communication

Defensive Communication - communication that

can be aggressive, attacking & angry, or passive
& withdrawing
Leads to
„ injured feelings

„ communication breakdowns

„ alienation

„ retaliatory behaviors

„ nonproductive efforts

„ problem solving failures

 Nondefensive Communication

Nondefensive Communication -
communication that is assertive, direct,
& powerful
Provides
„ basis for defense when attacked

„ restores order, balance, and

effectiveness
 Two Defensiveness Patterns

Subordinate Defensiveness -
characterized by passive,
submissive, withdrawing
behavior

Dominant Defensiveness -
characterized by active,
aggressive, attacking behavior
 Defensive Tactics

Defensive Tactic Speaker Example

Power Play Boss “Finish this report by month’s
end or lose your promotion.”
Put-Down Boss “A capable manager would
already be done with this report.”
Labeling Boss “You must be a slow learner.
Your report is still not done?”
Raising Doubts Boss “How can I trust you, Chris, if
you can’t finish an easy report?”
 Defensive Tactics
Defensive Tactic Speaker Example
Misleading Employee “Morgan has not gone over with
Information me the information I need for
the report.” [Morgan left Chris
with a copy of the report.]
Scapegoating Employee “Morgan did not give me input
until just today.”
Hostile Jokes Employee “You can’t be serious! The
report isn’t that important.”
Deception Employee “I gave it to the secretary. Did
she lose it?”
 Nondefensive Communication:
A Powerful Tool
Š Speaker seen as centered, assertive, controlled,
informative, realistic, and honest
Š Speaker exhibits self-control & self possession
Š Listener feels accepted rather than rejected
Š Catherine Crier’s rules to nondefensive
communication
1. Define the situation
2. Clarify the person’s position
3. Acknowledge the person’s feelings
4. Bring the focus back to the facts
 Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication - all elements of communication
that do not involve words
Four basic types
„ Proxemics - an individual’s perception & use of space

„ Kinesics - study of body movements, including posture

„ Facial & Eye Behavior - movements that add cues for the

receiver
„ Paralanguage - variations in speech, such as pitch,

loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, & crying

 Proxemics: Territorial Space

Territorial Space - bands of space extending

outward from the body; territorial space differs
from culture to culture
a = intimate <1.5’

b = personal 1.5-4’

c = social 4-12’ a
b
c
d = public >12’ d
 Proxemics: Seating Dynamics

Seating Dynamics - seating people in certain

positions according to the person’s purpose in
communication
X O X
O Communication
Cooperation

X O X O
Non-
Competition
Communication
O
 Examples of
Decoding Nonverbal Cues
He’s
unapproachable!
He’s angry! I’ll
stay out of
his way!

Boss breathes
Boss fails to acknowledge heavily &
employee’s greeting waves arms

I wonder what My opinion

he’s hiding? doesn’t count

No eye contact
while
communicating
Manager sighs deeply
SOURCE: Adapted from “Steps to Better Listening” by C. Hamilton and B. H. Kleiner. Copyright © February 1987. Reprinted with permission, Personnel Journal, all rights reserved.
New Technologies
for Communication

Š Informational databases
Š Electronic mail systems
Š Voice mail systems
Š Fax machine systems
Š Cellular phone systems
 How Do New Technologies
Affect Behavior?

Š Fast, immediate access to information

Š Immediate access to people in power
Š Instant information exchange across distance
Š Makes schedules & office hours irrelevant
Š May equalize group power
Š May equalize group participation
 How Do New Technologies
Affect Behavior?
Š Communication can become more impersonal--
interaction with a machine
Š Interpersonal skills may diminish--less tact, less
graciousness
Š Non-verbal cues lacking
Š Alters social context
Š Easy to become overwhelmed with information
Š Encourages polyphasic (multitasking) activity
 Tips for Effective Computer-
Mediated Communication
Provide
social
interaction
opportunities

Is the Regularly
message disconnect
really from the
necessary? technology

Provide
Don’t
Strive for Build in assume
social
message feedback immediate
interaction
completeness opportunities opportunities
response
 Chapter 9
Nelson & Quick

Work Teams and Groups

 Groups & Teams

Group - two or more people with common

interests, objectives, and continuing interaction

Work Team - a group of people with

complementary skills who are committed to a
common mission, performance goals, and
approach for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable
 Characteristics of a
Well-Functioning, Effective Group

Relaxed, comfortable, informal atmosphere

Task well understood & accepted

Members listen well & participate

People express feelings & ideas

 Characteristics of a
Well-Functioning, Effective Group

Conflict & disagreement center

around ideas or methods

Group aware of its operation & function

Consensus decision making

Clear assignments made & accepted

 Group Behavior
Norms of Behavior - the standards that a work group
uses to evaluate the behavior of its members
Group Cohesion - the “interpersonal glue” that
makes members of a group stick together
Social Loafing - the failure of a group member to
contribute personal time, effort, thoughts, or other
resources to the group
Loss of Individuality - a social process in which
individual group members lose self-awareness &
its accompanying sense of accountability,
inhibition, and responsibility for individual
behavior
 Group Formation

Formal Groups – Informal Groups -

official or assigned unofficial or emergent
groups gathered to groups that evolve in
perform various tasks the work setting to
„ need ethnic, gender, gratify a variety of
cultural, and member needs not met
interpersonal by formal groups
diversity
„ need professional

and geographical
diversity
 Stages of Group Formation

Mutual Decision Motivation Control

acceptance making and and
commitment sanctions

Emphasis Emphasis Emphasis Emphasis

on on task on task on rewards
interpersonal planning, accomplishment, and
concern and authority leadership and punishment
awareness and performance
influence
 Mature Group Characteristics

Purpose and Mission

Š May be assigned or may emerge from the group
Š Group often questions, reexamines, and modifies
mission and purpose
Š Mission converted into specific agenda, clear goals,
and a set of critical success factors
 Mature Group Characteristics

Behavioral Norms - well-understood standards of

behavior within a group
Formal & written Informal but
well understood
Ground
Intragroup
rules
socializing
for
meetings
Dress codes

Productivity Norms – may be consistent or

inconsistent, supportive or unsupportive of
organization’s productivity standards
 Mature Group Characteristics

Group Cohesion - interpersonal attraction binding

group members together
Š Enables groups to exercise effective control over
the members
Š Groups with high cohesiveness
„ demonstrate lower tension & anxiety

„ demonstrate less variation in productivity

„ demonstrate better member satisfaction,

commitment, & communication

 Cohesiveness &
Work-Related Tension
Group Cohesiveness from low to high
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 “Does your
3.2
work ever make
3.3
you jumpy or
3.4
nervous?”
3.5
Low score =
3.6
high tension
3.7
3.8
3.9 Mean tension
4
7 16 52 65 57 19 12
From S. E. Seashore, Group Cohesiveness in the Industrial
Number of groups Work Force, 1954. Research conducted by Stanley E.
Seashore at the Institute for Social Research, University of
Michigan. Reprinted by permission.
 Mature Group Characteristics
Status Structure - the set of authority & task
relations among a group’s members
Š Hierarchical or egalitarian
Š Often leadership is shared

Data/Info Contributor

Diversity Mission Collaborator

Styles Facilitator Communicator
Devil’s advocate Challenger
 Team Task Functions

Task Functions - those activities directly related to

the effective completion of the team’s work

Give information
Initiate activities
Test ideas
Seek information
Summarize ideas Coordinate activities
Evaluate effectiveness
Elaborate concepts
Diagnose problems
 Team Task Functions
Maintenance Functions - those activities essential to
the effective, satisfying interpersonal relationships
within a team or group
Follow others’ lead
Support others
Harmonize conflict
Set standards
Express member feelings Test group decisions
Gatekeep communication
Test consensus
Reduce tension
 Why Teams?

Š Good when performing complicated, complex,

interrelated and/or more voluminous work than one
person can handle
Š Good when knowledge, talent, skills, & abilities are
dispersed across organizational members
Š Empowerment and collaboration; not power and
competition
Š Basis for total quality efforts
 New vs. Old Team
Environments
New Team Environment Old Work Environment
Person generates initiatives Person follows orders
Team charts its own steps Manager charts course
Right to think for oneself. People conformed to manager’s
People rock boat; work direction. No one rocked the
together boat.
People cooperate using People cooperated by
thoughts and feelings; suppressing thoughts and
direct talk feelings; wanted to get along

SOURCE: Managing in the New Team Environment, by Hirschhorn, © 1991. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,Upper Saddle River, N. J.
 What predicts the performance
of student teams?
Satisfaction Grade
Team structure positive strong positive
Team spirit strong positive strong positive
Social support strong positive negative
Workload sharing positive not significant
Communication not significant not significant

Source: J. M. Werner & S. W. Lester (2001), Human Resource Development

Quarterly, p. 385.
 Quality Circles & Teams
Quality Team - a team that is part of an
organization’s structure & is empowered to act on
its decisions regarding product & quality service
Quality Circles (QC) - a small group of employees
who work voluntarily on company time, typically
one hour per week, to address work-related
problems
QC’s deal with substantive issues
„ Do not require final decision authority

„ QC’s need periodic reenergizing

 Social Benefits of Teams

Psychological Intimacy -
emotional & psychological
closeness to other team
or group members

Integrated Intimacy -
closeness achieved
through tasks & activities
 Foundations for Empowerment
An attribute of a
person or of an
organization’s culture

Encourages
participation
Preparation & careful
planning focuses
empowered employees
Solve specific and
global problems
 Empowerment Skills
Competence Process
Skills Skills

Self-
management
or
Team skills
Cooperative
and Helping Communication
Behaviors Skills
 Self-Managed Teams

Self-Managed Teams - teams that make decisions

that were once reserved for managers

How does an organization capitalize

on the advantages and avoid the risks
of self managed teams?
 Upper Echelons:
Teams at the Top

Upper Echelons -
A top-level executive team
in an organization
Top management's Organization reflects Management team's
background characteristics top management's leadership, composiiton, &
predict organizational values, competence, dynamics influences the
characteristics ethics & unique characteristics organization's performance
 Executive Tenure &
Organizational Performance
High
relative to the industry average
Organizational performance

Low
1 7 14
CEO tenure (years)Source: D. Hambrick, The Seasons of an Executive’s Tenure, keynote address, the
Sixth Annual Texas Conference on Organizations, Lago Vista, Texas, April, 1991.
 Multicultural Teams
Multicultural groups represent
three or more ethnic backgrounds.
Diversity may increase uncertainty,
complexity, & inherent confusion in
group processes. Culturally
diverse groups may generate more
& better ideas & limit groupthink.
 Triangle for Managing
in the New Team Environment

Manager
Manager

Team
Team Individuals
Individuals

L. Hirschhorn, Managing in the New Team Environment, (pages 13/14). Copyright© 1991 Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison Wesley Longman.
 Chapter 10
Nelson & Quick

Decision Making by
Individuals & Groups
 The Decision-Making Process

Programmed Decision - a simple, routine matter for

which a manager has an established decision rule

Nonprogrammed Decision - a new, complex

decision that requires a creative solution
 Recognize the problem and
The the need for a decision
Decision-
Making
Process Identify the objective of
the decision

Gather and evaluate data

and diagnose the situation

List and evaluate

alternatives
 Select the best
The course of action
Decision-
Making
Process Implement
the decision

Gather
feedback

Follow up
 Models of Decision-Making

Effective Decision
a timely decision that
meets a desired objective
and is acceptable to those Rational Model
individuals affected by it
Bounded Rationality
Model
Garbage Can Model
 Rationality - a logical, step-
by-step approach to decision
Rational Model making, with a thorough
analysis of alternatives and their
consequences

1. The outcome will be completely rational

2. The decision maker uses a consistent system
of preferences to choose the best alternative
3. The decision maker is aware of all alternatives
4. The decision maker can calculate the
probability of success for each alternative
 Bounded Rationality - a
Bounded Rationality theory that suggests that
Model there are limits upon how
rational a decision maker
can actually be

1. Managers suggest the first satisfactory alternative

Satisfice – to select the first alternative that is “good

enough,” because the costs in time and effort are too
great to optimize
 Bounded Rationality - a
Bounded Rationality theory that suggests that
Model there are limits upon how
rational a decision maker
can actually be

1. Managers suggest the first satisfactory alternative

2. Managers recognize that their conception of the
world is simple
3. Managers are comfortable making decisions without
determining all the alternatives
4. Managers make decisions by rules of thumb or
heuristics Heuristics – shortcuts in decision
making that save mental activity
 Garbage Can Model Solutions

Garbage Can Model - Problems Choice

opportunities
a theory that contends Participants
that decisions in
organizations are
random and unsystematic

From M.D. Cohen, J.G. March, and J.P. Olsen in Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (March 1972) 1.25.
Reprinted by permission of the Administrative Science Quarterly
 Risk and the Manager

Risk Aversion - the tendency to choose options that

entail fewer risks and less uncertainty

Risk takers
„ accept greater potential for loss

„ tolerate greater uncertainty

„ more likely to make risky decisions

Evidence: Successful Managers Take Risks

Escalation of The tendency to continue to
commit resources to a failing
Commitment course of action

Š Why it occurs
„ humans dislike inconsistency

„ optimism

„ control

„ sunk costs

Š How to deal with it

„ split responsibility for decisions

„ provide individuals with a graceful exit

„ have groups make the initial decision

 Cognitive Style

Cognitive Style - an individual’s preference for

gathering information and evaluating alternatives

Jungian theory offers a way of

understanding and appreciating
differences among individuals.
 Jung’s Cognitive Style

Style Ideal Organization

ST Sensing/thinking Facts/ Impersonal Analysis

SF Sensing/feeling Facts & Org. Relationships

NT Intuiting/thinking Broad Issues/ Impersonal & Ideal

NF Intuiting/feeling Serve Humankind/General Values

 “Z” Problem-Solving Model

Look at What alternatives

the facts Sensing Intuition do the facts
and details suggest?

Can it be What impact

analyzed Thinking Feeling will it have on
objectively? those involved?
Figure from Type Talk at Work by Otto Kroeger and Janet M. Thuesen. Copyright © 1992 by Otto Kroeger
and Janet M. Thuesen. Used by permission of Dell Publishing, a division of Random House. Inc.
 Two Brains, Two Cognitive Styles

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Verbal Nonverbal, visuospatial

Sequential, temporal, Simultaneous, spatial,
digital analogical
Logical, analytic Gestalt, synthetic
Rational Intuitive
Western thought Eastern thought

Ideal = “brain-lateralized” making use of

either or both sides, depending on situation
From Left Brain, Right Brain by Springer and Deutsch © 1989, 1985, 1981 by Sally Springer and Georg Deutsch.
Used with permission by W.H. Freeman and Company
 Influences on Decision-Making

Intuition - fast, Creativity - a process

positive force in influenced by
decision making individual and
utilized at a level organizational factors
below consciousness, that results in the
involves learned production of novel
patterns of information and useful ideas,
products, or both
 Four Stages of Creative
Process

Preparation Incubation Illumination Verification

experience/ reflective, insight into thinking,
opportunity
often solving sharing,
to build
knowledge unconscious a problem testing the
base thought decision
 Influences on Creativity

Š Individual examples Š Organizational examples

„ Cognitive Processes
z Divergent Thinking
z Associational Abilities
z Unconscious Processes
„ Personality Factors
z breadth of interests
z high energy
z self-confidence
„ Flexible organization
structure
„ Participative decision
making
„ Quality, supportive
relationships with
supervisors
 Organizations Can Facilitate
Creative Decision Making

Š Reward creativity
Š Allow employees to fail
Š Make work more fun
Š Provide creativity training
Š Vary work groups (internal/external)
Š Encourage creative stimuli (music, art, etc.)
Participative Individuals who are affected
by decisions influence the
Decision Making making of those decisions
Š Organizational Foundations
„ Participative, supportive organizational culture

„ Team-oriented work design

Š Individual Prerequisites
„ Capability to become psychologically involved in

participative activities
„ Motivation to act autonomously

„ Capacity to see the relevance of participation for one’s

own well-being
 Group Decision-Making
Š Role of synergy - a positive force that occurs in groups
when group members stimulate new solutions to problems
through the process of mutual influence and
encouragement in the group
Š Role of social decision schemes - simple rules used to
determine final group decisions
(prediction 80% correct) Majority Wins
Truth Wins
Two-thirds Majority
First-shift
 Group Decision Making
1) more knowledge through pooling
of group resources
2) Increased acceptance & commit-
Advantages ment due to voice in decisions
3) greater understanding due to
involvement in decision stages

1) pressure in groups to conform

2) domination by one forceful
member or dominant clique
Disadvantages 3) amount of time required, because
group is slower than individual to
make a decision
 Group Phenomenon

Groupthink - a deterioration of mental efficiency,

reality testing, and moral judgment resulting from
in-group pressures
Group Polarization - the tendency for group
discussion to produce shifts toward more extreme
attitudes among members
 Preventing Groupthink

Š Ask each group member to act as critical evaluator

Š Have the leader avoid stating his opinion prior to
the group decision
Š Create several groups to work simultaneously
Š Appoint a devil’s advocate
Š Evaluate the competition carefully
Š After consensus, encourage rethinking the position

From Janis, Irving L., Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes, Second Edition. Copyright
© 1982 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
 Brainstorming

Self-Managed Nominal
Teams Group
Technique

Group
Decision
Dialectical Techniques Delphi
Inquiry Technique

Quality Circles
Devil’s Advocacy
& Quality Teams
 Technological Aids to Decision-
Making
Expert Systems - a programmed decision tool set up
using decision rules
Decision Support Systems - computer and
communication systems that process incoming data
and synthesize pertinent information for managers
to use
Group Decision Support Systems - systems that use
computer software and communication facilities to
support group decision-making processes in either
face-to-face meetings or dispersed meetings
Virtual Teams – groups of geographically
dispersed coworkers who work together using a
combination of telecommunications and
information technologies to accomplish a task

Group Decision
Support Systems

Tools
for
Virtual Teams
Desktop
Videoconferencing Internet/Intranet
Systems Systems
 Ethics Check

Š Is it legal?
„ Does it violate law

„ Does it violate

company policy
Š Is it balanced?
„ Is it fair to all

„ Does it promote win-win relationships

Š How will it make me feel about myself

 Chapter 11
Nelson & Quick

Power and Political Behavior

 Concept of Power

Power - the ability to influence another person

Influence - the process of affecting the thoughts,

behavior, & feelings of another person

Authority - the right to influence another person

 Concept of Power

Zone of Indifference - the range in which

attempts to influence a person will be perceived
as legitimate & will be acted on without a great
deal of thought
Zone of Indifference

Managers strive to expand the zone of indifference

Zone of Indifference
 Sources of Organizational
Power: Interpersonal
Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the
rewards that the target wants
Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an
unpleasant experience for a target
Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that
agent has influential rights, based on position
and mutual agreement
Referent Power - based on interpersonal attraction
Expert Power - agent has knowledge target needs
 Which Power is Most Effective?

Expert Power!

Š Strong relationship to performance & satisfaction

Š Transfers vital skills, abilities, and knowledge
within the organization
Š Employees internalize what they observe & learn
from managers they consider “experts”
Information Power

Information Power - access

to and control over
important information
Š Formal/informal position in
communication network
Š Interpreting information
when passing it on
Using Power Ethically

Does the behavior produce a

good outcome for people both
inside and outside the
organization?

Does the behavior respect the

rights of all parties?

Does the behavior treat all

parties equitably and fairly?
Two Faces of Power

Personal Power
„ used for personal gain

Social Power
„ used to create motivation

„ used to accomplish group goals

 Successful Power Users

Š Have high need for social power

Š Approach relationships with a communal orientation
Š Focus on needs and interests of others

belief in the preference for

authority system work & discipline

belief in justice altruism

 Sources of Organizational Power:
Intergroup
Š Control of critical resources
Š Control of strategic contingencies - activities that
other groups need to complete their tasks
Š Ways groups hold power over other groups
„ Ability to reduce uncertainty

„ High centrality - functionality central to

organization’s success
„ Nonsubstitutability - group’s activities are

difficult to replace
 Power Analysis:
A Broader View
Organizational Power
Coercive Power - influence through threat of
punishment, fear, or intimidation

Utilitarian Power - influence through

rewards and benefits

Normative Power - influence through

knowledge of belonging, doing the right thing
 Power Analysis:
A Broader View
Organizational Membership
Alienative Membership - members feel
hostile, negative, do not want to be there

Calculative Membership - members weigh

benefits and limitations of belonging

Moral Membership - members have positive

organizational feelings; will deny own needs
 Etzioni’s Power Analysis

Type of Membership
Alienative Calculative Moral
Type of Power

Coercive

Utilitarian

Normative

SOURCE: Adapted from Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations (Upper “Saddle River, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964), 59-61
 Kanter’s Symbols of Power

Ability to intercede for someone in trouble

Ability to get placements for favored employees
Exceeding budget limitations
Procuring above-average raises for employees
Getting items on the agenda at meetings
Access to early information
Having top managers seek out their opinion
 Kanter’s Symbols of
Powerlessness
Top Executives Staff Professionals
• budget cuts
• resistance to change
• punishing behaviors
• turf protection
• top-down communications

Managers First-line Supervisors

• assign external attribution - • overly close supervision
blame others or environment • inflexible adherence to rules
• do job rather than train

Key to overcoming powerlessness:

share power & delegate decision making
 Korda’s Power Symbols
Power - there are more people who inconvenience
themselves on your behalf than there are people on
whose behalf you would inconvenience yourself
Status - a person’s relative standing in a group
based on prestige and deference
Time
Access

Furnishings
 Political Behavior in
Organizations
Organizational Politics - the use of power and
influence in organizations

Political Behavior - actions not officially sanctioned

by an organization that are taken to influence
others in order to meet one’s personal goals
 Effective Political
Characteristics

What characteristics do
effective political actors
possess?
 Influence Tactics

Consultation Upward Influence:

Inspirational appeals the boss
Rational persuasion
Lateral
Ingratiation
Influence:
Coalition a coworker
Exchange tactics
Upward appeals Downward Influence:
Pressure an employee
 Managing Political Behavior

Š Maintain open communication

Š Clarify performance expectations
Š Use participative management
Š Encourage cooperation among work groups
Š Manage scarce resources well
Š Provide a supportive organizational climate
 Managing Up: The Boss

Understand Your Boss Assess Yourself

and Her Context and Your Needs
Š Her goals and Š Your own strengths and
objectives weaknesses
Š The pressures on her Š Your personal style
Š Her strengths, Š Your predisposition
weaknesses, blind spots toward dependence on
Š Her preferred work authority figures
style
 Managing Up: The Boss

Develop and Maintain a Relationship that

• Fits both your needs and styles

• Is characterized by mutual expectations

• Keeps your boss informed

• Is based on dependability and honesty

• Selectively uses your boss’s time and

resources

SOURCE: Information on slides 21-22 adapted and reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. From J. J. Gabarro and J. P.
Kotter, “Managing Your Boss,” Harvard Business Review (January-February 1980): 92-100. Copyright© 1980 by the Harvard Business
School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.
Sharing Power: Empowerment

Empowerment:
sharing power in such a
way that individuals learn
to believe in their ability
to do the job!
 Empowerment’s Dimensions
Meaning - fit between
the work role and the
employee’s values
and beliefs
E2s
Self-determination -
having control over
the way one does
one’s work
Competence - belief
that one has the
ability to do the job
well
Impact - belief that
one’s job makes a
difference within the
organization
 Guidelines for Empowering

Š Express confidence in employees

Š Set high performance expectations
Š Create opportunities for participative decision
making
Š Remove bureaucratic constraints that stifle
autonomy
Š Set inspirational and meaningful goals
 Employee Empowerment Grid
Implement
Decision-Making Authority over Job Context

Follow-up Point D Point E

Mission Defining Self-management
Alt. Choice
Point C
Participatory
Alt. Eval
Empowerment

Alt. Dev
Point A Point B
No Discretion Task Setting
Problem Id.
Alt. Implement
Problem Id. Alt. Dev Alt. Eval
Choice Follow-up

Decision-Making Authority over Job Content

Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations, 1964, pp.... 59-61. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
 Using Power Effectively

Š Use power in ethical ways

Š Understand and use all of the various types of
power and influence
Š Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your
power skills
Š Use power tempered by maturity and self-
control
Š Accept that influencing people is an important
part of the job of managing
 Chapter 12
Nelson & Quick

Leadership and Followership

 Leadership & Followership

Leadership - the process of guiding & directing the

behavior of people in the work environment
Formal leadership - the officially sanctioned
leadership based on the authority of a formal
position
Informal leadership - the unofficial leadership
accorded to a person by other members of the
organization
Followership - the process of being guided &
directed by a leader in the work environment
 Leadership vs. Management
Leadership & management are distinct,
yet complementary systems of action

Effective leadership Effective

produces useful management
change controls complexity

Effective
Effective leadership
leadership ++ good
good management
management ==
healthy
healthy organizations
organizations
 Management Process

Š Reduces uncertainty
Š Provides stability
Š Components
„ Planning & budgeting

„ Organizing and staffing

Manager –
Most often an
„ Controlling & problem

solving advocate for stability

and the
status quo
 Leadership Process

Š Creates uncertainty
Š Creates change
Š Components
„ Setting organizational direction

„ Aligning people with the

direction via communication Leader –

„ Motivating people to action an advocate for
z Empowerment
change and new
approaches to
z Gratify needs
problems
 Leaders and Managers
Personality Manager Leader
Dimension
Attitudes Impersonal, passive, Personal, active, goals
toward goals functional; goals arise arise from desire,
out of necessity, reality imagination
Conceptions Combines people, Looks for fresh
of work ideas, things; seeks approaches to old
moderate risk problems; seeks high risk
Relationships Prefers to work with Comfortable in solitary
with others others; avoids close work; encourages close
relationships and relationships, not averse
conflicts to conflict
Sense of self Accepts life as it is; Questions life; struggles
unquestioning for sense of order
SOURCE: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. From A. Zaleznik, “Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?” Harvard Business Review 55 (1977):
67-77. Copyright © 1977 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.
Leadership Behavioral Theory:
Lewin Studies
Autocratic Style - the leader uses strong,
directive, controlling actions to enforce the
rules, regulations, activities, & relationships;
followers have little discretionary influence

Democratic Style - the leader takes

collaborative, reciprocal, interactive
actions with followers; followers have high
degree of discretionary influence

Laissez-Faire Style - the leader fails to

accept the responsibilities of the position;
creates chaos in the work environment
 Leadership Behavioral Theory:
Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure – Leader behavior aimed at
defining and organizing work relationships and
roles; establishing clear patterns of organization,
communication, and ways of getting things done.

Consideration – Leader behavior aimed at

nurturing friendly, warm working relationships,
as well as encouraging mutual trust and
interpersonal respect within the work unit.
Leadership Behavioral Theory:
Michigan Studies
Production-Oriented Leader
• Constant leader influence
• Direct or close supervision
• Many written or unwritten rules and
regulations
• Focus on getting work done

Employee-Oriented Leader
• Relationship-focused environment
• Less direct/close supervision
• Fewer written or unwritten rules and
regulations
• Focus on employee concern and needs
 Leadership Grid Definitions

Š Leadership Grid – an approach to understanding a

leader’s or manager’s concern for results
(production) and concern for people
Š “Organization Man” (5,5) – A middle-of-the-road
leader
Š Authority Compliance Manager (9,1) – a leader
who emphasizes efficient production
Š Country Club Manager (9,1) – a leader who
creates a happy, comfortable work environment
 Leadership Grid Definitions

Š Team Manager (9,9) – a leader who builds a

highly productive team of committed people
Š Impoverished Manager (1,1) – A leader who
exerts just enough effort to get by
Š Paternalistic “father knows best” Manager
(9+9) – a leader who promises reward and
threatens punishment
Š Opportunistic “what’s in it for me” Manager
(Opp) – a leader whose style aims to maximize
self-benefit
 Opportunistic
Leadership Grid management
High

9 1,9 9,9
Country club Team
8
management management
7
Concern Paternalism/
for 6 Maternalism
management
People 5 9+9
5,5
Organization man
4
management
3 Authority-
Impoverished obedience
2 management management
1 1,1 9,1
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 High
Concern for production
SOURCE: The Leadership Grid® figure, Paternalism Figure and Opportunism from Leadership Dilemmas - Grid Solutions, by Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams
McCanse. (Formerly the Manageerial Grid by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton). Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, (Grid Figure: p. 29, Paternalism Figure: p.
30, Opportunism Figure: p. 31). Copyright© 1991 by Blake and Mouton, and Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.
 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory - classifies the
favorableness of the leader’s situation
„ Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) - the person a
leader has least preferred to work with over his or
her career
„ Task Structure - degree of clarity, or ambiguity, in
the group’s work activities
„ Position Power - authority associated with the
leader’s formal position in the organization
„ Leader-Member Relations – quality of
interpersonal relationships among a leader and
group members
 Leadership Effectiveness in the
Contingency Theory
High LPC 1.00
relations oriented .80
.60
Correlations .40
between leader .20
0
LPC & group -.20
performance -.40
-.60
Low LPC -.80
task oriented
Favorable I II III IV V VI Unfavorable
VII VIII
for leader for leader
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Leader-member G G G G MPoor MPoor MPoor MPoor
relations
Task structure S S U U S S U U

Leader position Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
power
SOURCE: F. E . Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.) Reprinted with permission of the author.
 Path-Goal Theory of
Leadership
Leader behavior styles
Follower path Follower goals
• Directive
perceptions • Satisfaction
• Supportive
Effort-Performance- • Rewards
• Participative
Reward linkages • Benefits
• Achievement oriented

Follower Workplace
Characteristics characteristics
• Ability level • Task structure
• Authoritarianism • Work group
• Locus of control • Authority system
 Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative
Decision Model
Decide

Use the
decision Consult individually
method
most
appropriate
Consult group
for a given
decision Facilitate
situation

Delegate
 Hersey-Blanchard Situational
Leadership Model
Leader’s concern with task
Low
High
SOURCE: Adapted from P. Hersey and K. H.
Blanchard, Management of Organizational
Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, 3rd ed.
(Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1977),170.

High
Leader’s
concern
with
relationship
Low

Mature Willing/Able Unwilling/able Willing/unable Unwilling/unable Immature

Employees Employees
4 3 2 1
 Developments in
Leadership Theory
Leader-Member Exchange
In-groups
Š Members similar to leader
Š Given greater responsibilities,
rewards, attention
Š Within leader’s inner circle
of communication
Š High job satisfaction and
organizational commitment,
low turnover
Š Stress from added
responsibilities
Out-Groups
Š Managed by formal rules
and policies
Š Less attention; fewer
rewards
Š Outside the circle
Š More likely to retaliate
against the organization
Š Stress from being left
out of communication
network
 Developments in
Leadership Theory
Substitutes for Leadership

Š Satisfying task
Š Performance feedback
Š Employee’s high skill level
Š Team cohesiveness
Š Organization’s formal controls
 Developments in
Leadership Theory
Transformational Leadership
As a
transactional leader,
I use formal rewards
& punishments.

As a
transformational leader,
I inspire and excite
followers to high levels
of performance.
 Charismatic Leadership

Š Charismatic Leadership - the use, by a leader, of

personal abilities & talents in order to have
profound & extraordinary effects on followers
Š Charisma - means “gift” in Greek
Š Charismatic leaders use referent power
Š Potential for high achievement & performance
Š Potential for destructive & harmful courses of
action
Emerging Issues in Leadership

Emotional Intelligence

Trust

Leading Virtual Teams

Women Leaders

Servant Leadership
Emergence of Women Leaders
 Five Types of Followers
Independent, critical thinking

Alienated Effective
followers followers

Survivors
Passive Active

Yes
Sheep people
SOURCE: Reprinted by permission of
Harvard Business Review. From “In
Praise of Followers,” by R. E. Kelley,
Vol. 66 1988, p. 145. Copyright © 1988
by Harvard Business School Publishing
Corporation.

Dependent, uncritical thinking

 Dynamic Follower

Š Responsible steward of his

or her job
Š Effective in managing the
relationship with the boss
Š Practices self-management
 Guidelines for Leadership

Š Unique attributes, predispositions, & talents of each

leader should be appreciated
Š Organizations should select leaders who challenge
but not destroy the organizational culture
Š Leader behaviors should demonstrate a concern for
people; it enhances follower well-being
Š Different leadership situations call for different
leadership talents & behaviors
Š Good leaders are likely to be good followers
 Chapter 13
Nelson & Quick

Conflict at Work
 Nature of Organizational
Conflict
Conflict - any situation in which incompatible
goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to
disagreement or opposition between two or more
parties
Functional Conflict - a healthy, constructive
disagreement between two or more people
Dysfunctional Conflict - an unhealthy, destructive
disagreement between two or more people
 Consequences of Conflict
Positive
Consequences
Leads to new ideas
Stimulates creativity
Motivates change
Promotes organizational
vitality
Helps individuals & groups
establish identities
Serves as a safety valve to
indicate problems
Negative
Consequences
Diverts energy from work
Threatens psychological
well-being
Wastes resources
Creates a negative climate
Breaks down group
cohesion
Can increase hostility &
aggressive behaviors
 Causes of Conflict
in Organizations

Structural Factors Personal Factors

• Specialization
• Interdependence
• Common resources
• Goal differences
• Authority relationships
• Status inconsistencies
• Jurisdictional ambiguities
• Skills & abilities
• Personalities
• Perceptions
• Values & ethics
• Emotions
• Communication barriers
• Cultural differences
 Globalization & Conflict
Cultural differences & individual differences
increase the potential for conflict
M
a
Fe scu
m lin
Individualism/ in
in ity/
Collectivism y / ity
e r ta int
Unc a n ce
i d
Power/ Avo
Distance Long-term
/
Short-term
orientation
 Forms of Conflict
in Organizations

Interorganizational Conflict - conflict that occurs

between two or more organizations
Intergroup Conflict - conflict that occurs between
groups or teams in an organization
Interpersonal Conflict - conflict that occurs between
two or more individuals
Intrapersonal Conflict - conflict that occurs within
an individual
 Forms of Conflict
in Organizations
Interrole Conflict - a person’s experience of conflict
among the multiple roles in his/her life
Intrarole Conflict - conflict that occurs within a
single role, such as when a person receives
conflicting messages from role senders about how
to perform a certain role
Person-role Conflict - conflict that occurs when an
individual is expected to perform behaviors in a
certain role that conflict with his/her personal
values
 An Organizational Member’s
Role Set
Inside the organization
Superior
Outside the organization

Client Supervisor Superior role

senders

Peer
Supplier Focal Colleague role
Role
senders

Potential Employee Employee Employee Employee’s Employee

employee 1 2 3 colleagues role
senders
Boundary of the organization
SOURCE: J. C. Quick, J. D. Quick, D. L. Nelson, & J. J. Hurrell, Jr. Preventative Stress Management in Organizations, 1997. Copyright © 1997 by the American
Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission.
Power Relationships in Organizations
Types of Behavioral Examples of
Power Tendencies & Interventions
Relationships Problems
Equal vs. equal Suboptimization Define demarcation lines
Competition Integrate units
Covert fighting Teach negotiating skills
Constant friction

High vs. low Control vs. autonomy Bureaucratize power

Resistance to change through rules
Motivation problems Use a different leadership
style
High vs. middle Role conflict, role Improve communication
vs. low ambiguity, stress Clarify tasks
Concessions Teach power strategies
Doubletalk
SOURCE: W. F. G. Mastenbroek, Conflict Management and
Use of sanctions and Organizational Development, 1987. Copyright John Wiley & Sons
Limited. Reproduced with permission.
rewards
 Defense Mechanisms

Aggressive Mechanisms
Fixation – an individual keeps up a dysfunctional
behavior that obviously will not solve the conflict
Displacement – an individual directs his or her
anger toward someone who is not the source of the
conflict
Negativism – a person responds with pessimism to
any attempt at solving a problem
 Defense Mechanisms
Compromise Mechanisms
Compensation - an individual attempts to make up
for a negative situation by devoting himself/herself
to another pursuit with increased vigor
Identification - an individual patterns his or her
behavior after another’s
Rationalization - a compromise mechanism
characterized by trying to justify one’s behavior by
constructing bogus reasons for it
 Defense Mechanisms

Withdrawal Mechanisms
Flight/Withdrawal - entails physically escaping a
conflict (flight) or psychologically escaping
(withdrawal)
Conversion - emotional conflicts are expressed in
physical symptoms
Fantasy - provides an escape from a conflict through
daydreaming
 Win-Lose versus Win-Win
Strategies

Strategy Dept. A Dept. B Organization

Competitive Lose Lose Lose
Lose Win Lose
Win Lose Lose
Cooperative Win- Win- Win
 Ineffective Techniques for
Dealing with Conflict

Nonaction

Character Secrecy
Assassination
Conflict
Due process
Administrative
Nonaction
Orbiting
 Effective Techniques for
Dealing with Conflict

Subordinate Goals

Confronting Expanding
& Resources
Negotiating Conflict

Changing Changing
Structure Personnel
Approaches to Negotiation

Distributive Bargaining –
the goals of the parties are
in conflict, and each party
seeks to maximize its
resources
Approaches to Negotiation

Integrative Negotiation –
focuses on the merits of the
issues and seeks a win-win
solution
 Conflict Management Styles

Avoiding - deliberate decision to take no action

on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict
Accommodating - concern that the other party’s
goals be met but relatively unconcerned with
getting own way
Competing - satisfying own interests; willing to
do so at other party’s expense
 Conflict Management Styles

Compromising - each party gives up something

to reach a solution

Collaborating - arriving at a solution agreeable

to all through open & thorough discussion
 Conflict Management Styles
Assertive Competing Collaborating

Assertiveness
(Desire to satisfy Compromising
one’s own concerns)

Unassertive Avoiding Accommodating

SOURCE: K. W. Thomas, “Conflict and Conflict
Uncooperative Cooperative
Management,” in M. D. Dunnette, Handbook of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Cooperativeness
(Desire to satisfy another’s concerns)
(Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976), 900. Used with
permission of M. D. Dunnette.
 Creating a
Conflict-Positive Organization

Value diversity
and confront
differences

Take stock to Seek mutual

reward success Conflict benefits, and unite
and learn from Positive behind
mistakes cooperative goals

Empower employees
to feel confident
and skillful
 3 Organization Views of
Conflict

Competitive
conflict Belittle
differences

Seek
Suspect win-lose
situation

Blame

SOURCE: The Conflict-Positive Organization by Tjsovold, © 1991. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.
 3 Organization Views of
Conflict
Avoidance of
conflict
Evade
differences

Reduce
Despair risks

Withdraw

SOURCE: The Conflict-Positive Organization by Tjsovold, © 1991. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.
 3 Organization Views of
Conflict
Positive
conflict
Value
diversity

Seek
Take mutual
Stock benefit

Empower

SOURCE: The Conflict-Positive Organization by Tjsovold, © 1991. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.
 Chapter 14
Nelson & Quick

Jobs & the Design of Work

 Job Compared to Work

Job - a set of specified work and task activities that

engage an individual in an organization
Work – mental or physical activity that has
productive results
Meaning of Work - the way a person interprets and
understands the value of work as part of life
 A - value comes from B - provides
personal
performance; affect &
accountability C - profit
is important accrues to identity
others by
work
performance
D - physical
activity
directed by
others and
performed
E - generally in a
unpleasant workplace
physically &
mentally
Six F - activity constrained strenuous
Patterns to specific time periods; activity
of Work no positive affect through
its performance
Scientific Job
Management Characteristics
Theory
Traditional
Approaches to
Job Design

Job Job Enlargement/

Enrichment Job Rotation
 Emphasizes work simplification
(standardization and the narrow,
Scientific explicit specification of task
Management activities for workers)

+ Allows diverse groups - Undervalues the human

to work together capacity for thought and
+ Leads to production ingenuity
efficiency and higher
profits
Job Enlargement - a method of job design that
increases the number of activities in a job to
overcome the boredom of overspecialized work
Job Rotation - a variation of job enlargement in
which workers are exposed to a variety of
specialized jobs over time
Cross-Training - a variation of job enlargement in
which workers are trained in different
specialized tasks or activities

Job Enlargement/
Job Rotation
Job Enrichment - designing or redesigning
jobs by incorporating motivational factors
into them

Emphasis is on recognition,
Job
responsibility, and
Enrichment
advancement opportunity
 Job
Characteristics
Theory

Job Characteristics Model -

a framework for understanding person-job fit
through the interaction of core job dimensions
with critical psychological states within a person
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - the survey
instrument designed to measure the elements in
the Job Characteristics Model
 Job Characteristics Model
Critical
Core job Personal and
psychological
dimensions work outcomes
states

Skill variety Experienced work’s High internal

Task identity work motivation
meaningfulness
Task significance High-quality
Experienced
work performance
Autonomy responsibility High satisfaction
for work’s outcomes with the work
Feedback Knowledge of work Low absenteeism
activities’ results and turnover
Employee
growth,need,
strength J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, “The Relationship Among Core Job Dimensions, the
Critical Psychological States, and On-the-Job Outcomes,” The Job Diagnostic Survey: An
Instrument for the Diagnosis of Jobs and the Evaluation of Job Redesign Projects, 1974.
Reprinted by permission of Greg R. Oldham.
 Five Core Job Characteristics

Motivating Potential Score

Skill + Task + Task

variety identity significance
MPS = x [Autonomy] x [Feedback]
3
 Social Information Processing
(SIP) model
SIP Model - a model that suggests that the important
job factors depend in part on what others tell a person
about the job
Four premises:
1) people provide cues to understanding
the work environment
2) people help us judge our jobs
3) people tell us how they see our jobs
4) people’s positive & negative feedback
help us understand our feelings about our jobs
Interdisciplinary
Approach
Motivational
Mechanistic

Perceptual/
motor

Biological

No one approach can solve all

performance problems caused by
poorly designed jobs
Outcomes of Various Job Design Approaches
Decreased training time Higher job satisfaction
Higher utilization levels Higher motivation
Lower error likelihood Greater job involvement
Less mental overload Higher job performance
Lower stress levels Lower absenteeism

+ +
Mechanistic Motivational

-
Approach Approach

-
Increased training time
Lower job satisfaction Lower personnel utilization
Lower motivation Greater chance of errors
Higher absenteeism Greater chance of mental
overload and stress
Outcomes of Various Job Design Approaches
Less physical effort Lower error likelihood
Less physical fatigue Lower accident likelihood
Fewer health complaints
Less mental stress
Fewer medical incidents
Lower absenteeism Decreased training time
Higher job satisfaction Higher utilization levels

+ +
Biological Perceptual Motor

-
Approach
-
Approach

Higher financial costs

because of changes Lower job satisfaction
in equipment or Lower motivation
job environment
International Perspectives on
the Design of Work
The Japanese Approach
„ Emphasizes strategic level

„ Encourages collective and

cooperative working arrangements

„ Emphasizes lean
leanproduction
production
 Lean Production

Using committed employees with ever-

expanding responsibilities to achieve
zero waste, 100% good product,
delivered on time, every time
International Perspectives on
the Design of Work
The German Approach
„ Technocentric - placing technology
and engineering at the center of job
design decisions (traditional German
approach)
„ Anthropocentric - placing human
considerations at the center of job
design decisions (more recent
German approach)
International Perspectives on
the Design of Work

The Scandinavian Approach

„ encourages high degrees of worker

control
„ encourages good social support

systems for workers

Scientific Levels of Problem areas &
approaches evaluation assignment to
of labor sciences of human disciplines
work
View Technical, anthropo-
from Practicability metric, &
natural
science
psychophysical
problems
Primarily Primarily Endurability Technical, physiological,
oriented oriented & medical problems
to to groups
individuals
Economical &
Acceptability sociological
View problems
from Satisfaction Sociopsychological &
cultural economic problems
studies
H. Luczak, “’Good Work’ Design: An Ergonomic, Industrial Engineering Perspective,” in J.C. Quick,
L.R. Murphy, and J. J. Hurrell, eds. Stress and Well-Being at Work (Washington, D.C.): American
Psychological Association. Repreinted by permission.
 Work Design and Well-Being:
To increase control in work organizations

Š Give workers the opportunity to control aspects

of work & workplace
Š Design machines and tasks with optimal
response times and/or ranges
Š Implement performance-monitoring systems as
source of worker feedback
 Work Design and Well-Being:
To reduce uncertainty

Š Provide employees with timely and complete

work information needed
Š Make clear and unambiguous work assignments
Š Improve communication at shift change time
Š Increase employee access to information sources
 Work Design and Well-Being:
To manage conflict

Š Use participative decision making to reduce

conflict
Š Use supportive supervisory styles to resolve
conflict
Š Provide sufficient resource availability to meet
work demands, thus preventing conflict
Emerging Issues in Design of Work

Š Telecommuting - employees work at home or in

other locations geographically separate from their
company’s main location
Š Alternative work patterns
„ Job Sharing - an alternative work pattern in

which there is more than one person occupying a

single job
„ Flextime - an alternative work pattern that

enables employees to set their own daily work

schedules
Emerging Issues in Design of Work

Š Technology at work
„ Virtual Office - a mobile platform of computer,

telecommunication, and information technology

and services
„ Technostress - the stress cause by new and

advancing technologies in the workplace

Š Task Revision - the modification of incorrectly
specified roles or jobs
Š Skill development
 Performance Consequences of Role Behaviors
Role Correctly Specified Role Incorrectly Specified
Characteristics Role
Standard Ordinary good Poor performance
Role performance
Behavior
Excellent performance Very Poor
Extra Role (organizational performance
Behavior citizenship and prosocial (bureaucratic zeal)
behavior)
Excellent performance
Counter Role Poor performance (task revision and
Behavior (deviance, dissent, and redirection, role
grievance) innovation)

Counter-Role Behavior - deviant behavior in either a correctly or

incorrectly defined job or role
Republished with permission of Academy of Management, PO Box 3020, Briar Cliff Manor, NY 10510-8020. “Task Revision:
A Neglected Form of Work Performance,” (Table), R. M. Straw & R. D. Boettger, Academy of Management Journal, 1990, Vol. 33.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher via Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
The Distinguishing Feature of Job
Design in the Future
 Chapter 15
Nelson & Quick

Organizational Design
& Structure
 Organizational Design

Organizational Design - the process of constructing

and adjusting an organization’s
organization’sstructure
structureto achieve its
goals.

the linking of
departments and
jobs within an
organization

H. Mintzberg, The Structuring of Organizations, Prentice Hall, © 1979, 301.

Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Key Organizational Design
Processes
 The process of deciding
how to divide the work
in an organization

Four Dimensions
Š Manager’s goal orientation
Š Time orientation
Š Interpersonal orientation
Š Formality of structure
 Horizontal
Differentiation

Š The degree of differentiation between

organizational subunits
Š Based on employee’s specialized knowledge,
education, or training
 Vertical
Differentiation

Š The difference in authority and responsibility in the

organizational hierarchy
Š Greater in tall, narrow organizations than in flat,
wide organizations
 Spatial
Differentiation

Š Geographic dispersion of an organization’s

offices, plants, and personnel
Š Complicates organizational design, but may
simplify goal achievement or protection
 Differentiation Between
Marketing and Engineering

Basis for Difference Marketing Engineering

Goal orientation Sales volume Design

Time orientation Long run Medium run
Interpersonal People Task
orientation oriented oriented
Structure Less formal More formal
The process of coordinating
the different parts
of an organization

Š Designed to achieve unity among individuals and

groups
Š Supports a state of dynamic equilibrium - elements of
organization are integrated, balanced
Vertical
Integration

Š Hierarchical referral
Š Rules and procedures
Š Plans and schedules
Š Positions added to the organization structure
Š Management information systems
Horizontal
Integration

Š Liaison roles
Š Task forces
Š Integrator positions
Š Teams
Formalization - the degree Centralization - the degree
to which the organization to which decisions are
has official rules, made at the top of the
regulations and procedures organization

Hierarchy of Specialization -
Authority - the degree to
the degree of Basic which jobs are
vertical narrowly
differentiation
Design defined and
across Dimensions depend on
levels of unique
management expertise

Complexity - the degree to Standardization - the

which many different types degree to which work
of activities occur in the activities are accomplished
organization in a routine fashion
 Machine Bureaucracy -
Simple Structure - a a moderately
centralized form of decentralized form of
organization that organization that
emphasizes the upper emphasizes the
echelon & direct technical staff &
supervision standardization of
Structural work processes
Configurations
of
“Adhocracy” - a Professional
Organizations
selectively Bureaucracy -
decentralized a decentralized
form of Divisional Form - a form of
organization that moderately decentralized organization that
emphasizes the form of organization emphasizes the
support staff & that emphasizes the operating level
mutual adjustment middle level & & standardization
among people standardization of outputs of skills
 Five Structural Configurations of Organization
Structural Prime
Key Part of Type of
Configuration Coordinating
Organization Decentralization
Mechanism
Simple Direct Upper
Structure Centralization
Supervision Echelon
Standardization Limited
Machine of Work Technical
Horizontal
Bureaucracy Processes Staff
Decentralization
Vertical &
Professional Standardization Operating
Horizontal
Bureaucracy of Skills Level
Decentralization
Divisionalized Standardization Middle Limited Vertical
Form of Outputs Level Decentralization

Adhocracy Mutual Support Selective

Adjustment Staff Decentralization
 Mintzberg’s Five
Basic Parts
of an Organization Strategic
Apex

Tec rt
h
stru o- n pp o
ctur Su f
e Middle S t a f

Line

Operating Core
From H. Mintzberg, The Structuring of Organizations (Upper Saddle
River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979): 20. Reprinted with permission.
 Size Technology

Contextual Variables -
a set of characteristics that
influences the organization’s
design processes

Strategy
& Goals Environment
 Size

Basic Design Small Large

Dimensions Organizations Organizations

Formalization Less More

Centralization High Low
Specialization Low High
Standardization Low High
Complexity Low High
Hierarchy of authority Flat Tall
 Technology

Technological
Interdependence -
the degree of interrelatedness
of the organization’s various
technological elements
Relationship Between
Technology and Basic Task Variability
Design Dimensions Few Exceptions Many Exceptions

Problem Analyzability
Ill-defined & Craft Nonroutine
Unanalyzable 1. Moderate 1. Low
2. Moderate 2. Low
3. Moderate 3. Low
4. Low-moderate 4. Low
5. High 5. High
6. Low 6. Low
Well-defined & Routine Engineering
Analyzable 1. High 1. Moderate
2. High 2. Moderate
Key 3. Moderate 3. High
1 Formalization 4 Standardization 4. High 4. Moderate
2 Centralization 5 Complexity 5. Low 5. Moderate
3 Specialization 6 Hierarchy of Authority
6. High 6. Moderate
Built from C. Perrow, “A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Organization,” American Sociological Review, April 1967, 194-208
Environment - anything outside the boundaries
of an organization
Task Environment - the elements of an
organization’s environment that are related to
its goal attainment
Environmental Uncertainty - the
amount and rate of change
in the organization’s
environment

Environment
 Extremes of Environmental
Uncertainty
Mechanistic Structure – an organizational design
that emphasizes structured activities, specialized
tasks, and centralized decision making

Organic Structure – an organizational design that

emphasizes teamwork, open communication, and
decentralized decision making
 Strategic Dimension Predicted Structural
Characteristics
Innovation--to understand Low formalization
and manage new processes Decentralization
and technologies Flat hierarchy
Market differentiation--to Moderate to high complexity
specialize in customer Moderate to high
preferences formalization
Moderate centralization
Cost control--to produce High formalization
standardized products High centralization
efficiently High standardization
Low complexity

Strategy Miller’s Integrative Framework of

Structural & Strategic Dimensions
& Goals
D. Miller, “The Structural and Environmental Correlates of Business Strategy,” Strategic Management Journal 8 (1987): 55-76. Copyright
@ John Wiley & Sons Limited. Reproduced with permission.
The Relationship
Context of the organization
among Key Correct size
Organizational Current technology
Design Perceived environment
Current strategy & goals
Elements
Influences how manager perceive structural needs

Structural dimensions
Level of formalization
Level of centralization
Level of specialization
Level of standardization
Level of complexity
Hierarchy of authority
Which characterize the organizational processes

Differentiation & Integration

Which influence how well the structure meets its

Purposes
Designate formal
lines of authority
Designate formal
information-
processing patterns

Which influence how well the structure fits the

Context of the organization

 Forces Reshaping
Organizations
Š Organization Life Cycle - the differing stages of
an organization’s life from birth to death
Š Globalization
Š Changes in Information-Processing Technologies
Š Demands on Organizational Processes
Š Emerging Organizational Structures
 Structural Roles of Managers Today
versus Managers of the Future
Roles of Managers Today Roles of Future Managers
1. Strictly adhering to boss 1. Having hierarchical
-employee relationships relationships subordinated
2. Getting things done by 2. Getting things done by
giving orders negotiating
3. Carrying messages up 3. Solving problems and
and down the hierarchy making decisions
4. Performing a set of tasks 4. Creating the job through
according to a job description entrepreneurial projects
5. Having a narrow functional 5. Having a broad cross-
focus functional collaboration
6. Going through channels, 6. Emphasizing speed &
one by one by one flexibility
7. Controlling subordinates 7. Coaching one’s workers
Management Review, January 1991, Thomas R. Horton.
Harley’s Circle Organization

Create Produce
Demand Product

Provide
Support

From R. Teerlink and L. Ozley, More than a Motorcycle: The Leadership Journey at Harley-Davidson. Boston, MA, 2000. P. 139.
Copyright © 2000 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.
 Four Symptoms of Structural
Weakness
Š Delay in decision Overloaded hierarchy; information
making funneling limited to too few channels
Š Poor quality
Right information not reaching
decision making right people in right format
Š Lack of innovative
response to changing No coordinating effort
environment
Š High level of Departments work against each
other, not for organizational goals
conflict
 Paranoid Depressive

Dysfunctional
Personality/Organization
Combinations

Schizoid Dramatic

Compulsive
 Chapter 16
Nelson & Quick

Organizational Culture
 Organizational (Corporate)
Culture

A pattern of basic assumptions that are considered

valid and that are taught to new members as
the way to perceive, think, and
feel in the organization
Artifacts –
symbols of culture in the physical
and social work environment

Values –
Espoused: what members of Levels of
an organization say they value Organizational
Enacted: reflected in the way Culture
individuals actually behave

Assumptions –
deeply held beliefs that guide
behavior and tell organizational
members how to perceive and
think about things
Artifacts: Organizational
Personal enactment Culture Levels
Ceremonies and rites
Stories Visible, often not
Ritual decipherable
Symbols

Values:
Testable in physical environment Greater level
Testable only by social consensus of awareness

Assumptions:
Relationship to environment Taken for granted
Nature of reality, time, and space Invisible
Nature of human nature Preconscious
Nature of human activity Reprinted with permission from Edgar H. Schein, Organizational

Nature of human relationships Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View. Copyright © 1985 Jossey-Bass
Inc, asubsidiary of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Functions of Organizational Culture

Š Culture provides a sense of identity to members and

increases their commitment to the organization
Š Culture is a sense-making device
for organization members
Š Culture reinforces the values
in the organization
Š Culture serves as a control
mechanism for shaping
behavior
Theories about the
relationship between Strong
Culture
organizational culture
Perspective
and performance

Fit
Adaptive Perspective
Perspective
An organizational culture
with a consensus on the
values that drive the company Strong
and with an intensity that is Culture
recognizable even to outsiders Perspective

Strong cultures facilitate performance because

• They are characterized by goal alignment

• They create a high level of motivation because
of shared values by the members
• They provide control without the oppressive
effects of bureaucracy
Argument that a culture is good
only if it fits the industry’s or
the firm’s strategy. Fit
Perspective

Organizational characteristics that may affect culture

ƒ Customer requirements
ƒ Competitive environment
ƒ Societal expectations
An organizational culture that
encourages confidence and risk
taking among employees, has Adaptive
leadership that produces change, and
focuses on the changing needs of Perspective
customers

Adaptive Nonadaptive
Most managers care Most managers care
Core Values about customers, about themselves,
stockholders, and their work group, or
employees an associated product
Managers pay close Managers tend to
Common attention to all behave somewhat
Behavior their constituencies, insularly, politically,
esp. customers and bureaucratically
Reprinted with the permission of The Free Press, a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. from Corporate Culture and Performance by
John P. Kotter and James L Heskett. Copyright © 1992 by Kotter Associates, Inc. and James L. Heskett.
 Five Most Important Elements
in Managing Culture

Š What leaders pay attention to

Š How leaders react to crises
Š How leaders behave
Š How leaders allocate rewards
Š How leaders hire and fire individuals
Organizational Socialization

The process by which newcomers are

transformed from outsiders to
participating, effective members of the
organization
 1. Anticipatory Realism Congruence
Socialization

Job demands
2. Encounter •Task
•Role
•Interpersonal

3. Change and
Mastery
Acquisition

Outcomes of Socialization Performance

Satisfaction
Stages of Mutual influence
Socialization Low levels of distress
From “An Ethical Weather Repart: Assessing the Organizaiton’s Ethical Climate” by John B. Cullen, et Intent to remain
al. In Organizational Dynamics, Autumn 1989. Copyright © 1989 American Management Asociation
International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, N.Y.
All rights reserved. Http://www.amanet. Org.
1. Anticipatory Socialization - the first socialization
stage--encompasses all of the learning that takes place
prior to the newcomer’s first day on the job

2. Encounter - the second socialization stage-- the

newcomer learns the tasks associated with the
job, clarifies roles, and establishes new
relationships at work

3. Change & Acquisition - the third

socialization stage--the newcomer begins to
master the demands of the job
 Socialization as
Cultural Communication
Core values are transmitted to new organization
members through:

„ the role models they interact with

„ the training they receive
„ the behavior they observe being rewarded and
punished
 Assessing Organizational
Culture
Š Organizational Culture Inventory focuses on
behaviors that help employees fit into the
organization & meet coworker expectations
Š Kilman-Saxton Culture-Gap Survey focuses on the
expectations of others in the organization
Š Triangulation - the use of multiple methods to
measure organizational culture
 Situations That May Require
Cultural Changes

Š Merger or acquisition
Š Employment of people from different countries

Reasons That Change Is Difficult

Š Assumptions are often unconscious
Š Culture is deeply ingrained and behavioral norms
and rewards are well learned
 Hiring and Removing
socializing Culture members who
members who reject the
fit in with the new culture
4 new culture 5

Cultural Changing
1
3 communication behavior

Examining
Interventions for justifications
Changing for changed
Organizational behavior
Culture 2
Reprinted with permission from Vijay Sathe “How to Decipher & Change
Corporate Culture,” Copyright © 1985 Jossey-Bass Inc, Reprinted by permission
Of Jossey-Bass, Inc., a subsidiary of John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
 Cultural Modifications in the
Current Business Environment

Support for a global Empowerment of

view of business employees to excel
in product and
service quality
Reinforcement of
ethical behavior
 Support for a global
view of business

Š Create a clear and simple mission statement

Š Create systems that ensure effective information
flow
Š Develop global career paths
Š Use cultural differences as major assets
Š Implement worldwide management education and
team development programs
 Reinforcement of
ethical behavior

Š Clear communication of the boundaries of ethical

conduct
Š Selection of employees who support the ethical
culture
Š Reward of ethical behavior
Š Conspicuous punishment of members who engage
in unethical behavior
 Empowerment of employees to
excel in product and service quality

Š Empowerment unleashes employees’ creativity

Š Empowerment requires eliminating traditional
hierarchical notions of power
„ Involve employees in decision making

„ Remove obstacles to their performance

„ Communicate the value of product and service

quality
 Chapter 17
Nelson & Quick

Career Management
 Why Understand Careers

Š If we know what to look forward to, we can be

proactive in planning
Š As managers, we need to understand the
experiences of our employees and colleagues
Š Career management is good business--It makes
financial sense
 Career/Career Management

Career - the pattern of work-related experiences that

span the course of a person’s life

Career Management - a lifelong process of learning

about self, jobs, and organizations; setting
personal career goals; developing strategies for
achieving the goals, and revising the goals based
on work and life experiences
 Career: Paradigm Shift

New Career Paradigm Old Career Paradigm

Discrete Exchange Mutual Loyalty Contract

Occupational Excellence One-Employer Focus

Organizational Empowerment Top-Down Firm

Project Allegiance Corporate Allegiance

 The New Career
An organization gains
Discrete Exchange productivity while a person
gains work experience
Skills are continually honed that
Occupational Excellence can be marketed across
organizations
Power flows down to business
Organizational Empowerment units and in turn to the
employees
Both individuals and
Project Allegiance organizations are committed
to successful project completion
Realistic mechanic
stable restaurant server
persistent mechanical engineer Investigative
materialistic curious
analytical
independent
Personalities
and Choices
physicist
surgeon
economist
Artistic architect
imaginative voice coach
emotional interior designer
impulsive
Enterprising real estate agent
ambitious human resource
energetic manager Social
adventurous lawyer generous
cooperative
sociable
Personalities
and Choices
counselor
social worker
clergyman
Conventional word processor
efficient accountant
practical data entry operator
obedient
 Conflicts During Organizational Entry
The individual’s attempt Organizational efforts to
to attract the organization attract individuals

2 1
4 3

The individual’s choice Organizational selection

of an organization of individuals
Figure in L.W. Porter, E.E. Lawler III, and J. R. Hackman, Behavior in Organizations, New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1975. Page 134. Reproduced with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.
 Realistic Job Preview (RJP)

Realistic Job Preview - both positive and negative

information given to potential employees about the
job they are applying for, thereby giving them a
realistic picture of the job

RJP’s help promote the image of the

organization as operating consistently
and honestly
 The Career Stage Model

Withdrawal
Career
Maintenance
stage

Advancement

Establishment
Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood
(17-40) (40-60) (60+)
Life stage (age)
Career Stages
Withdrawal – individual
contemplates retirement or possible
career changes

Maintenance – individual tries to

maintain productivity while evaluating
progress toward career goals

Advancement – people focus

on increasing their competence

Establishment – the person

learns the job and begins to fit
into the organization and occupation
 Establishment: tasks of the
newcomer
Š Negotiate an effective psychological contract - an
implicit agreement between an individual and an
organization that specifies what each is expected to
give and receive in the relationship
Š Manage the stress of socialization
Š Make the transition from organizational outsider to
organizational insider
Establishment: Newcomer-Insider Psychological
Contracts for Social Support
Function of Examples of
Type of Supportive Newcomer Insider
Support Attachments Concern Response
Protection Direct What are the Supervisor
from stressors assistance risks? cues newcomer
Provision of What must Mentor gives
Informational
information l know? advice
How am I Supervisor
Evaluative Feedback
doing? offers feedback
Evidence of Who do I Newcomer is
Modeling
standards follow? apprenticed
Empathy, Others (new)
Emotional Do I matter?
esteem, love empathize
 Advancement: Strive for
Achievement

Career Path - a sequence of job experiences that

an employee moves along during his or her
career
Career Ladder - a structured series of job
positions through which an individual
progresses in an organization
 Advancement: Mentoring

Mentor - an individual who provides guidance,

coaching, counseling, and friendship to a protégé
Career functions provided by a mentor
„ Sponsorship

„ Facilitating exposure

and visibility
„ Coaching

„ Protection
 Advancement: Mentoring

Psychosocial functions Characteristics of good

provided by a mentor mentoring relationships
„ Regular contact
„ Role modeling
„ Consistency with
„ Acceptance and
corporate culture
confirmation
„ Training in managing
„ Counseling
the relationship
„ Friendship „ Accountability

„ Prestige for mentor

 Advancement: Phases of
Mentoring

Initiation - relationship begins

Cultivation - relationship gains meaning

Separation - protégé asserts independence

Redefinition - relationship has new identity

 Advancement: Why Mentors are
important
Š Mentored individuals earn higher salaries
Š Mentored individuals have higher promotion rates
Š Mentored individuals are better decision makers
 Advancement: Dual-Career
Partnerships
Dual-Career Partnership - a relationship in which
both people have important career roles
Pressures of such partnerships
„ Time pressure

„ Jealousy

„ Precedence (which career)

 Advancement: Work-Home
Conflicts
Š Work-home conflicts more likely affect women
Š Organizations’ attempts to help
„ Flexible Work Schedule - a work schedule that

allows employees discretion in order to

accommodate personal concerns
„ Eldercare - assistance in caring for elderly

parents and/or other elderly relatives

 Maintenance: Time of Crisis
or Contentment
Š Midlife crisis
„ Slowed or stalled career growth

„ Burnout

Š Contentment
„ Sense of achievement

„ No need to strive for continued upward mobility

 Maintenance: Issues of
This Stage
Š Career Plateau - a point in an individual’s career
in which the probability of moving further up the
hierarchy is low
Š Firms respond with
„ Lateral moves

„ Project teams

„ Affirmation
 Maintenance:Sharing the
Knowledge through Mentoring

Successful formal mentoring programs require:

1. Voluntary participation
2. Support from top executives
3. Training for the mentors
4. Graceful exit opportunities
 Withdrawal: Planning for
Change
Š Plan financially
Š Plan psychologically

Bridge Employment – employment that takes place

after a person retires from a full-time position but
before the person’s permanent withdrawal from the
workforce
Withdrawal: Retirement
Issues
Spouse
Dual
Careers

Health Income
 A network of self-perceived
talents, motives, and values
Career Anchors that guide an individual’s
career decisions

Managerial Autonomy &

Competence Technical/Functional Independence
Competence

Creativity Security/Stability
Managing Your Career: Key
Questions

1. Am I adding real value?

2. Am I plugged into what’s
happening around me?
3. Am I trying new ideas,
new techniques, new
technologies?
 Chapter 18
Nelson & Quick

Managing Change
 Organizational Change

Planned Change - Unplanned Change -

change resulting change that is imposed
from a deliberate on the organization
decision to alter the and is often
organization unforeseen

Managers must be
prepared to handle both
 External Forces for Change

Globalization Workforce
Diversity

Changing Ethical
Technology Behavior
Globalization

Organizations must rethink

the most efficient ways to
Majority of
Use resources
new workers
Disseminate/gather information
will be female
Develop people
Workforce will
grow in diversity -
Structural
more Hispanics &
Change
African-Americans
&
Workforce is aging -
Mental less young workers, more
Change middle-aged
Workforce
Diversity
 Ethical
Behavior Other Organizations

Customers
Ethical
Treatment Changes
Environment in work
relationships

Society Technological
Change
Changes in
Changing organizational
structure
Technology
 Internal Forces for Change

Company
Declining Crisis
Effectiveness

Changing
Changing Employee
Work Climate Expectations
 Scope of Change

Incremental Change - change of a relatively small

scope, such as making small improvements
Strategic Change - change of a larger scale, such as
organizational restructuring
Transformational Change - change in which the
organization moves to a radically different, and
sometimes unknown, future state
 The Change Agent’s Role

Change Agent - the individual or group who

undertakes the task of introducing and managing a
change in an organization

The change agent can be internal or external

 Internal Change Agents

Advantages Disadvantages
„ know past history, „ may be associated

political system, and with factions,

culture accused of favoritism
„ must live with „ may be too close to

results of change so the situation to be

will move carefully objective
 External Change Agents

Disadvantages
Advantages
„ limited knowledge of
„ outsider’s
organization’s history
objective view
„ may be viewed with
„ impartiality
suspicion

To succeed, they must be perceived as trustworthy,

be experts with proven track records, be similar to
those they are working with
 Resistance to Change

Š Fear of the unknown

Š Fear of loss
Š Fear of failure
Š Disruption of interpersonal relationships
Š Personality conflicts
Š Politics
Š Cultural assumptions and values
 Dealing with
Resistance to Change
Š Communication
„ details

„ rationale

Š Participation in the process

„ ownership

„ commitment

Š Empathy and support

 Reactions to Change & Managerial Interventions
Reaction Expression Managerial
Intervention
Disengagement Withdrawal Confront, identify
psychological withdrawal
from change
Disidentification Sadness, worry Explore, transfer
feeling that one’s
identity is being
threatened by change
Disenchantment Anger Neutralize,
feeling negativity or acknowledge
anger toward a change
Disorientation Confusion Explain, plan
feelings of loss and
confusion due to change
Table adapted from H. Woodward and S. Buchholz. Aftershock: Helping People through corporate Change, p. 15.
Copyright © 1987 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Lewin’s Three Step Change
Model
1. Unfreezing - involves encouraging individuals to
discard old behaviors by shaking up the
equilibrium state that maintains the status quo
2. Moving - new attitudes, values, and behaviors are
substituted for old ones
3. Refreezing - involves the establishment of new
attitudes, values, and behaviors as the new status
quo
 Force Field Analysis of Decision to
Engage in Exercise
Forces for change Forces for status quo
Weight gain Lack of time
Minimally passing No exercise facility at
treadmill test work
Feel lethargic; Spouse/partner hates to
have no energy exercise
Equilibrium
Family history of No interest in physical
activity or sports
cardiovascular
disease Made a grade of D in
physical education
New, physically class
demanding job
 Applying Lewin’s Model to the
Organization
Š Unfreezing: the organization eliminates rewards for
current behavior
Š Moving: the organization initiates new options and
explains their rationale
Š Refreezing: organizational culture & formal reward
systems encourage the new behaviors
Organizational Development (OD)

Organizational Development (OD) - a systematic

approach to organizational improvement that
applies behavioral science theory and research in
order to increase individual and organizational
well-being and effectiveness
 Diagnosis & Needs Analysis

Diagnosis and Intervention

needs analysis

Follow-up

Ask
• What are the forces for change?
• What are the forces preserving the status quo?
• What are the most likely sources of resistance?
• What are the goals to be accomplished by change?
 OD Intervention Methods:
Organizational/Group Techniques
Survey Feedback - a widely
used method of intervention
whereby employee attitudes
are solicited by
questionnaire
Anonymous
Group reporting format
No repercussions
Clear purpose
Follow-up
 OD Intervention Methods:
Organizational/Group Techniques
Management by Objective
an organization-wide
intervention technique of
joint goal setting between
employees and managers
Initial objectives
Periodic progress reviews
Problem solving to
remove obstacles to
goal achievement
 OD Intervention Methods:
Organizational/Group Techniques
Quality Program - a program
that embeds product and
service quality excellence
into the organizational
culture
Raise aspirations about
product/service quality
Embed product/service
quality excellence in the
organizational culture
 OD Intervention Methods:
Organizational/Group Techniques
Team Building - an
intervention designed to
improve the effectiveness of
a work group
Seek feedback
Discuss errors
Reflect on successes & failures
Experiment with new ways of
performing
Climate of psychological safety
 OD Intervention Methods:
Organizational/Group Techniques
Large Group Interventions -
events that bring all of the
key members of a group
together in one room for an
extended period of time

Outside consultants determine

participants & goals
Participants=critical mass
supporting change
 OD Intervention Methods:
Organizational/Group Techniques
Process Consultation - an OD
method that helps managers
and employers improve the
processes that are used in Outside consultant:
organizations Enters organization
Defines the relationship
Chooses an approach
Gathers data
Diagnoses problem
Intervenes
Leaves organization
 OD Intervention Methods:
Individual-Focused Techniques
Skills Training - increasing
the job knowledge, skills,
and abilities that are
necessary to do a job
effectively
In formal classroom settings
On the job (Continual updating)
 OD Intervention Methods:
Individual-Focused Techniques
Sensitivity Training – an
intervention designed to
help individuals under-
stand how their behavior
affects others Outside trainer who
intervenes only to move
the group forward.
Training can:
• help employees
understand each other
•recognize their own feelings
•improve communication
 OD Intervention Methods:
Individual-Focused Techniques
Management Development
Training - a host of
techniques for enhancing
managers’ skills in an
organization
Verbal information
Intellectual skills
Attitudes
Development
 OD Intervention Methods:
Individual-Focused Techniques
Role Negotiation - a
technique whereby
individuals meet and
clarify their psychological
contract
Outcomes
• Better understanding of
what each can be
expected to give & receive
• Less ambiguity
 OD Intervention Methods:
Individual-Focused Techniques
Job Redesign - an OD
intervention method that
alters jobs to improve the
fit between individual
skills and the demands of
the job
Realign task demands and
individual capabilities
Redesign jobs to fit new
techniques or organization
structures
 OD Intervention Methods:
Individual-Focused Techniques

Ex. Stress reduction education,

Health Promotion
Programs employee assistance

Career Planning Match individual’s career

aspirations with organizational
opportunities
 Ethical Considerations in
Organizational Development

Š Selection of the OD method

Š Voluntary participation
Š Confidentiality
Š Potential for manipulation by the change agent