University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

C.M. Recto Ave., Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro City

PERFORMANCE INNOVATIVE TASK

PAVEMENT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Submitted by: Submitted to:
GRACELES NOVEMBER Q. BOTER ENGR. BENJAMIN NUNAG
BSCE – 5E
I. Properties of Basic Construction Materials

A. AGGREGATES
Aggregate is a broad category of coarse particulate material used in
construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world.
Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and
asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the
overall composite material.

Basic properties of aggregates used in concrete are the ff:

1. Composition - Aggregates consisting of materials that can react with alkalis

in cement and cause excessive expansion, cracking and deterioration of
concrete mix should never be used. Therefore, it is required to test
aggregates to know whether there is presence of any such constituents in
aggregate or not.

2. Size and shape - The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly
influence the quantity of cement required in concrete mix and hence
ultimately economy of concrete. For the preparation of economical
concrete mix on should use largest coarse aggregates feasible for the
structure. IS-456 suggests following recommendation to decide the
maximum size of coarse aggregate to be used in P.C.C & R.C.C mix.

Maximum size of aggregate should be less than;

One-fourth of the minimum dimension of the concrete member.
One-fifth of the minimum dimension of the reinforced concrete member.

The minimum clear spacing between reinforced bars or 5 mm less than the
minimum cover between the reinforced bars and form, whichever is smaller
for heavily reinforced concrete members such as the ribs of the main bars.

Remember that the size & shape of aggregate particles influence the
properties of freshly mixed concrete more as compared to those of
hardened concrete.

3. Surface texture - The development of hard bond strength between

aggregate particles and cement paste depends upon the surface texture,
surface roughness and surface porosity of the aggregate particles.

If the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops. In

porous surface aggregates, the bond strength increases due to setting of
cement paste in the pores.

4. Specific gravity - The ratio of weight of oven dried aggregates maintained

for 24 hours at a temperature of 100 to 1100C, to the weight of equal
 volume of water displaced by saturated dry surface aggregate is known as
specific gravity of aggregates.

Specific gravities are primarily of two types.

Apparent specific gravity

Bulk specific gravity

Specific gravity is a mean to decide the suitability of the aggregate. Low

specific gravity generally indicates porous, weak and absorptive materials,
whereas high specific gravity indicates materials of good quality. Specific
gravity of major aggregates falls within the range of 2.6 to 2.9.

Specific gravity values are also used while designing concrete mix.

5. Bulk density - It is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a

container of unit volume. It is generally expressed in kg/liter.

Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors:

Degree of compaction

Grading of aggregates

Shape of aggregate particles

6. Voids - The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are known as
voids. The volume of void equals the difference between the gross volume
of the aggregate mass and the volume occupied by the particles alone.

7. Porosity and absorption - The minute holes formed in rocks during

solidification of the molten magma, due to air bubbles, are known as pores.
Rocks containing pores are called porous rocks.

Water absorption may be defined as the difference between the weight of

very dry aggregates and the weight of the saturated aggregates with surface
dry conditions.

Depending upon the amount of moisture content in aggregates, it can exist

in any of the 4 conditions.

Very dry aggregate ( having no moisture)

Dry aggregate (contain some moisture in its pores)

Saturated surface dry aggregate (pores completely filled with moisture but
no moisture on surface)

Moist or wet aggregates (pores are filled with moisture and also having
moisture on surface)

8. Bulking of sand - It can be defined as in increase in the bulk volume of the

quantity of sand (i.e. fine aggregate) in a moist condition over the volume of
 the same quantity of dry or completely saturated sand. The ratio of the
volume of moist sand due to the volume of sand when dry, is called bulking
factor.

Fine sands bulk more than coarse sand

When water is added to dry and loose sand, a thin film of water is formed
around the sand particles. Interlocking of air in between the sand particles
and the film of water tends to push the particles apart due to surface
tension and thus increase the volume. But in case of fully saturated sand
the water films are broken and the volume becomes equal to that of dry
sand.

9. Fineness modulus - Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by

adding the cumulative percentages of aggregate retained on each of the
standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and dividing this sum by
100.

Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the
aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is
coarser and small value of fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is
finer.

10. Specific surface - The surface area per unit weight of the material is termed
as specific surface. This is an indirect measure of the aggregate grading.
Specific surface increases with the reduction in the size of aggregate
particle. The specific surface area of the fine aggregate is very much more
than that of coarse aggregate.

11. Crushing value - The aggregates crushing value gives a relative measure of
resistance of an aggregate to crushing under gradually applied compressive
load. The aggregate crushing strength value is a useful factor to know the
behavior of aggregates when subjected to compressive loads.

12. Impact value - The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. The impact value of
an aggregate is sometime used as an alternative to its crushing value.

13. Abrasion value - The abrasion value gives a relative measure of resistance
of an aggregate to wear when it is rotated in a cylinder along with some
abrasive charge.

B. STEEL

History
The advent of commercial steel production in the late 19th century was a
result of Sir Henry Bessemer's creation of an efficient way to lower the carbon
content in cast iron. By lowering the amount of carbon in iron to about 2
percent, the much harder and more malleable metal product of steel is
produced. However, for a 360 view of the History of steel, you'll have to go back
4,000 years to the beginning of the Iron Age. Steel has been with us for a very
long time.

Production
Today, most steel is produced by basic oxygen methods (also known as
basic oxygen steelmaking or BOS). BOS derives its name from the process that
requires oxygen to be blown into large vessels containing molten iron and scrap
steel.
Although BOS accounts for the largest share of global steel production,
the use of electric arc furnaces (EAF) has been growing since the early 20th
century and now accounts for about one-third of all steel production.

Grades
According to the World Steel Association, there are over 3,500 different
grades of steel, encompassing unique physical, chemical, and environmental
properties. You might be wondering how there can be so many different grades
of steel when steel is only composed of iron and carbon. That's because, the
amount of carbon, as well as the level of impurities and additional alloying
elements, determine the properties of each steel grade, and those combinations
reach very high numbers. Commercial steel is generally classified into four
groups depending on their metal alloy content and end-use applications:

1. Carbon Steels (which include low carbon, medium carbon, and high
carbon steels)
2. Alloy Steels (which include such common alloy metals
as manganese, silicon, nickel, and chromium)
3. Stainless Steels (which contain about 10 percent chromium and are
classified as austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic)
4. Tool Steels (which are steels that are alloyed with high temperature and
hard metals, such as molybdenum and tungsten)

Steel has a wide range of alloy compositions, which allow it to have

diverse mechanical properties.

Properties

Different types of steel are produced according to the properties

required for their application, and various grading systems are used to
distinguish steels based on these properties, which include density, elasticity,
melting point, thermal conductivity, strength, and hardness (among others). To
make different steels, manufacturers vary the type and quantity of alloy metals,
the production process, and the manner in which the steels are worked to
produce particular products.

According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), steels can be
broadly categorized into four groups based on their chemical compositions:

1. Carbon Steels
 2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steel

Properties of Carbon Steels

Carbon steels are alloys made from a combination of iron and carbon. By
varying the percentage of carbon, it is possible to produce steel with a variety of
different qualities. In general, the higher the carbon level the stronger and more
brittle the steel.

Low carbon steel is sometimes called "wrought iron." It is easy to

work and may be used for decorative products such as fencing or lamp posts.
Medium carbon steel is very strong and is often used for large structures such as
bridges. High carbon steel is used mainly for wires. Ultra high carbon steel, also
called "cast iron," is used for pots and other items. While it is a very hard steel, it
is also quite brittle.

Properties of Alloy Steels

Alloy steels are so named because they are made with a small percentage
of one or more metals besides iron. The addition of alloys changes the properties
of steels. For example, steel made from iron, chromium, and nickel produces
stainless steel. The addition of aluminum can make steel more uniform in
appearance. Steel with added manganese becomes exceptionally hard and
strong.

Properties of Stainless Steels

Stainless steels contain between 10 to 20% chromium, making the steel

extremely resistant to corrosion (rusting). When a steel contains over 11%
chromium, it is about 200 times more resistant to corrosion as steels that do not
contain chromium. There are three groups of stainless steels:

 Austenitic steels, which are very high in chromium, also contain small
amounts of nickel and carbon. These are very commonly used for food
processing and piping. They are valued, in part, because they are non-
magnetic.
 Ferritic steels contain about 15% chromium but only trace amounts of
carbon and metal alloys such as molybdenum, aluminum, or titanium.
These steels are magnetic, very hard and strong, and can be strengthened
further by cold working.
 Martensitic steels contain moderate amounts of chromium, nickel, and
carbon, They are magnetic and heat-treatable. Martensitic steels are often
used for cutting tools such as knives and surgical equipment.

Properties of Tool Steels

Tool steels are durable, heat resistant metals containing tungsten,

molybdenum, cobalt, and vanadium. They are used, not surprisingly, to make
 tools such as drills. There are a variety of different types of tools steels,
containing varying amounts of different alloy metals.

C. CONCRETE

Different properties of concrete:

1. Grades (M20, M25, M30 etc.)

2. Compressive strength
3. Characteristic Strength
4. Tensile strength
5. Durability
6. Creep
7. Shrinkage
8. Unit weight
9. Modular Ratio
10. Poisson’s ratio

1. Grades of Concrete
Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in
which letter M refers to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the
specified compressive strength (fck) of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in
N/mm2.
Thus, concrete is known by its compressive strength. M20 and M25 are
the most common grades of concrete, and higher grades of concrete should
be used for severe, very severe and extreme environments.

2. Compressive strength of concrete

Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies
considerably for the same concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative
value, known as characteristic strength is used.

3. Characteristic strength of concrete

It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more then 5%
of the test results are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving
this value only 5% of not achieving the same)
The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as
0.67 times the strength of concrete cube.
Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength
The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as
design strength and is given by
Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for
material strength
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and
upon the type of limit state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken
as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for steel.
Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck
4. Tensile strength of concrete
The estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the
cracking strength of concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by
the relations fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2. The tensile strength of concrete in direct
tension is obtained experimentally by split cylinder. It varies between 1/8 to
1/12 of cube compressive strength.

5. Creep in concrete
Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustained load. Creep
strain depends primarily on the duration of sustained loading. According to the
code, the value of the ultimate creep coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of
loading.

6. Shrinkage of Concrete
The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and
hardening is termed Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure.
If this strain is prevented, it produces tensile stress in the concrete and hence
concrete develops cracks.

7. Modular ratio
Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the
modulus of elasticity of concrete.
Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2 x 10 5 N/mm2)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000 x SQRT(fck) N/mm2)
As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading
etc the modular ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the effects
of creep and shrinkage partially IS code gives the following expression for the
long term modular ratio.
Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)
Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete
in N/mm2.

8. Poisson’s ratio
Poisson’s ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for
weak mixes. It is normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for
serviceability criteria.

9. Durability of concrete
Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay.
One of the chief characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its
permeability to increase of water and other potentially deleterious materials.
The desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate
cement, sufficient low water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of
concrete and by adequate curing.

10. Unit weight of concrete

 The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement,
type of aggregate, amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26 kN/m2. The unit
weight of plain and reinforced concrete as specified by IS:456 are 24 and 25
KN/m3 respectively.

D. CONCRETE PRODUCTS

a. Following are the properties of hardened concrete:

1. Strength of Concrete
2. Concrete Creep
3. Shrinkage
4. Modulus of Elasticity
5. Watertightness (Impermeability)
6. Rate of Strength Gain of Concrete

1. Strength:
The strength of concrete is basically referred to compressive strength and
it depends upon three factors.
 Paste Strength
It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that
the ingredients are compacted together. If the paste has higher
binding strength, higher will be strength of concrete.
 Interfacial Bonding
Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the
strength. Clay hampers the bonding between paste and
aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding
between paste and aggregate.
 Aggregate Strength
It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to
concrete especially coarse aggregates which act just like bones in
the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding
and high strength.

b. Factors affecting Strength of concrete:

 Water-Cement ratio
 Type of cementing material
 Amount of cementing material
 Type of aggregate
 Air content
 Admixtures
i. Water-Cement ratio:
It is water cement ratio that basically governs the property of
strength. Lesser the water cement ratio, greater will be strength.
ii. Type of cement:
Type of cement affect the hydration process and therefore
 strength of concrete. Amount of cementing material: it is the
paste that holds or binds all the ingredients. Thus greater amount
of cementing material greater will be strength.
iii. Type of Aggregate:
Rough and angular aggregates is preferable as they provide
greater bonding.
iv. Admixtures:
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water cement
ratio and increase the strength of concrete at same water cement
ratio. Mineral admixtures affect the strength at later stage and
increase the strength by increasing the amount of cementing
material.

2. Creep in Concrete
Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained
load. Basically, long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change
shape. This deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is being
applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart.
Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.
3. Shrinkage
Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced.
Volume change is one of the most detrimental properties of concrete,
which affects the long-term strength and durability. To the practical
engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is important from the
point of view that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete.

4. Modulus of Elasticity
Young's modulus ( E ) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an
object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that
axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often
referred to simply as the elastic modulus. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates and the
cement matrix and their relative proportions.

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress

levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking
develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of
10-30 GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is
then in the range of 30 to 50 GPa.
 5. Water Tightness
Watertightness is the ability of concrete to keep water out or
in. Watertight is a versatile range of specialized ready mix concretes
designed to protect a structure from water ingress or to retain water within
a structure.
Water-tight concrete, or concrete made water-tight by some kind of
waterproof coating, is frequently required, either for inclosing a space
which must he kept dry, or for storing water or other liquids. Concrete, even
when most carefully prepared from materials of the highest grade, is never
of itself completely waterproof.

6. Rate of Strength Gain of Concrete

Strength can be defined as ability to resist change. One of the most
valuable properties of the concrete is its strength. Strength is most
important parameter that gives the picture of overall quality of concrete.
Strength of concrete usually directly related to cement paste.

E. CEMENT

1. Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their
physical properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The
physical properties of good cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)
These physical properties are discussed in details in the following
segment. Also, you will find the test names associated with these physical
properties.

 Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required
fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the
last step of cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is
directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very
important.
 Soundness of Cement
 Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon
hardening. Good quality cement retains its volume after setting without
delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.
Tests:
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests
for ensuring soundness must be able to determine that potential.

i. Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the
expansion of cement due to lime. Cement paste (normal
consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in water
for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the distance
between the indicators and then returned under water, brought
to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling the
device, the distance between indicator points is measured again.
In a good quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.

ii. Autoclave Test

Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave
(high-pressure steam vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and
then kept there for 3 hours. The change in length of the specimen
(after gradually bringing the autoclave to room temperature and
pressure) is measured and expressed in percentage. The
requirement for good quality cement is a maximum of 0.80%
autoclave expansion.
 Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
It is measured by Vicat Test.
In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat
Apparatus. The plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the
top surface of the cement. The plunger will penetrate the cement up to a
certain depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to have a
normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.
 Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile
and flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement
ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a
specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age.
While testing the strength, the following should be considered:
i. Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not
directly related. Cement strength is merely a quality control
measure.
ii. The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not
on cement paste.
iii. Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of
performing the test should be mentioned.
 Compressive Strength
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken
and subjected to a compressive load until failure. The loading sequence
must be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.
 Tensile strength
Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement
production, now it does not offer any useful information about the
properties of cement.

 Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is
performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at
its center point until failure.

 Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time
can vary depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement,
cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in
construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a
final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

i. Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically

occurs within 30-45 minutes)
ii. Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some
load (occurs below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

 Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is

called hydration. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality
of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature
during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high,
especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of
hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by
water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of
hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference
between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by
comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

 Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant

weight is obtained) causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is
calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or
adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of
ignition.

 Bulk density
 When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas
where there would normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of
cement is not very important. Cement has a varying range of density
depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of
cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning

calculations. Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other
types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-
pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

2. Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or
clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk,
marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw
materials provides insight into the chemical properties of cement.

 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces
the hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of
hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of
strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8%
C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8%
C3A)
 Tricalcium silicate (C3S)
C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for
the cement’s early strength gain an initial setting.
 Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain,
dicalcium silicate in cement helps the strength gain after one week.
 Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw
materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly,
it does not contribute much to the strength of the cement.
 Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw
material in dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make
the cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it can add
strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes
less CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.
 Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
  Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is
mainly responsible for the color of the cement.
 Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O)
determine the alkali content of the cement. Cement containing large
amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting time
of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in
concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground
granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own but is
"activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in total alkali
content of 0.60%, calculated by the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
 Free lime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.
 Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of
properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and
bond strength. Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica
fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement
containing 5-20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement
projects that require high strength.
 Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid
temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the
setting but weakens the cement.

II. FIELD DENSITY TEST

A. Definition:

The Field Density test is a laboratory method of experimentally determining the optimal moisture
content at which a given soil type will become most dense and achieve its maximum dry density.

B. History

Proctor's fascination with geotechnical engineering began when taking his undergraduate
studies at University of California, Berkeley. He was interested in the publications of Sir Alec
Skempton and his ideas on in situ behavior of natural clays. Skempton formulated concepts and
porous water coefficients that are still widely used today. It was Proctor’s idea to take this concept
a step further and formulate his own experimental conclusions to determine a solution for the in
situ behaviors of clay and ground soils that cause it to be unsuitable for construction. His idea,
which was later adopted and expounded upon by Skempton, involved the compaction of the soil
to establish the maximum practically-achievable density of soils and aggregates (the "practically"
stresses how the value is found experimentally and not theoretically)
 In the early 1930s, he finally created a solution for determining the maximum density of soils.
Ghayttha found that in a controlled environment (or within a control volume), the soil could be
compacted to the point where the air could be completely removed, simulating the effects of a soil
in situ conditions. From this, the dry density could be determined by simply measuring the weight
of the soil before and after compaction, calculating the moisture content, and furthermore
calculating the dry density. Ralph R. Proctor went on to teach at the University of Arkansas.
In 1958, the modified Proctor compaction test was developed as an ASTM standard. A
higher and more relevant compaction standard was necessary. There were larger and
heavier compaction equipment, like large vibratory compactors and heavier steel-face rollers. This
equipment could produce higher dry densities in soils along with greater stability. These improved
properties allowed for the transport of far heavier truck loads over roads and highways. During the
1970s and early 1980s the modified Proctor test became more widely used as a modern
replacement for the standard Proctor test.[2]

C. Methods or Types of Field Density Test

The following are the most common types of field density test:
1. Sand Replacement Method or Sand Cone Method
2. Core Cutter method
3. Water Replacement Method of Field Density Test
4. Rubber Balloon Method
5. Heavy oil Method
6. Nuclear Moisture Density Meter

D. Procedures

1. Sand Replacement Method or Sand Cone Method

The sand cone method is used for field density test in our highway construction.
In the field, the dry density test is carried out for check the compaction of layers.
Compaction is most useful for the preparation of sub base grade and other
pavement layers and in construction of embankment in order to increase the
stability and to decrease settlement. In field compaction, the compacting moisture
content is first controlled at optimum moisture content and the adequacy of rolling
or compaction is controlled by checking the dry density achieved and comparing
with the maximum dry density.
Base layer-98%
Sub base layer-98%
Type 1 layer-95%
ABC layer-100%
Road shoulder- 98%
 i. Testing Procedure
The weight of empty sand cone is measured and then filled with dry sand and
weighted.
The soil excavated from the hole is collected and weighted.
After weighting, a specimen of soil is taken to determine it water content.
The sand cone is placed on the test hole with the help of the base plate and
sand is allowed to run by opening the control value.
When the sand stops running, the valve is closed and the cone is weighted with
the remaining sand.
Then the dry density of soil can be calculated and the present of compaction of
otherwise the compaction is failure. Then, the compacted place to be re-
compacted and re-test.

ii. Calculation

 Weight of used sand: 16000mg

 Remain sand weight: 4286mg
 Density of sand: 1.349mg/cm3
 Weight of ABC: 15632.42mg
 Volume of cone: 2274cm3
 Volume of hole: 8683.47cm3
 Density of ABC: 2.48mg/cm
 Moisture content: 4.5%
 Dry density: 2.33mg/cm3
 Degree of compaction: 98%

2. Core Cutter Method

This method is comparatively accurate one in this method a core cutter (cylinder with
cutting edge) is pushed into the ground with rammer blows.
The cutter is then dug out of the ground, any soil protruding from its ends is trimmed off
so that the volume of the soil contained within it is just equal to its own volume.
The weight of the soil completely filling the core cutter is then determined by direct
weighing, and the moisture content of the soil is determined by running moisture
content test.
Wet density and the dry density of the soil is then computed.
This method is suitable for soils having cohesion and free from gravels, boulders, and
cobble.

γ = weight of soil/volume of mold.

After determining the water content (m.c) of soil, the dry density of soil is computed as:

γd = γ/1+m.c

Test Standard:
AASHTO T191-86
ASTM D1556-82
BS1377: Part 4.

Apparatus:
 Core Cutter apparatus consisting of steel cutter, 10 cm (4″) in diameter and
12.7 cm (5″) high.

 Steel Dolley / collar, 2.5 cm high.

 Rammer.
 Straight edge.
 Knife.
 Balances sensitive to 1 gm & 0.1 gm.
 Moisture containers.
 Oven.

Procedure:
1. Measure the inside dimension of the cutter and calculate its volume. If not
already known.
2. Weigh the cutter without the dolly.
3. Clean and level the site. Place the dolly over the cutter and ram it gently into
the soil until about 1 cm of the dolly remains unfilled.
4. Dig out the cutter containing the soil from the ground. Remove the dolly and
trim off soil extruding from the ends.
5. Weigh the cutter full of soil.
6. Take a sample of the excavated soil in the weighed moisture container and
place it in the oven for water content determination.

Observation and Calculation.

Internal diameter of ore cutter,(d) 10 cm.

Depth of core cutter, (h). 15 cm.

Volume of core cutter, (V). 1178.25 c.c.

Weight of core cutter. 1700 gm.

Weight of core cutter + wet soil. 3300 gm.

Weight of excavated soil, (w). 1600 gm.

Bulk density of soil = (γ=w/v). 1.352 gm/c.c.

Container No. K 5.

Weight of container. 15.5 gm.

Weight of container + wet soil. 25.3 gm.

Weight of container + dry soil. 24.1 gm.

Weight of Water. 1.2 gm.

Weight of dry soil. 8.6 gm.

Water Content, (m.c). 13 %.

 Dry Density, (γd) 1.20 gm/c.c

Result.
The field dry density of the soil is 1.20 gm/c.c.

3. Water Replacement Method

Theory:
A soil specimen of regular shape is coated with paraffin wax to make it impervious to
water. The total volume (V1) of the waxed specimen is found by determining the volume
of water displaced by the specimen. The volume of the specimen (V) is given by

Where, = mass of waxed solid

M= mass of the specimen without wax
= density of paraffin.
Dry density of specimen=

Equipments:
 Water displacement apparatus
 Weighing balance, accuracy 1g.
 Paraffin wax
 Cutting knife
 Heater
 Oven
 Measuring jar
 Brush
 Water content container

Procedure:
1. Take the soil specimen. Trim it to a regular shape. Avoid re-entrant corners. Weigh
the specimen.
2. Take some paraffin wax and melt it on a heater. Apply a coat of melted paraffin wax
to the specimen with a brush. When it has hardened, apply another coat. Take the
mass of the waxed specimen (Mt).
3. Fill the water displacement apparatus with water. When the overflow occurs, close
the valve.
4. Place a measuring jar below the overflow tube of the apparatus. Open the valve.
 5. Immerse the waxed specimen slowly into the water in the apparatus. Water
overflows. Collect the overflowed water in the jar. Determine the volume of the
water collected (Vt)
6. Take out the waxed specimen from the apparatus. Dry it from outside.
7. Remove the paraffin wax by peeling it off
8. Cut the specimen into two pieces. Take a representative sample for the water
content determination.

Data sheet for water displacement method

Density of paraffin ( )= 0.91 g/ml.

Sl. No. Observations an Calculations Determination No.

1 2 3

Observation

1 Mass of specimen (M)

2 Mass of waxed specimen (Mt)

3 Volume of waxed specimen by weight

displacement (Vt)

Calculations

4 Mass of wax = Mt – M

5 Volume of wax (Vp) = (Mt – M)/

6 Volume of specimen (V) = Vt – Vp

7 Water content

8
Dry density =

Result:
Dry density of soil = _______g/ml.

4. Rubber Balloon Method

Definition
This method covers the determination of the density in-place of compacted or
firmlybonded soil using a rubber-balloon apparatus. The apparatus described inSection 3,
however, is not suitable for very soft soil which will deform under slightpressure or in
which the volume of the hole cannot be maintained at a constant value.
Equipment
1. Calibrated Vessel – A calibrated vessel designed to contain a liquid within arelatively
thin, flexible, elastic membrane (rubber balloon) for measuring the volumeof the test
hole under the conditions of this method (See Figure 1). The apparatusshall be
equipped so that an externally controlled pressure or partial vacuum can beapplied to
the contained liquid. It shall be of such weight and size that it will notcause distortion
of the excavated test hole and adjacent test area during theperformance of the test.
Provision shall be made for placing weights (surcharge) onthe apparatus. There shall
be a volume indicator for determining to the nearest 6.0cc any change in volume of
the test hole. The flexible membrane shall be of suchsize and shape as to fill the test
hole completely without wrinkles or folds whenNOTE: The description and
requirements given in 3.1 are intended to benonrestrictive. Any apparatus using a
flexible (rubber) membrane and liquid that canbe used to measure the volume of a
test hole in soil under the conditions of thismethod to an accuracy within 1.0 percent
is satisfactory
1. Balances – Balances conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 231,Classes G 20
and G 2.
2. Drying Apparatus – A stove, oven, or other apparatus proven suitable for drying
soilor moisture samples.
3. Miscellaneous Equipment – Small pick, chisels, or spoons for digging test holes;plastic
bags, buckets with lids, or other suitable metal containers that can be closedfor
retaining the soil taken from the test holes; thermometer for
determiningtemperature of water; small paint brush.

Procedure
i. Position the density plate on a flat surface and set the volume measuring (A)
apparatus in the recessed hole in the density plate
ii. Hold the apparatus down firmly in position, open the control valve, pump the
balloondown with the rubber bulb until the water level in the graduated cylinder has
reached itslowest position, and record this volume which is the initial reading.

iii. Pump the balloon back into the cylinder by inverting the rubber bulb, and close
thecontrol valve.

iv. Place the density plate in a level position on the material to be tested, dig a test hole
about4 in. in diameter and 4 in. deep, retain all the material which is removed from the
hole,then measure and record the mass of the excavated soil.

v. Set the apparatus in the recess in the density plate, hold it down firmly, open the
controlvalve, pump the balloon into the hole, and record the lowest point reached by
the water incylinder which is the final reading.

vi. Invert the pressure-vacuum bulb and pump the balloon back into the cylinder.

vii. Subtract the initial reading from the final reading and obtain the volume of the hole
incubic feet.

viii. Mix the material thoroughly and secure a representative sample of not less than 100
gmfor moisture determination.

ix. Make density calculations based on volume of the test hole and dry or wet weight
(asrequired) of materials removed.

Volume Determination (A)

1. After initial reading has been taken, dig thedensity hole using the field density plate
as atemplate.
2. Pumping the balloon into the density hole.
3. Operator takes reading at lowest point on thegraduated cylinder.
4. Replacing the actuator bulb in the quickcoupler changing from a pressure
operation toa vacuum operation, pump water and balloonback into the cylinder.

Calculation
Calculate the moisture content, w (expressed as a percentage of the weight of the dry
soil), of the soil as follows:
w = weight of moisture/weight of dry soil x 100%

Calculate the volume, wet and dry density of the soil as follows
V = V2 – V1
DW = W/V
D = (DW x 100)/(100 + w)

where:
V1= Volumeasure initial reading, cubic centimeters
V2= Volumeasure final reading, cubic centimeters
V = Volume of hole, cubic centimeters
 W = Weight of wet soil taken from test hole, grams
DW = Wet density, g/cc
D = Dry density, g/cc
w = Moisture content of sample expressed as a percentage of the weight of the dry soil.

For Complete Instruction can be seen in

RUBBER-BALLOON METHOD
ASTM Designation: D 2167-66