Power Electronics (KWiki - Ch1 - Power Semiconductor Devices)

Power Electronics (Power Semiconductor Devices)
Power Semiconductor Devices
Introduction
Power electronics is a rapidly expanding field in electrical engineering and a scope of the
technology covers a wide spectrum of electronic converters. Different kinds of power
supplies are used everywhere in normal daily routines at home, office and industry. This is
due to the progress in electronic components and equipment development that has been
achieved in the last few decades.
Power electronics is a subject that concerns the application of electronic-principles into

situations that are rated at power level rather than signal level. It may also be defined as a
subject that deals with the apparatus and equipment working on the principle of electronics
but rated at power level rather than signal level.
Ex. Semi-conductor power switches, Thyristors & GTO etc.
Power electronics is a technology associated with efficient conversion & control of electrical
power semiconductor devices. Power processing circuit converts into different platform from
similar platform. This acts as an interfacing circuit & it is also used to regulate or control of
output. It contain power semiconductor devices
Signal(Analog) Power Electronics
V : 15V Several volts to kV

I : A to mA A to kA
P:mW to few W Several W to MW
Application of Power Electronics
1. Speed control of electronic motor (Variable speed draws, adjustable speed devices)
Adjustable speed motor is more efficient then fixed speed control motor
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2. But power loss is also increased. It is better to control V/f to control the speed
DC Motor Induction Motor
1. Better speed control characteristics 1. Speed control is difficult

2. Becomes of commutator, it needs 2. Maintenance is easy
more maintenance. 3. Control of  is difficult, if we can control 
3. For smooth speed control, we use DC smoothly then speed control is better than
Motor DC Motor.
3. Power Systems: Power electronic devices can be used for reactive power compensation,
for falling voltage, we need a capacitor & for over voltage, we need inductor.
Vs Vr
Before controller P  sin 
X
Vs Vm 
After SVC, P  sin  
X 2
 
2
2Vs Vm
Ps max    2PSL,max
X
So, stability limit is also increased.
4. Transportation: Rail-electric traction (AC-25kV). 1   , 50Hz and DC series motor is used

in traction.
5. Low Power Application: Domestic Level= Fans, Lightning, Battery Charge, AC
6. Renewable Energy Source (Medium Power Applications)
(a) Solar power generated is DC power & we need to convert DC to AC to drive AC load
Multiple solar cells is connected in series or parallel called as solar panel. Hence, Power
Electronics converters are used to convert DC into AC.
(b) Here, we used induction generator for variable speed application in case of wind farms, to
match frequency of generation to grid frequency for different rotor speeds.
Advantages
1. Power electronic circuits don’t have any rotational parts, so that all losses in system will
reduce.
2. When the losses are less, heat dissipation is also less, therefore it requires less cooling
efforts
3. Power electronics equipment are compact in size
4. The closed loop control is possible with power electronic circuits

Disadvantages
 Harmonics is major drawback of power electronics system.

 Non-linear loads are the source of harmonics.
 Harmonics is defined for non-sinusoidal periodic signals. In power electronics due to
switching harmonics are generated.
 The power semi-conductor devices will operate as switches, due to this switching action,
all waveforms are non-sinusoidal & periodic in nature and such function can be expressed
in terms of Fourier series
Side effect of harmonics
 Due to high frequency components in form of harmonics core losses in Induction Motor
will increase and can damage the motor.
 Input power factor of full control rectifier & AC voltage regulator is low due to harmonics.
Fourier series


f(t)  a0   an cos nt   bn sin nt 
n1

If n=1, fundamental
n>1, harmonics
2
1
a0 
2  f(t)d( t)
0
2
2
an 
2  f(t)cos n  t  d   t 
0
2
2
f(t)sin n  t  d   t 
2 0
bn 
Note:
 For an odd function, Fourier series contains only sine terms and for even function Fourier
series contains cosine terms and even harmonies.
 T
 For half wave symmetric function, only odd harmonics are present f  t    f(t)
 2

Important Waveforms
 V
 ; 0  t  
1. V0  
V ;   t  2 
1  
 2
1
 Vd  t     V  d  t   2 V    V    0
2  0
a0 
 
1 
 2
1 V V 2 
 V cos nt  d  t     V  cosntd  t     n sinnt 

  0
an   sinnt    0
 
0 n 

1 
 2
1 V V 2 
 V sin nt  d  t     V  sin nt  d  t     n  cosnt 

  0
bn     cosnt  
 
0 n 

V 2V
bn  1  cosn  1  cosn   1  ( 1)n 
n n  
4V
For n=odd, bn 
n
n=even, bn  0

4V
V0   sin nt 
n1,3,5 n
 I ;   t  


2. i  I ;     t  2 

0 ; other wise
1  
 2
a0       Id  t   0
Id t 
2    
1 
 2
I 
  I cos nt  d  t    I cos nt  d  t    sin nt    sin nt  
 2
an 
     n    
I
an 
n

 sinn  sin n  n  
0 ; n  even

an   2I
 sinn ; n  odd
 n

1 
 2
I 
  I sin nt  d  t    I sin nt  d  t     cosnt     cosnt  
 2
bn 
   n  
    
I 
  1   cosn  1  cos n  n  
n
bn 
n 
 
0 ; n  even

bn   2I
 1  cosn  ; n  odd

2I 2I
f(t)  sin n  cos nt   1  cosn  sin nt 
n n
4I  n   n  4I  n 
f(t)  sin   cos   cos nt   cos2   sin nt 
n  2   2  n  2 
4I  n   n 
f(t)  cos   sin  nt  
n  2   2 

4I  n   n 
f(t)  
n1,3,5 n
cos   sin  nt  
 2   2 

4I  n     
f(t)  
n1,3,5 n
cos   sin  n  t   
 2    2 
I ;   t    
3. i  
I ;     t  2  
1  
 2 
a0    Id  t    Id  t   0
2    
1  I 
 2 
I cos nt  d  t       
   sin nt   
 sin nt   
 2 
an  
  



I cos nt d t
 n    
I 2I
sin n  n   sinn  sin  2n  n   sin n  n   
 n sin n  n   sinn 
an   
n 

 4I
 sinn ; n  odd
an   n
0 ; n  even

1 
 2 
I 
I sin nt  d  t   I sin nt  dt     cosnt     cosnt  
 2 
bn  
  


  n  
I 2I
bn  cosn  cos n  n   cos  2n  n   cos n  n    cosn  cos n  n  
n   n  
 4I
 cosn ;n  odd
bn   n
0 ;n  even


4I
f(t)   sinn  t   
n1,3,5 n

Introduction
Power electronics is the technology of converting electric power from one form to another
using electronic power devices. Several types of solid state power semiconductor devices
have been developed to control the output parameters, such as voltage, current or
frequency. In static power converter the power semiconductor devices function as switches,
which operate statically, that is, without moving contacts.
The time durations, as well as the turn on and turn off operations of these switches, are
controlled in such a way that an electrical power source at the input terminals of the
converter appears in a different form at its output terminals. In most types of converters, the
individual switches in the converter are operated in a particular sequence in one time period,
and this sequence is repeated at the switching frequency of the converter.
Ideal Switch Properties
The analysis of power electronic circuits is usually carried out by assuming that the power
electronic devices are behaving as ideal switches, and the assumptions underpinning an ideal
switch are useful because they focus attention on the non-idealities of real semiconductor
switches. The assumptions for an ideal switches are:-
ON OFF
Vs  0 Vs  V
Is  I I s  0
Ploss  0 Ploss  0
1
Switching frequency, fs  , Ts =Switching time
Ts

1. When an ideal switch is in conduction state, it is able to carry any current with 0 voltage
drop across it.
VON  0,    ION  
Conduction loss=0
2. When an ideal switch is in the turn off state (blocking state). It can block any voltage
without carrying any current.
Ioff  0,    Voff  
Blocking loss=0
3. Ideal switch can change its state instantaneously.
TON  0,TOFF  0 => Ts  0,fs  
4. Ideal switch does not require any additional energy to charge its state. i.e. ON to OFF or
OFF to ON and to maintain the given state.
EON/OFF  0 or EOFF/ON  0
5. Ideal switch is normally stable under all operating condition.
Real or Practical switch properties
1. Real switch can carry finite amount of current with small voltage drop across it. When it is
turn ON state.
VON  0 I  ION  I  } Conduction loss  0
2. Real switch can block finite voltage with small current flowing through it, when it is turn
OFF state.
IOFF  0 , V  Voff  V
Blocking loss  0
3. The real switch will take finite amount of time to change its state
tON  0,tOFF  0 => Ts  0,fs  
4. The real switch requires additional energy to change its state or to maintain it, the circuit
which provides this energy is called as drive circuit.
5. Thermally, there is a limitation on the switch.

 During Real switch operation, it will be subjected to various loss component, which may
provide heat in the device. There is a need to remove the device. Heat sinks are required
to remove the heat energy from the switch.
 In high power applications, the cooling will be provided by a big fan/blowers or Force
liquid or water cooling air blast cooling.
T
1 s
P
 sw   Vswiswdt or Psw  1  fs
Ts 0 Ts
There should be a tradeoff between switching frequency & switching loss criteria. The
selection of switch should be in such a way that it should operate at reasonable speed
with minimum switching losses.
Classification of Switches
First classification
Uncontrolled Switch (Passive Switch)

The switching state cannot be controlled with the help of an additional control signal or
external control signal & switching states depend on circuit conditions.
Ex. Diode
VAK  0  Forward bias  ON switch

  VAK  0 
OFF  

  iA  0 
VAK  0  Reverse bias 
  VAK  0 
ON  

  iA  0 
Semi controlled or half controlled switch (Active switch)
Only one switching state can be controlled by applying suitable control signal at the control
element and other switching state depends on circuit conditions
Ex. SCR
SCR can turn on with positive gate pulses but cannot turn off with negative gate pulses.
Fully Controlled Switch (Active switch)
Both the switching states can be controlled with a suitable control signal applied at control
terminal.
Ex. GTO ( Thyristors family)
 
ON  with positive gate pulse  Ig
OFF  with negative gate pulse  I  g
BJT 

MOSFET  (Transistor family)
IGBT 

MOSFET & IGBT: Voltage controlled devices
BJT: current controlled devices
Second classification
Unipolar Switch
This switch can block only one polarity of voltage when it is in Turn off state. The cross
indicates the maximum voltage at which switch has zero current.
Ex. Diode

Ex. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
Bipolar Switch
This switch can block both the polarity of voltage when it is blocking mode.
Ex. SCR, GTO, Triac
Unidirectional Switch
This switch can carry current in only one direction when it is in conduction state. The cross
indicates the maximum current switch can carry with zero voltage drop in the conduction
state.
Ex. Diode, SCR, GTO, MOSFET, IGBT
Bi-directional Switch
This switch can carry current in both the direction when it is in conduction state
Ex. Triac

Characteristics of Power Semiconductor Switches
Power Diode
 Unipolar & unidirectional switch

 Uncontrolled switch
 SOA (Safe Operating Area) is 2nd quadrant
BJT
 Unipolar and unidirectional switch

 Fully controlled switch
 SOA is 1st quadrant
MOSFET
 Unipolar and unidirectional


IGBT
 Unipolar and unidirectional

SCR
 Bipolar and unidirectional switch

 Semi-controlled switch
 SOA is 1st & 2nd quadrant
GTO
 Bipolar and unidirectional switch

 SOA is 1st & 2nd quadrant

TRIAC
 Bipolar and bidirectional switch

 SOA is 1st , 2nd , 3rd & 4th quadrant
 In some application, the device manufacturer will specify the presence of body diode in
MOSFET & IGBT as shown below.
Or
Solved Examples
Problem: In order to realize the below switch which of the following devices can be used.

(P) (Q) (R)
Solution: P & R
Switch P is a SCR which is a bipolar and uni-directional switch.

Switch Q is a BJT with an anti-parallel diode so it is unipolar and bidirectional switch.
Switch R will block positive voltage due to BJT and negative voltages due to Diode and
hence it is a bipolar switch and it will conduct in one direction due to diode.
Problem: In order to realize the following switch, draw a composite switch using BJT &
Diode.
Solution: BJT in series with diode is bipolar and uni-directional so by connecting two such
switches in anti-parallel we can make the switch bi-directional.

Problem: The current flowing through & voltage power electronic switch is shown in figure.
Find
(i) Average & rms value of switch circuit
(ii) Power loss in switch
Ts  
10  Ts 
2
1 2
 10 
Solution: Iavg    tdt  2    2.5A
Ts 0  Ts  Ts  4 
 2 
2
Ts   3
1 2
 10  2 4  Ts  10
Irms     t dt  10 3    A
Ts 0  Ts  3Ts  2  6
 2 
Ts
Ts
1 1 2
 Ts 
Ploss 
Ts  VI dt 
0
Ts 
0
I dt  Iavg  2.5W  V  1 for 0<t< 
 2
Problem: The figure shows the voltage across a power semiconductor device and the
current through the device during a switching transitions. Is the transition a turn ON
transition or a turn OFF transition? What is the energy lost during the transition?
Solution: Energy loss E =  v  i dt

 I   V  1 1 1
E   V  t  dt+  V  t  I dt  VI  t1  VI  t2  VIt2  VI  t1  t2  J
 t1   t 2 
2 2 2
It is turn ON process, voltage across device decreases and current increases.

Classification of Power Semi-conductor Devices
Majority carrier device Minority carrier device
1. High BD voltage with lightly doped 1. High BD voltage

2. High resistivity 2. R ON is very less (Conductivity modulation)
3. More conduction losses
4. Smaller switching times or high switching 3. Less conduction loss
frequency 4. Large switching times or low switching
5. We cannot use at high voltage due to more frequency
conduction loss 5. We use at high voltage due to less
Ex. MOSFET, Schottky device conduction loss
Ex. Power Diode, BJT
 The fundamental challenge in the selection of a power semi-conductor as a switch is to

have high break down voltage which can be accomplished with introducing lightly doped
region any one side of PN junction.
 Lightly doped region will increase the ON state resistance of the device so that
conduction losses will increase in general majority carrier devices will have this behaviour
but these devices will take lesser times for the insertion & removable of charge to/from
the device. Therefore, majority carrier devices are preferable for low power & high
switching frequency application.
 In the majority carrier devices due to phenomenon called conductivity modulation, the
ON state resistance of the devices is vary less i.e. the conduction losses are very less, but
due to same phenomenon minority carrier devices will take more time for the insertion &
removable of charge. Therefore, minority carrier devices are more preferable to use in
high power & low frequency application.
 Another point that need to be considered during the selection of device as a switch,
whether a device will have PTC (Positive temp coefficient) or NTC (Negative Temp
Coefficient). If any device has NTC during conduction state it will suffer thermal runaway
or second breakdown issues. This problem is more in BJT. The devices with NTC are not
suitable for parallel operation, minority carrier devices are example for this. The devices
with PTC are best suitable for parallel operation, majority carrier devices (MOSFET) are
best example of this.

Power Diode
Power semi-conductor diode is similar to low-power p-n junction diodes, called signal
diodes. Power semiconductor devices are more complex in structure and in operation than
their low–power counterparts. This complexity arises because low-power devices must be
modified in order to make them suitable for high-power applications, for example power
diodes are constructed with n- layer, called drift region, between p+ layer (anode) and n+
layer or substrate (cathode). This is done to support large blocking voltages. This n- type
layer is, however, not present in signal diodes.
 When the diode is forward biased holes from p-layer will be injected into n- layer and they
become minority carrier. So, current conduction will be established and the resistivity of
lightly doped region will be reduced drastically. This phenomenon is known as
conductivity modulation.
V-I characteristics of Power Diode
 When anode is positive with respect to cathode, diode is said to be forward biased. With
increase of the source voltage VAK from zero value, initially diode current is zero. From
VAK =0 to cut in voltage, the forward diode current is very small. Cut in voltage is also
known as threshold voltage or turn on voltage. Beyond the cut in voltage, the diode
current rises rapidly and the diode is said to conduct. For silicon diode cut in voltage is
around 0.7V. When diode conduct there is forward voltage drop of the order of 0.8 to 1 V.
 When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased. In
the reverse biased condition of the diode, a small reverse current, called leakage current,
of the order of mA or µA flows. The leakage current increases slowly until breakdown or
avalanche voltage is reached. At this breakdown voltage, diode is turned on in the

reversed direction. If current in the reverse direction is not limited by a series resistance, the
current will become quite high to destroy the diode. The reverse avalanche breakdown of a
diode is avoided by operating the diode below VBR .
From the above characteristics we can observe that the forward voltage drop and reverse
breakdown voltage increase in case of Power Diode as compared to Signal Diode.
Significance of drift region
1. When diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer penetrates more into the lightly doped
n- layer. This increases the thickness of depletion layer.
2. The thickness of depletion layer decides the reverse blocking capability of the diode.
Therefore, higher the thickness of n- layer, higher the reverse voltage it can block.
3. The n- layer increases the forward resistance & forward voltage drop (& hence losses)
4. The power diode gets overheated due to its internal power loss. Therefore, it is mounted
on a heat sink to absorb the internal power loss & cool the device.

Reverse recovery characteristic of Power Diode
DC Diode parameter
1. Forward voltage
VF is the voltage drop of a diode across A & K at a defined current levels when it is
forward biased
2. Breakdown Voltage
VB is the voltage drop across the diode at a defined current level when it is beyond
reverse-biased level. This is known as avalanche.
3. Reverse current
IR is the current at a particular voltage & when is below the breakdown voltage
AC Diode parameters
1. Forward Recovery time

tFR is time required for the diode voltage to drop to a particulars voltage after the forward
current starts to flow.
2. Reverse Recovery time

tRR is the time interval between the application of reverse voltage & reverse current
dropped to a particulars value.

 When diode is conducting in forward direction, some excess charge carriers are stored in
device. These excess charge carriers are mainly due to minority carriers.
 When diode is switching from ON state to OFF state, these excess carriers are still present
in the device even after anode current become zero.
 In order to remove these excess charges & to regain the equilibrium state, recombination
process takes place and hence reverse current flows in the device until the complete
charges are removed. This process is known as reverse recovery process because in this
process device recovers its blocking capability.
1
QR  t I
2 rr RM
di IRM

dt ta
di IRM
For ta  trr  
dt trr
1 di
QRR  trr  trr
2 dt
2QR
trr 
 di dt 
If trr increases then switching frequency decreases.

tb
If  S (snappiness or softness factor)
ta

 For soft recovery tb  ta => trr  ta 1  S 
1 di trr2
Qr 
2 dt 1  S 
 For hard recovery, tb  ta , S<<1
1 di 2
Qr  t
2 dt rr
 Classification of diode based on trr

1. General Purpose Diode
2. Fast Recovery Diode
3. Schottky Diode
General Purpose Diode (Slow) Fast Recovery Diode Schottky Diode
1. trr  25s 1. 5s (or less) 1. Nano sec
2. Iratting : 1A to several 2. 1A to several hundreds of 2. 300A

Ampere
thousands of Ampere 3. 100V
3. 50V to 3KV
3. Vrating : 50V to 5KV
4. Inverters, Choppers 4. SMPS
4. App: line frequency rectifiers
 In fast recovery diodes the layers are doped with gold or platinum
 Gold or platinum doping reduces the lifetime of charge carriers and increases the
recombination speed. This reduces the reverse recovery time. The ON state voltage drop
is increased when it is doped with Gold & platinum.
 Schottky diode is a metal to semi-conductor junction diode. Here, conduction is only due
to majority carriers (electrons), due to absence of delay is very much reduced.
 The ON state voltage drop is lesser in Schottky diode
 Schottky diode blocks lesser reverse voltage (Limited to 100V) because the thickness of
depletion layer is very small
 Diode is an uncontrolled switch because there is no control terminal to decide On & OFF
states.
 Silicon carbide Diode has very high switching frequency (depends on trr ).

Silicon controlled Rectifier (SCR) or Thyristor
Thyristor is a four layer, three junction, p-n-p-n semi-conductor device. It has three terminals;
anode, cathode & gate. Thyristor consists of four layers of alternate p-type and n-type silicon
semiconductors forming three junction J1, J2 and J3. An SCR is so called because silicon is
used for its construction and its operation as a rectifier (very low resistance in the forward
conduction and very high resistance in the reverse conduction) can be controlled. Thyristor is
unidirectional device that blocks the current flow from cathode to anode. It also blocks the
current flow from anode to cathode until it is triggered into conduction by a proper gate
signal between gate and cathode terminals.
 For large current applications need better cooling, this is achieved to a great extent by
mounting them into heat sinks.
 SCR’s are available up to 10KV & 3KV
 SCR’s are attractive choice for high power application and they are suitable for low
switching frequency operation.
V-I characteristic of a Thyristor
V-I characteristic of a thyristor shown in the figure. Where VAK is the anode voltage across
thyristor terminals A, K and IA is the anode current. Thyristor has three basic modes of
operations:
1. Reverse Blocking Mode

 When cathode is made positive with respect to anode then thyristor is in reverse biased,
junctions J1 & J3 are reverse biased & J2 is forward biased. The device behaves as if two
diodes are connected in series with reverse voltage applied across them.
 A small leakage current of mA or µA flows, this is reverse blocking mode or off state of
thyrisor.

 If reverse voltage increased, then at a critical level called reverse breakdown voltage VBR , an
avalanche breakdown occurs at J1 & J3 and reverse current increases rapidly.
 Maximum working reverse voltage across thyristor does not exceed VBR . If reverse voltage
applied across thyristor is less the VBR then device offer high impedance in the reverse
direction and in this mode SCR treated as open switch.
2. Forward Blocking Mode

 When anode is positive with respect to the cathode, with gate circuit open then thyristor
is said to be forward biased, junctions J1 & J3 are forward biased & J2 is reverse biased. So J2
blocks the entire forward voltage.
 A small current, called forward leakage current flows in the thyristor.
 If we increased the forward voltage, then the reverse
biased junction J2 will have avalanche breakdown at
a voltage called forward breakover voltage VBO .
 When forward voltage is less than VBO , SCR offers
high impedance and therefore thyristor can be treated
open switch even in the forward blocking mode.
3. Forward Conduction Mode

 In this mode thyristor conducts from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop
across it. A thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode
by turning it on by exceeding the forward breakover voltage or by applying a gate pulse
between gate and cathode.
 When VAK >0 & it is exceeds VBo (Forward breakdown voltage when Ig  0 , Breakdown
occurs at J2 & SCR turn ON. At Ig  0 , VBO  VBR (For symmetrical SCR). In this mode
thyristor is on-state and behaves like a closed switch.
 This method is not preferred to turn ON the SCR because the SCR may be destroyed due
to high power loss when triggered at high voltage without gate signal.

Latching current: It is a minimum value of anode current required during turn on process
to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed.
Holding current: It is a minimum value of anode current below which thyristor will returned
to forward blocking state or thyristor will turn off.
 
 ILatching  IHolding or ILatching  1.3 to 3 IHolding
Significance of gate signal
 When a positive gate current is injected into J3 becomes forward biased and electrons
are injected from the n-emitter into p-base
 The change in bias of J1 cause holes to be injected from p-emitter to n-base. These holes
diffuse across n-base & are collected in p-base. The addition of these collected holes in p-
base acts the same as gate current
 This entire process is regenerative & will cause the increase in charge carriers until J2 also
becomes forward biased & the thyristor is latched in ON-state. The regenerative action
will take place as long as gate current is applied in sufficient time and sufficient amount
 Higher the gate current, lower the forward break over voltage.

Two Transistor Model of Thyristor
The Principle of thyristor operation can be explained with the use of its two-transistor model.
Two transistor model can be obtained by bisecting the two middle layers into two separate
halves. Junctions J1  J2 and J2  J3 can be considered to constitute pnp and npn transistors
separately.
For BJT
IC  IE  ICBO
For Q1 , IC1  1IA  ICBO1  collector to base current
For Q2 , IC2  2IK  ICBO2  with emitter OC
IC1  IC2  1 I A  2 IK   ICBO1  ICBO2 
IK  I A  Ig
IC1  IB1  I A  1 I A  ICBO1  2 IK  ICBO2
Because IB1  IC2

 
I A  1 IA  2 IA  Ig   ICBO1  ICBO2 
 
I A 1   1  2   2 Ig  ICBO1  ICBO2
2 ICBO1  ICBO2 
IA  Ig  
1   1  2  
1   1  2  

 A small gate current acts as base current for Q 2 & this base current establishes collector
current for Q 2 IC2  
 This acts as base current for Q1 & establishes current IC1 in Q 1 & anode current is
established & this process repeats regenerative even if gate current is removed. So SCR
remains in conduction state.
Solved Examples
Problem: What is minimum gate pulse width required to turn ON the SCR?
Solution: For series RL circuit

Vs
IA 
R





 1  eRt L   5 1  e200t


100  10 3  5 1  e200tmm 
1  20  10 3  e200tmm
tmin  101s
Problem: An SCR having a turn ON time of 5  sec, latching current of 50 mA and holding
current of 40 mA is triggered by a short duration pulse and is used in the circuit shown in
figure. The minimum pulse width required to turn the SCR ON will be?
Solution: TON = 5  sec, IL = 50 mA, IH = 40 mA

R 20
VS
 t V 100  t 100 1
From circuit i  1  e L   
s
1  e 0.5    5 1  e40t  
R  R 20   5000 50
For minimum pulse width i=50mA
1
50  103  5(1  e40t )   t = 150.45  sec
50
Significance of Holding current
 Holding current is related to turn OFF process.

 Gate signal has no control to turn-off the SCR. In some of the cases when the supply is DC
we require commutation circuit to turn OFF the SCR.
 Commutation force the anode current to fail below holding current to stop conduction of
SCR
ON  OFF when I A  IH
tq  trr  tgr
trr : Reverse Recovery time
tgr : Gate Recovery time
During device turn OFF time, tq all the excess charge carriers are completely removed in the
device.
Role of Commutation Circuit
Commutation circuit forces the anode current to reduce below certain a minimum value. This
minimum value is called as Holding current. Then it applies a reverse voltage across the SCR
at least for a period until complete excess charge is removed

Circuit Turn off time
 Circuit turn off time, it is the time for which commutation circuit applies reverse voltage
across the SCR after the anode current becomes zero.
 t c must always be greater than tq for successful commutation, else commutation fails.
 If tc  tq , some excess charges still present in the device, SCR does not reverse completely.
 For next operation, if anode is made +ve w.r.t. Cathode then SCR turns ON immediately.
Before gate signal is given. Here, SCR behaves as a diode losing the forward blocking
capability. This is called as commutation failure. Therefore, if tc  tq then commutation
fails
Switching Characteristics of SCR (or Dynamic characteristic)

During turn on and turn off processes, thyristor is subjected to different voltages across it
and different current through it. The variations of the voltage across thyristor and the current
through it during turn on and turn off processes give the dynamic or switching characteristic
of a thyristor.
Delay Time td 

The delay time is measured from the instant at which gate current reaches 0.9Ig to the instant
at which anode current reaches 0.1I a or time during which anode voltage falls from Va to
0.9Va .
d  dI 
It depends on gate signal magnitude Iq   and
dt
(gate signal magnitude)   q  , that will
 dt 
 
increase with initial conduction area. Therefore initial rate of rise of anode current increases
 dI A 
   t d reduces & thus tON also reduces.
 dt 
During this time, charge insertion process is initiated and anode current flows in a narrow
region near the gate where gate current density is highest.
Rise time tr 

Rise time is time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.1I a to 0.9Ia or time required for
the forward blocking off state voltage to fall from 0.9 to 0.1 of its initial value.
Rise time can be reduced if high and steep current pulses are applied to the gate. It depends
dI A
on load parameters, if L  ,  and therefore tr and tON both are increased.
dt

During rise time, turn losses in the thyristor are highest due to high anode voltage and large
anode current. As these losses occur only small conduction region, local hot spot may be
formed and the device may be damaged.
Spread time ts 

Spread time is time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9 I a to I a or time required for the
forward blocking voltage to fall from 0.1 of its initial voltage to the on state voltage drop (1V
to 1.5V).
During spread time, the current density spreads throughout the cross-sectional area of SCR.
Therefore, spread time depends on the physical geometrical structure of the device. And
during spread time certain amount of charge must be injected into the gate region for the
thyristor conduction to begin.
 Total turn on time of an SCR is equal to the sum of delay time, rise time and spread time
and it depends upon the anode circuit parameters and the gate signal wave shapes.
 During trr , excess charge present in outer layers are removed and during tgr , changes
present in inner layers near gate junction are removed

Safety Factor (SF) or Safety Margin (SM)
Safety factor should be greater than 1 for successful commutation.

tc  tq for successful commutation
t c =(Safety Factor) t q
Assume SF=2 if not given
di dv
 Rise time can be reduced if and is high but due to this power loss is concentrated
dt dt
at a single point in the device which appears as a hot spot in the device
 Therefore, higher rate of changes of current & voltages are not preferable.
Turn-On Method or Triggering method of SCR
1. Forward voltage triggering method
When VAK  VBO , thyristor changes from off state (high voltage with low
leakage current) to on state characterised by low voltage across thyristor with
large forward current. As other junctions j1 , j3 are already forward biased,
breakdown of junction j2 allows free movement of carriers across three
junctions and as a result, large forward anode current flows. This method is
not preferred because SCR may be destroyed when it is turned ON at such a
high voltage.
dv
2. triggering method
dt
dv
At high , the charging current through the capacitive junction is high enough or more
dt
than latching current then SCR turn ON. A high value of charging current may destroy the
dv
thyristor hence the device must be protected by high .
dt

3. Light Triggering method

When a light radiation of certain wavelength is incident
near the depletion layer then number of e- hole pairs is
produced in the depletion layers, by absorbing the
light energy, this initiates the turn ON process. Light
triggering is used in LASER for HVDC application. Light
triggering is more efficient & reliable to trigger
multiple no. of SCR’s simultaneously.
4. Thermal Triggering method

When temperature is increased near the reverse biased depletion layer then more number
of e—h pairs are produced in depletion layer by absorbing the thermal energy, this
initiates the turn-on process. This method is not preferred because temperature changes
the characteristic of SCR.
5. Gate Triggering method

Turning on of thyristors by gate triggering is simple, reliable and efficient, it is therefore
the most usual method of firing the forward biased SCR’s
(a) Continuous gate signal

Here we provide continuous gate signal until it is in ON state, this is not an efficient
method due to continuous gate power loss.
(b) Pulse gate signal

T1  tmin
T1 : gate pulse width
T: time period
T1
Duty cycle, D 
T
T1 1
Mark to space ratio, MSR  
T  T1  1 
  1
D 
(c) High frequency gate pulse

Pulse transformer is used in this type of triggering and we can reduce the size of pulse
transformer by using high frequency pulse.
Pulse transformer provides electric isolation between high power main circuit and low
power gate firing circuit. We can trigger more than one SCR simultaneously by using
pulse transformer.
Firing Circuits
Firing circuit produces necessary gate pulse to turn ON the SCR.
Resistance Firing Circuit (optional)
It is a simplest and most economical triggering circuit. But it is only applicable for firing
angle range 00 to 900 .
I 
g min  
 Ig  Ig
max
V 
g min
 Vg  V 
g max
Ig  mA, Vg  volts

Purpose of R1
To limit the values of I g within the maximum value.
Vm
Maximum gate current 
R1
 
 Ig
max
Vm
R1 
I 
g max
Vm : maximum value of input voltage.
Purpose of R2
We have to design the value of R 2 for limiting the Vg within the maximum value.
For worst condition
Vm .R 2
Maximum gate voltage=
R1  R 2
 Vg  max
From here, we can compute value of R 2
Purpose of R:
Variable resistance R is used to vary the firing angle.
Purpose of Diode:
Diode is used to avoid the negative gate pulse in negative cycle.
Vg 
Vm
sin t  R 2  VmR 2 
   sin t
R 1
 R 2  R   R1  R 2  R 3 
VmR 2
Vg  Vgm sin t; Vgm 
R1  R  R 2
Gate turn ON voltage Vgt  
When a gate voltage reaches Vgt , then SCR will turn ON.
If Vg  Vgt , then SCR  ON
Vgm sin   Vgt
 Vgt 
  sin1  
 Vgm 
 

If R , Vgm  and  increases
b  a  Rb  Ra
The maximum firing angle is limited to   900 because at that point curve is tangential to Vgt.
RC circuit
The limited range of firing angle control by resistance firing circuit can be overcome by RC
firing circuit
Main circuit: 1 FWR

The current in RC series circuit is
2V
I sin  t   
Z
  power factor angle
X   1 
  tan1  c   tan1  
R   RC 
X
Vc  IXc  2V c sin  t    
Z
 
2V sin  sin  t   
When Vc exceeds Vgt , thyristor turns ON and that depends on  . So, here firing angle can be
controlled beyond 900
Unijunction Transistor
Resistance and RC triggering circuits give prolonged pulses. As a result power dissipation in
the gate circuit is large. At the same time, R and RC triggering circuits can’t be used for
automatic or feedback control systems. These difference can be overcome by the use of UJT
triggering circuits.

B1,B2 : Base terminals

E: Emitter terminals
Equivalent of UJT
When diode is OFF

RB1
VRB1  VBB 
RB1  RB2
VRB1  VBB
RB1
 =intrinsic standoff ratio
RB1  RB2
VP  VRB1  VD
Peak Voltage VP  VBB  VD
 When VE increases & Vp also increases, UJT turn ON as diode becomes forward biased.
 When UJT is switching form OFF state to ON state, the base resistance RB1 starts
decreasing because UJT exhibits negative resistance character. Therefore emitter voltage
VE starts decreasing when UJT is turned ON. The negative resistance is exhibited due to
conductivity modulation.
When VE  Vv , UJT is turned OFF
Vv is specified by manufacturer
UJT as relaxation oscillator
  
When emitter voltage VE is less than VBB , the emitter B1 junction is reverse biased &
offers high impedance and a small reverse leakage current flows through emitter terminal.

 When dc supply voltage is connected, capacitor starts charging through R and as soon as
VE slightly exceeds  VBB  VD  , the PN junction behaves as a forward biased diode and
emitter- impedance collapses & IE current flows through R 1
 Therefore, 0 voltage appears across R 1 and at trailing edge of pulse, VE becomes very
small Vv   and depletion layer forms again & it becomes reverse biased & acts as open
circuit
 Now capacitor starts charging again.
Emitter characteristic curve of UJT
Charging resistance RE must lie in following limits.
VBB  Vv V  VP
 RE  BB
Iv IP
 VB1 Pulse is utilized in thyristor firing

 1 
 Time Period, T  RCln  
1  
f=relaxation frequency
1 1
f 
T  1 
RCln  
1  

Protection of Thyristors
1. Over Current Protection

For over current protection, we have to connect fuse or circuit breaker in series with SCR.
As thyristor possesses high surge current capability, it can be used in an electric crowbar
circuit for over-current protection of converters using SCRs. An electric crowbar provides
rapid isolation of power converter before any damage occurs.
2. Over Voltage Protection

All metal oxides (e.g ZnO) behave as non-linear resistor.
The resistance of these elements decreases as voltage
increases
Varistors are connected across SCR for over-voltage
protection. Varistor is a non-linear resistor. All metal oxide
resistors behave as non-linear resistors.
dV
3. Protection
dt
dv
At high , the SCR may turn ON before gate signal is given. This unwanted turn-ON is
dt
false turn-ON
dv
IC  CJ
dt
dv
For high , charging current is high and if it exceeds latching
dt
current Thyristor will turn ON.
dv
 We must connect an RC circuit across SCR for protection
dt

dv
 R  limits discharge current and C limits the value of
dt
 dv   dv   dv  I
IC  CJ   and IL  C J   =>    L where IL : Latching current
 dt   dt critical  dt critical C J
 dv  dv dv
   is the value of at which the SCR will be false turn ON. If applied is
 dt critical dt dt
more than this critical value, then SCR may false turn ON.
diA
4. Protection
dt
di
 If A is greater than spread velocity of charge carrier then the charge density increases
dt
commutatively in a small conduction area and results in local hot spots to damage the
device.
di
 We must connect inductor in series with SCR for protection
dt
di
Method to improve rating
dt
1st Method:
d
By increasing gate signal magnitude or (gate signal magnitude)
dt
With high gate current the initial conduction area increases as more number of charge
carriers are injected and hence increases the spread velocity of charge carriers and thus
di
dt
rating improves.
2nd Method:
Structural modifications
(a) Centre gated thyristor
(b) Side gated thyristor

diA
The rating is higher in centre gated thyristor when compared to side gated thyristor.
dt
3rd Method:
Inter digitations Method:
P n P
n P n Manufacturing cost is high
P n P
In this method, we intermix gate cathode regions in large proportions, this increases initial
diA
conduction area & hence rating.
dt

5. Thermal Protection:
Thyristor gets over-heated due to its internal power loss, therefore thyristor is mounted in
heat sink which absorbs the internal heat generated & cools the device.
  Thermal resistance  0
C/W 
Where
Tj  Junction Temperature ,
Tc  Case Temperature ,
Ts  Sink Temperature
TA  AmbientTemperature
Pav 
Tj  Tc

Tc  Ts


Tj  Ts 
T  TA
 C 
Tj  TA
 jc SA  jc  cs 
cs  SA  jA
 jA   jc  cs  SA
Pav  I2RF => I  P
Rating of SCR increases as Power dissipation increases and limit for power dissipation can
increase if cooling methods are improved as then the heat generated can be easily
removed from the system.
Rating of SCR depends on cooling methods used for heat sink
6. Gate Protection
 Connect a resistance in series with the gate to limit I g within Ig  max
 Connect a zener diode across gate-cathode terminals for over-voltage protection

 Noise is an unwanted signal in the firing circuit. This noise signal may false turn ON the
SCR. We must connect parallel RC across gate cathode terminals to protect the SCR
against noise signal

Thyristor Gate Characteristics
The forward gate characteristic of a thyristor are shown below is a graph between gate
voltage and gate current. Vg-Ig characteristic has a spread between curve 1 and 2. This
spread or scatter, of gate characteristic is due to difference in the low doping levels of p and
n layers. The gate trigger circuit is used to take care of this unavoidable scatter
characteristic.
Where: Vg max and Ig max are maximum permissible gate voltage and current
Vg min and Ig min are minimum gate voltage and current to trigger an SCR
Vng, Non-triggering gate voltage.

Triggering circuit
Triggering circuit feed power to gate cathode circuit.
Vg
Es  Vg  IgRs and Avera ge Dissipated power in SCR  VgIg and slope =
Ig
Where : E s =gate source voltage

Vg =gate-cathode voltage
Ig =gate current R s =gate-source resistance
 R1 is connected across gate-cathode terminals to provide an easy path to flow the

leakage current between SCR terminals.
 Higher the magnitude of gate current pulse, lesser is the time to inject the required
charge for turning on the thyristor.
Ton
 Pg avg  D  Pg max where D  =duty cycle
T
Series & Parallel Connection of SCR (optional)
We must connect some of the SCRs in series & parallel combinations in order to improve the
voltage & current capabilities
Series Connection
 String efficiency: It is a measure of utilizing SCR’s rating

Total string Voltage or current

Number of SCRs in the string   individual voltage / current rating of one SCR 
 Derating factor DRF: it is a measure of the reliability of String

DRF = 1 - String efficiency
 Even though SCR rating are same they may not share voltages & currents equating and
hence string efficiency is not 100%.

Solved Examples
Problem: For a thyristor, maximum junction temperature is 125°C. The thermal resistances
for thyristor-sink combination are jc = 0.16 and cs = 0.08°C/W. For a heat-sink temperature
of 70°C, compute the total average power loss in the thyristor sink combination. In case the
heat sink is brought down to 60°C by forted cooling, find the percentage increase in the
device rating.
Solution: Given data Tj max = 1250C, JC = 0.16 0c/w, cs = 0.080c/w and Ts = 700C
Tj  Ts 125  70
 Average power loss Pav   = 229.167 w
 jc  cs 0.16  0.08
If the heat sink is brought down to 600C by forced cooling
125  60
the new average power loss Pav1  = 270.834 w
0.16  0.08
Thyristor rating is proportional to the square-root of average power loss i.e. i P
270.834  229.167
% increase in thyristor rating   100 = 8.71 %
229.167
Problem: Find String efficiency and derating factor for the given figure
10
Solution: String    100%
25
Derating factor DRF=1-1=0
 No reliability

Problem: If Adding one additional SCR in the previous question then find string efficiency
and derating factor.
10 2
Solution: String    =66.67%
35 3
2 1
DRF= 1   or 33.33%
3 3
Problem: For an SCR, the gate cathode characteristic has a straight line slope of 140. For
trigger source voltage of 20 V and allowable gate power dissipation of 0.5 Watts, what is the
gate source resistance?
V
Solution: Given Es = 20V, g  140 and Vg Ig = 0.5
Ig
Vg Ig = 0.5 => (140  Ig) Ig = 0.5 Ig = 0.0597 A
and Vg = 140  0.0597 = 8.367 V
and E = Ig Rs + Vg
20 = (0.0597) Rs + 8.367
Rs = 194.8
Problem related to Series Connected Thyristors
Unequal sharing of voltage during blocking state

 Due to difference in forward blocking characteristics, the voltage is shared unequally

among series connected thyristors.
 In order to make voltage distribution to be uniform across all the SCR a resistance will be
connected across SCR’s as shown below in Static equalizing circuit, where R is called static
equalizing resistance.
nVbm .Vs
R
n  1 I b
Vbm =maximum blocking voltage

n = No. of series connected thyristors
Ib  IbMax  IbMin
Vs  Supply voltage
V1 V
By KCL  Ib1  2  Ib2
R R
V1  V2   Ib2  Ib1  R................(i)
V1  V2  Vs .........................(ii)
By solving (i) and (ii) we can calculate values of V1 & V2
Unequal reverse recovery time
 Due to difference in reverse recovery characteristics.

T1 has fast recovery than T2 .
 When 2 series connected thyristors are switching
from ON state to OFF state, the SCR with low device
turn OFF time recovers fast & is subjected to
complete supply voltage for small duration of time
 To rectify this we connect dynamic equalizing circuit

 Diode is used for fast charging of capacitor & resistance is used to limit discharge
current.
 During dynamic condition the voltage distribution can be made uniform by connecting
capacitors across SCR as shown below & this capacitance known as dynamic equivalent
capacitance.
C
n  1 Q r
nVbm  Vs
Vbm =maximum blocking voltage
n = No. of series connected thyristors
Qr  Q1  Q2
Vs  Supply voltage
Problem related to Parallel Connection of Thyristors
Unequal sharing of current
(a)

 Due to difference in forward conduction characteristics of SCR, the current in both SCR
are unequal
 To rectify this we use a current equalizing circuit
 IL  I1  I2  Constant
 If I1 increases then I 2 decreases then
dI1
VL1  L  0 , opposes increases of I1
dt
dI
VL2  L 2  0 , opposes decreases of I 2
dt
This continuous until I1  I 2
 Whenever there is a change of current in any parallel path, then emf is induced in the
reactor to oppose the charge of current and then equalize the current sharing in all
parallel paths.
(b) Due to the temperature difference in the parallel connected SCRs, the current sharing
may be unequal. To rectify this, we use a symmetrical heat sink for all the parallel SCRs.

Solved Examples
Problem: Figure show two thyristors each rated 500A (continuous) sharing a load current.
Current through thyristor y is 120A. The current through thyristor 2 will be nearly ––––––– A
Solution: given Iy = 120A

Voltage across x thyristor = voltage across ‘y’ thyristor
Ix (0.06) = Iy (0.05)
120  0.05
Ix   100 A
0.06
Problem: The triggering circuit of a thyristor is shown in figure. The thyristor requires a gate
current of 10 m A, for guaranteed turn – on. The value of R required for the thyristor to turn
on reliably under all conditions of Vb variation is
Solution: The thyristor required a gate current of 10mA for turn ON

Minimum value of Vb = 8V
Vb
I= = 10mA = 8/R
R
 R = 800 
If the resistance is evaluated for minimum Vb, then it is suitable for any high voltage
Problem: A 1 : 1 Pulse transformer (PT) is used to trigger the SCR in the adjacent figure. The
SCR is rated at 1.5 kV, 250 A with IL = 250 mA, IH = 150 mA, and IGmax = 150mA with IL = 250

mA, IGmin = 100 mA. The SCR is connected to an inductive load, where L = 150 mH in series
with a small resistance and the supply voltage is 200 V dc. The forward drops of all
transistors / diodes and gate – cathode junction during ON state are 1.0 V
Solution: Ig max = 150 mA. Applied voltage V = 10 V. Voltage drop across, transistor, diode
and gate cathode junctions are 1 V.
Write KVL to the gate circuit
10-1 -1- Igmax R - 1 = 0
150 x 103 R = 7
R = 0.0467 x 103 = 46.7 
Special Devices
GTO ( Gate Turn off Thyristors )
A GTO is a pnpn device that can be turned on like an ordinary thyristor by a pulse of positive
gate current and an added features in GTO is, it can easily be turned OFF by negative gate
pulse of appropriate amplitude. As no forced commutation circuitry is required for GTO,
inverters using these devices are compact and cost less.
 Self-turn-off capability of GTO marks it the most suitable device for chopper & inverter
applications
 To turn OFF  Ig (When A is +ve wrt K)

To turn OFF  Ig ( IgN  20-25% of IMA )

IMA
 Turn ON gain=
 Ig
IMA
Turn OFF gain=
IgN
 The V-I characteristics of GTO are similar to conventional thyristor.
Switching characteristics of GTO
 During storage time, stored charges present in device are removed

diA
 During fall time  is faster
dt
di
 During tail time  A is slower
dt
Comparison of SCR & GTO
(1) The latching & holding current magnitudes are higher in GTO
(2) GTO has fast turn ON & turn OFF times & hence operates at higher switching frequency
(3) ON state voltage drop & associated loss is more in GTO
(4) Due to multi-cathode structure of GTO, triggering gate current is higher than in SCR
(5) Gate drive losses are more in GTO
(6) Reverse voltage blocking capability of GTO is less than forward voltage capability
di
(7) GTO has more rating at turn-on then SCR
dt

(8) GTO current configuration has lower size & weight as compared to SCR
(9) GTO has more efficiency because gate drive losses are compensated by forced
commutation losses in SCR
(10) GTO has reduced electromagnetic noise.
ACSR (Asymmetric Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
Vdrop  VBR  1.5  3V
 ACSR is a special thyristor with reduced reverse blocking capability

 ACSR has fast turn ON & turn OFF time & hence operates at higher switching frequency
when compared to SCR.
RCT (Reverse Conducting Thyristor)
 An anti-parallel diode is inbuilt across SCR within same structure.

 RCT cannot block reverse voltage magnitude it is bidirectional for current & not for
voltage
 Applications: VSI

TRIAC (Triode AC Switch)
TRIAC is a bidirectional with thyristor with three terminals. It is used extensively for the
control of power in ac circuits. The operation of TRIAC is equivalent to two SCR’s connected
in anti-parallel. As the TRIAC can conduct in both directions, the terms anode and cathode
are not applicable to TRIAC. Its Three terminals are usually designated as MT1 (main terminal
1), MT2 and the gate by G as in the thyristor.
Application
1. TRIAC is only used for low & medium power applications

2. TRIAC is only preferred for resistive & low inductive loads in AC voltage controllers. It is
not preferred for high inductive loads with large time constant
3. TRIAC is bidirectional for voltage as well as current
DIAC(Bidirectional Thyristor Diode)

Ideal DIAC: VBO and VBR has finite values
Application
 DIAC is used in TRIAC firing circuit

 DIAC is also bidirectional
 When DIAC is OFF, capacitor starts charging through Vs & as same as Vc  Vbo , DIAC turns
ON & enters forward conduction mode & turn ON the TRIAC
 The same thing happens in negative half cycle.
Power Transistors
Power Diodes are uncontrolled devices. In other words, their turn on and turn off
characteristics are not under control. Power transistor, however possess controlled
characteristic. These are turn on when a current signal given to base, or control terminal. The
transistor remains in the on-state so long as control signal is present. When this control
signal is removed, a power transistor is turned off.
Types of Power Transistors
Power BJT (Bipolar Junction Trasistor)

A BJT is a three layer, two junction npn or pnp semiconductor devices. With one P-region
sandwiched by two n-regions. The term bipolar denotes that the current flow in device is due
to the movement of both holes and electrons. An emitter is indicated by an arrowhead
indicating the direction of emitter current. No arrow is associate with base or collector.

C,E : main terminal

B : control terminal (On/Off)
 In BJT, we must maintain continuous gate signal (base signal) to maintain the conduction
state.
 BJT is a current controlled device.
 BJT is a fully controlled switch, when IB is increased switch turn ON & when IB is decreased
switch turn OFF
(Resistance, BJT)  Active region dissipates region. So power loss increases
(BJT, MOSFET)  cut off/saturation region; power loss negligible
Input Characteristic
A graph between base current IB and base emitter voltage VBE gives input characteristic.
Output Characteristic
A graph between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE gives output
characteristic of a transistor

 For switching applications in power electronics, we use cut-off region for OFF state and
saturation region for the ON state.
 We do not prefer active region for ON state because ON state voltage drop & conduction
losses are higher. Active region is only preferred for amplifiers.
IBS  It is the minimum base current required to drive the transistor into saturation
region.
 Let us consider that transistor is operating in the saturated region. In saturated region,
VCE  VCES & IC  ICS
VCC  ICSRL  VCES
VCC  VCES I
ICS  ; IBS  CS
RL 
IB
 Over drive factor (ODF) 
IBs
If (ODF) >1, then saturated region
If (ODF) <1, then active region
Conduction power loss= VCES ICS  VBES IBS
   where  =current gain and  =forward current gain

 1

Switching Characteristic of Power BJT
 
 During storage time ts , the stored charge present in base region is removed
T  t ON +ON state time+ t off +off state time 1

and f 
T
Approximate switching characteristics

t on Process t off process

ICS ICS
IC  t IC  t  ICS
t ON tOFF
 VCC VCC
VCE  t  VCC VCE  t
t ON tOFF
 V  I 
Instantaneous power during turn-ON process p(t)  VCE (t)  IC (t)   CC t  VCC   CS t 
 t  t 
 ON   ON 
tON tON
 VCC  I  VCC ICS
Energy loss during tON process=  p(t)dt   t ON
  t  VCC   CS t  dt
6
0 0  tON   tON 
1
tON VCC ICS
Average power during t on process=  p(t)dt  t f
T 0
6 ON
VCC ICS
Average power loss during t off process  t f
6 OFF
Power MOSFET
A power MOSFET has three terminals called drain, source and gate in place of corresponding
three terminals collector, emitter and base for BJT. In MOSFET symbol arrow indicates the
direction of electron flow.
Two types of Power MOSFET : n-channel enhancement MOSFET and p-channel enhancement
MOSFET. Out of these two type’s n-channel enhancement MOSFET is more common because
of high mobility of electron.
 MOSFET is a voltage controlled device.

 MOSFET has extremely high impedance and that’s why it is used in low power and high
frequency converters.

D, S: main terminals
G: Control terminal
 When positive gate signal is given, N-channel is formed in the p-layer and the device
starts conducting. Hence, conduction is only due to majority carriers (electrons). Since
there is no minority charge carrier, the reverse recovery time delay is very much reduced.
Therefore, it operates at very high switching frequency
 Power MOSFET conduction is due to majority carriers, therefore time delays caused by
removal or recombination of minority carriers are eliminated. Thus power MOSFET can
work at switching frequencies in MHz range.
Transfer Characteristic
Transfer characteristic shows the variation of drain current ID as a function of gate-source

voltage VGS . There is a threshold voltage VT below which device is off. The magnitude of VT
is order of 2 ot 3 V.
Output Characteristic
Output characteristic indicate the variation of drain current ID as a function of drain source
voltage VGS .

L
 Channel resistance, R CH  so Channel Resistance decreases as width increases.
W
As Gate Source Voltage increases more charge carriers are induced in the channel and thus
conductivity of channel increases and thus channel resistance decreases.
IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
It is a hybrid device which gives advantages of both BJT & MOSFET. So an IGBT has high
input impedance like MOSFET and low-on-state power as in a BJT. IGBT is also free from the
breakdown problem present in BJT.
C, E: main terminals
G: control terminal
IGBT Characteristics
Transfer Characteristics
It is a plot of collector current I C versus gate-emitter voltage VGE

Static Characteristic
Static V-I characteristic of an IGBT show the plot of collector current I C versus collector-
emitter voltage VCE for various value of gate-emitter voltages.
Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT
(1) Current controlled device Voltage controlled device Voltage controlled device
(2) Bipolar device Unipolar device (majority Bipolar device

carriers)
(3) Low input impedance High input impedance High input impedance
(4) Low ON state voltage Higher ON state voltage drop Low ON state voltage
drop & low conduction
& higher conduction loss drop & lower conduction
loss
loss
(5) Higher switching loss
Lower switching losses Lower switching losses
(6) Negative temperature
Positive temp. coefficient for Positive temp. Coefficient
Coefficient for R ON (on
RON for R ON
state resistance)
Secondary breakdown does
temp  R ON ,I ,P  Secondary breakdown will
not occur.
Secondary breakdown not occur.
occurs in BJT
(7) Parallel operation is not
advisable Parallel is possible Parallel operation is
(8) Rating: 120V, 800A possible
(10KHz-20KHz) Rating: 500V, 140A, 1MHz Rating: 1200V, 500A,
50KHz

Solved Examples
Problem: A MOSFET rated for 15 A, carries a periodic current as shown in figure. The ON
state resistance of the MOSFET is 0.15. The average ON state loss in the MOSFET is
Solution: Given ‘ON’ state Resistance = 0.15 

From fig. MOSFET carries a current 10A
1 2

50  0.15 
2 0
From figure, Average power loss = I R dt    = 7.5 W


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Power Electronics (Power Semiconductor Devices)

Power Semiconductor Devices

Power electronics is a subject that concerns the application of electronic-principles into

Signal(Analog) Power Electronics

V : 15V Several volts to kV

Application of Power Electronics

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1. Better speed control characteristics 1. Speed control is difficult

So, stability limit is also increased.

4. Transportation: Rail-electric traction (AC-25kV). 1   , 50Hz and DC series motor is used

5. Low Power Application: Domestic Level= Fans, Lightning, Battery Charge, AC

6. Renewable Energy Source (Medium Power Applications)

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 Harmonics is major drawback of power electronics system.

Side effect of harmonics

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Ideal Switch Properties

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3. Ideal switch can change its state instantaneously.

TON  0,TOFF  0 => Ts  0,fs  

5. Ideal switch is normally stable under all operating condition.

Real or Practical switch properties

5. Thermally, there is a limitation on the switch.

Uncontrolled Switch (Passive Switch)

VAK  0  Forward bias  ON switch

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Semi controlled or half controlled switch (Active switch)

Fully Controlled Switch (Active switch)

MOSFET & IGBT: Voltage controlled devices

BJT: current controlled devices

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Ex. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT

Ex. SCR, GTO, Triac

Ex. Diode, SCR, GTO, MOSFET, IGBT

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Characteristics of Power Semiconductor Switches

 Unipolar & unidirectional switch

 Unipolar and unidirectional switch

 Unipolar and unidirectional

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 Unipolar and unidirectional

 Bipolar and unidirectional switch

 Bipolar and unidirectional switch

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 Bipolar and bidirectional switch

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(P) (Q) (R)

Switch P is a SCR which is a bipolar and uni-directional switch.

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Solution: Energy loss E =  v  i dt

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Classification of Power Semi-conductor Devices

Majority carrier device Minority carrier device

1. High BD voltage with lightly doped 1. High BD voltage

 The fundamental challenge in the selection of a power semi-conductor as a switch is to

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V-I characteristics of Power Diode

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Significance of drift region

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