AIR-CONDITIONING FUNDAMENTALS

HEAT:
Heat is a form of energy, a distinct measurable property of all matter. Heat cannot be
destroyed but can be transferred from one substance to another, always moving from
warmer to the colder substance. The unit used to measure the quantity of heat is the
British thermal unit (Btu). Btu is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. Conversely, if the
temperature is reduced by one degree then the heat is removed.
CONDUCTION:
Heat transfer by conduction occurs when energy is transmitted by direct contact
between the molecules of two bodies in good thermal contact with each other.
CONVECTION:
Convection occurs when heat moves from one place to another by means of currents
which are setup in the fluid medium.
RADIATION:
Radiation occurs in the form of a wave motion similar to light waves wherein the
energy is transmitted from one body to another without the need for intervening matter.
TEMPERATURE:
Temperature is the measure of the intensity or level of heat. The unit of temperature is
Fahrenheit. Other scale is Celsius. The freezing point of water is 32 deg.F. Whereas the
boiling point of water is 212 deg. F.
Temperature conversion:
Deg. F = 9/5 deg. C + 32 Deg. C = 5/9 (deg. F-32)
SPECIFIC HEAT:
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
one pound of that substance by one degree Fahrenheit. It requires one Btu to raise the
temperature of water by one degree Fahrenheit as such the specific heat of water is 1.0.
Most other substances require lesser heat resulting in specific heat lesser than 1.0. To
calculate the heat required to change the temperature of any substance, multiply the
mass of the substance in pounds with the specific heat and the temperature rise in
Fahrenheit.
HEAT(R) = Mass (m) x Sp.ht. (s) x temp.rise (t)
SENSIBLE HEAT:
Sensible heat is the heat added to a substance or heat removed from a substance which
results in change of temperature.
LATENT HEAT:
Latent heat is the heat added to or removed from a substance which causes change of
state but without change in temperature.
Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat needed to change a substance from solid to
liquid. Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat needed to change from liquid to
vapor. Latent heat of condensation is the amount of heat required to be removed to
change from vapor to liquid state.
The latent heat of steam is 1070 Btu/lb whereas the latent heat of ice is 144 Btu/ lb.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE:
For any given refrigerant there exists a temperature for a given pressure at which the
refrigerant will vaporize or condense which is called as the saturation temperature.
Saturation temperature for any given pressure is defined as that temperature at which
liquid refrigerant and its vapor remain in contact with each other in equilibrium.
SUPERHEAT: 4
Any addition or removal of heat to a liquid refrigerant and its vapor in equilibrium in a
dosed container will only cause the liquid refrigerant to vaporize or the vapor to
condense. However if the vaporized refrigerant is separated from the liquid portion and
heat is added it will raise the temperature above the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure and the rise in temperature is the superheat and the vapor
is called as superheated. Superheat is expressed in deg.F.
SUB-COOLING:
If the liquid portion is separated from the vapor portion and is cooled, then any removal
of heat will lower its temperature than the saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure. The temperature drop is sub cooling and the liquid is called sub-cooled liquid.
Sub-cooling is expressed in deg.F.
ENTHALPY:
Enthalpy is the heat content of a refrigerant measured from a base saturation
temperature of -40 deg.F. At this temperature and corresponding saturation pressure the
heat content of the liquid has been arbitrarily fixed as O. The unit of enthalpy is Btu/lb.
REFRIGERATION:
Refrigeration is the process of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of
the surrounding atmosphere and this means removal of heat from the substance to be
cooled to reduce its temperature below its freezing point.
AIR CONDITIONING:
Air-conditioning is treating of air to change its temperature & moisture content
simultaneously. An air-conditioning system controls temperature, humidity, motion of
air, air distribution, air pressure, dust, noise, bacteria, and odours. It produces an
atmosphere that is conducive to human comfort or required by a product or process
within a space.
ENERGY:
Energy is the ability to perform work. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed
but may be changed from one form to another.
PRESSURE:
Pressure is the force exerted per unit area. The unit of pressure is pounds per square
inch. (Psi)
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
The earth is surrounded by an envelope of atmosphere or air. The pressure exerted by
the atmosphere on the surface of the earth is atmospheric pressure. (Atmospheric
pressure is 14.696 psi)
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE:
Absolute pressure is the pressure in pounds per square inch above a complete vacuum.
(Psia)
GAGE PRESSURE:
Gage pressure is the pressure in pounds per square inch above normal atmospheric
pressure of 14.696 psi. (Psig)
INCHES OF VACUUM:
Any pressure below 0 lb gage is referred as so many inches of vacuum. Normal
atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi and it will support a column of mercury 29.92
inches in height. Lb change vacuum to absolute pressure, the reading in inches of
vacuum is subtracted from 30, and the result is multiplied by 0.48.
CRITICAL PRESSURE TEMPERATURE:
For each gas there exists a temperature above which it cannot be liquefied, regardless
of pressure. This is called its critical temperature. The critical pressure is the pressure
that causes liquefaction at critical temperature.
TON OF REFRIGERATION:
One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to the amount of heat required to be removed
from one ton of water (2000 lb) at 32 deg. F to make ice at 32 deg. F in a period of 24
hours. One ton of refrigeration (TR) is 12000 Btu/hr.
PSYCHROMETRICS
Psychrometrics deals with determination of the thermodynamic properties of moist air
and utilization of these properties in analysis of conditions and processes involving
moist air. Air is a mechanical mixture of gases and water vapor. Dry air is air without
water vapor and is composed of nitrogen (approximately 78% by volume) and oxygen
(21% by volume) the remaining being made up of carbon-di-oxide and minute
quantities of gases such as hydrogen, helium, neon, argon etc. The amount of water
vapor in the air varies greatly with the particular locality and with the weather
conditions. Water vapor in the air results primarily from the evaporation of water from
the surface of various bodies of water.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY DRY BULB & WET BULB TEMPERATURES
Dry bulb temperature of air is the temperature measured by an ordinary thermometer.
When measuring the dry bulb temperature of the air, the bulb should be shaded to
reduce the effects of radiation. The wet bulb temperature of air is the temperature
registered by a thermometer whose bulb is covered by a wetted wick and exposed to a
current of rapidly moving air having a velocity of around 1500 fpm. A sling
psychrometer has dry and wet bulb thermometers. After saturating the wick with clean
water, the instrument is whirled rapidly for approximately one minute, after which the
readings can be taken from wet and dry bulb thermometers. Whereas a dry bulb
thermometer, being unaffected by humidity, measures only the actual temperature of
air, a wet bulb thermometer, because of its wetted wick, it is greatly influenced by the
moisture content of the air; thus a wet bulb temperature is in effect a measure of the
relationship between the dry bulb temperature of the air and the moisture content of the
air. For any given dry bulb temperature, lower the moisture content of the air, lower is
the wet bulb temperature. The difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures is
called as the wet bulb depression and is a measure of the relative humidity of air.
Higher the difference lower is the relative humidity and vice versa.
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
Dew point temperature is the temperature at which condensation of moisture begins
when the air is cooled.
Air has both sensible and latent heat, and the total heat content of the air at any
condition is the sum of the sensible and latent heat contained therein. The sensible heat
of the air is a function of the dry bulb temperature. Since all the components of the dry
air are non condensable at normal temperatures and pressures, for all practical purposes
the only latent heat in the air is the latent heat of the water vapor in the air. The amount
of latent heat in any given quantity of air depends upon the weight of water vapor in the
air and upon the latent heat of vaporization of water corresponding to the saturation
temperature of the water vapor. Since the saturation temperature of the water vapor is
the dew point temperature of the air, the dew point temperature determines not only the
weight of water vapor in the air but also the value of the latent heat of vaporization.
Hence the latent heat content of the air is a function of the dew point temperature alone.
As long as the dew point temperature of the air remains unchanged, the latent heat
content of the air also remains unchanged. As such for any combination of dry bulb and
dew point temperatures, the wet bulb temperature of the air can have only one value, it
is evident that the wet bulb temperature is an index of the total heat content of the air. It
should be noted carefully that although there is only one wet bulb temperature that will
satisfy any given combinations of dry bulb and dew point temperatures, there are many
combinations of dry bulb and dew point temperatures which will have the same wet
bulb temperature.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY & ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual weight of water vapor per cubic foot of air
relative to the weight of water vapor content in a cubic foot of saturated air at the same
temperature.
Absolute humidity of air at any given condition is the actual weight of water vapor
contained in 1 cubic foot of air at that condition.
SPECIFIC VOLUME SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
Specific volume is the volume of the mixture per pound of dry air and it depends on the
temperature and the barometric pressure.
Specific humidity is the actual weight of the water vapor mixed with one pound of dry
air and is usually expressed in grains per pound.
SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR
Sensible heat factor is the ratio of the sensible to the total heat.
In air-conditioning we treat air with a view to alter its temperature and moisture content
as such it is important to know how exactly air would behave when subjected to various
processes such as cooling, heating, humidifying and dehumidifying. A psychometric
chart is used to study the psychometric properties of air.
The vertical lines represent the dry bulb temperature. The horizontal lines represent the
moisture content. The curved line on the extreme left of the chart a saturation line and
on this line air is saturated i.e., air is having the maximum possible moisture content in
it and it cannot hold further and is having 100% relative humidity. Similar curved lines
running towards right are the relative humidity lines. The slant lines represent wet bulb
temperature and the total heat content. There are slant lines representing the specific
volume. On the extreme right side there is a scale showing the sensible heat factor.
Alignment circle is located at 80 F db and 50% RH and is used in conjunction with
sensible heat factor to plot the various air conditioning process lines.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES SENSIBLE HEATING & COOLING
By sensible heating, heat is added to the air which results in temperature rise and there
is no change in the moisture content. In other words, during sensible heating process air
retains constant moisture content and accordingly its condition will move on a
horizontal line corresponding to this constant moisture content. Since heat is added, its
enthalpy rises as such wet bulb temperature also rises. By sensible cooling the
temperature will fall without change in moisture content, resulting in removal heat as
such fall in wet bulb temperature.
ADDITION OF MOISTURE
If moisture is added without any sensible heating, the process will follow the vertical
line. The moisture content, enthalpy and wet bulb temperature Increases.
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING
If heat is removed from air it results in fall in dry bulb temperature. If the surface
temperature of the coil is maintained below the dew point temperature of the air then
dehumidification starts with removal of moisture. The dry bulb temperature, the
moisture content and the wet bulb temperature decreases showing the removal of heat.
HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
If heat and moisture is added to air it will follow the process just opposite to that of
cooling and dehumidifying. The dry bulb temperature, the moisture content and the wet
bulb temperature increases showing addition of heat.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING
During evaporative cooling the process line follows the wet bulb temperature line
showing that there is no change in heat. During evaporative cooling heat from the air
flowing through the air washer spray banks is taken by water for evaporation as such
heat is removed from the air and moisture is added. The amount of heat removed from
the air is equivalent- to the amount of moisture added to air as such the total heat
remains the same. The spray water temperature remains constantly at the wet bulb
temperature. In a spray chamber, the air approaches a state of complete saturation. The
degree of saturation is termed as saturation efficiency.
Saturation efficiency = (temp of enter. air - temp of leav.air) / (temp of enter. air wet
bulb temp).
The saturation efficiency depends on the spray surface available and on the time
available for the air to contact the spray water surface. The available surface is
determined by the particle size in the spray mist and the quantity of water sprayed,
number of banks of nozzles and the number of nozzles in each bank. The time available
for contact depends on the velocity of the air through the air washer chamber, the length
of the effective spray chamber and the direction of the spray relative to the air flow.
BYPASS FACTOR
By pass factor represents that portion of the air passing through the air washer/heat
exchanger which is considered to be leaving the spray chamber completely unaltered
from its entering condition. The physical and operating characteristics affecting the
bypass factor are the as follows:
A lesser heat transfer surface area i.e., less rows of coil, less coil surface area, wider
spacing of coil and fins.
An increase in the velocity of the air through the air-conditioning apparatus results in
increase in bypass factor as there is less time for the air to have contact with the heat
transfer surface. Decreasing or increasing the amount of heat transfer surface has a
greater effect on the bypass factor than varying the velocity of air through the
apparatus.
CHEMICAL DEHUMIDIFIER
Chemical dehumidifier contains silica gel which is located in the path of the air stream.
As moist air comes into contact with this silica gel, moisture is removed from the air by
the difference in vapor pressure between the air stream and the silica gel. As the
moisture condenses, latent heat of condensation is liberated, causing a rise in
temperature of the air stream and the silica gel. This process occurs at a constant wet
bulb temperature.
HEAT LOAD CALCULATION 5
The space cooling load is the rate at which heat must be removed from the space to
maintain a constant air temperature. To calculate a space cooling load, detailed design
parameters are required. Generally the following steps should be followed.
1. BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS.
a. Building Construction material
b. Physical dimensions of space
c. Ceiling height, columns, beams
d. Windows, stairways, escalators.
2. CONFIGURATIONS.
a. Orientation
b. Shape
c. Shading from Adjacent building
d. Space used for
3. OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDI TIONS.
a. Weather data
b. Latitude/Longitude c. Elevation
d. Period & time
4. INDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS.
a. Dry bulb temperature
b. Relative humidity
c. Ventilation requirement Permissible Variation/Control limits.
5. INTERNAL LOAD
a. Light
b. Occupancy 6
c. Equipment, Appliances
6. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 7
a. Duct heat loss
b. Duct leakage
c. Fan energy
d. Return air system
E. Outside air
f. Type of system.
HEAT LOAD CONCEPTS
A good designer has to calculate the cooling load at optimum design conditions. The
load so calculated should not be too high or too less.
Although there are several methods of load estimating available today, but cooling load
estimate form "Annexure1" is the most acceptable form in the industry for many years.
The space heat gain is a resultant effect of sensible and latent heat.
The sensible heat is the phenomenon of temperature, where the latent heat is the stored
heat in the form of moisture or metabolism rate.
The other heat load components can be classified into-
a) Loads originated from heat sources outside or external to the conditioned space.
b) Loads within the conditioned space. c). Load occurring from heat gains or losses
with moving cool fluids to and from the conditioned space.
OUTDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS.
While calculating the heat load the outside conditions playa vital role in estimating the
heat load.
In America ASHRAE data are regarded as the industry standard. In India ISHRAE has
started working on the project on establishing and compiling authentic weather data for
various places in India. Presently the outside conditions as per Annexure -2 are
generally acceptable for different places in India.
The ambient air properties and solar intensities changes with different elevation,
latitude and longitude. While selecting the refrigeration capacity of the plant for year
round air conditioning the cooling load for Summer and Monsoon weather which ever
is higher is selected.
In general for Indian climatic conditions 4PM is average time for solar heat gain and
average daily range of temperature (Maximum DB - Minimum DB in a day) vary from
15 to 20 degree F (Local conditions are to be referred)
The table-1 shows the equivalent temperature difference for 15 degree F temperature
difference (Outside temperature - Inside temperature) and 20 degree F daily range. For
other conditions the correction factor as per table -2 is to be considered.
INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS.
The human body considers itself comfortable when it can maintain an average body
temperature between 97 degree F and 100 degree F. It becomes the task of air
conditioning to maintain the environment around the body within this comfort zone of
conditions.
In general 75 degree F DB and 50% RH is considered the design conditions for human
comfort. However these conditions may vary depending upon the environmental
requirement and applications.
Some typical inside design conditions for various industries are stated in Table-3
SOLAR HEAT GAIN
The primary weather related variable influencing the sensible cooling load for a
building is solar radiation. The effect of solar radiation is more pronounced on exposed
surfaces.
Room sensible heat is calculated as under. The heat transfer rate q is given by equation
q=UA (T1-T2)
Where q = Heat transfer rate in Btu per hour.
U= Coefficient of overall heat transfer between the adjacent and the conditioned
space in Btu /h.sqft-deg. F.
A= Area of the separating section in sqft. T1= Average air temperature in adjacent
space degree F
T2= Air temperature in conditioned space deg.F
U= 1/R where R = Addition of thermal resistance of all the surfaces coming in
between the conditioned space and adjacent space. (Refer Table-4 for Thermal
Resistance R of various building and insulating materials.)
VARIOUS TYPES OF SPACE HEAT IS CALCULATED AS UNDER.
1. SOLAR GAIN - GLASS
Solar heat gain from glass is the absorbed solar energy transmitted to the conditioned
space by convection and radiation.
The table no. 5 is referred to calculate the solar gain through glass. The glass factor as
per Table-6 is also to be considered based on number of hours the air conditioning is
required.
2. SOLAR AND TRANSMISSION GAIN (WALLS & ROOF)
The heat transfer rate q is given by equation as stated herein above. The factor (T1-T2)
is replaced with Te which is equivalent temperature difference (Refer Table -1 A&B).
The correction factor from Table -2 is applied on table 1 A&B for desired conditions.
3. TRANSMISSION GAIN (EXCEPT WALLS & ROOFS)
The heat gain transmitted through conduction is a direct function of temperature. The
value of Tl may vary widely from the conditioned space. If the adjacent space is kitchen
or boiler room the temperature may vary 15 to 50 degree F above the outside
temperature.
In general where no specific particulars are indicated for adjacent space the (TlT2) is
considered as temperature difference between ambient temperature and inside
temperature for transmission through glass. For partition walls or unexposed floor or
ceiling, the temperature difference is taken less 5 degree F.
For floors directly in the contact with the ground or over an under ground basement that
is neither ventilated nor conditioned, heat transfer may be neglected for cooling load
estimation.
4. INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION HEAT GAIN.
The outside air of high temperature than air conditioned space temperature produces
the heat gain in the space to be air conditioned by leakage through windows or doors
or unintentional openings. This being uncontrolled air quantity, generally heat gain
through ventilated air quantity due to bypass from the coil is considered for heat gain
due to ventilation.
5. HEAT SOURCES IN CONDITIONED SPACE (INTERNAL LOADS)
(i) People - Table-7 gives representative rates at which heat and moisture are given off
by human being in different states of activity.
(ii) Light- The primary source of heat from lighting comes from the light emitting
element or lamps. Lighting is either fluorescent or incandescent.
Incandescent light
lKW = 3410 Btu/h. Fluorescent light lKW = 1.25 x 3410 Btu/h
(iii) Equipment - Power driven equipments such as motors, calculators and other
appliances electrical gas or steam driven produce localized heat load, Table-8
indicates Heat gain from typical appliances.
ADDITIONAL HEAT SOURCES
(i) Supply duct heat gain
If ducts pass through a space whose temperature is higher than that of air, heat gain is
experienced. It is generally expressed in percentage of sensible load of the room and
generally considered 4 to 5%.
(ii) Supply duct leakage
The supply air is transmitted under pressure to the room. The losses from air leakage
out of duct work or equipment is a direct loss of cooling. The losses from leakage is
also considered in percentage and it is generally 4 to 5%.
(iii) Supply air fan heat
Fans that circulate air add energy to the system from fan inefficiency, air static and
velocity pressure and heat generated by motor and drive inefficiencies. Generally 3%
of room sensible heat is considered as fan heat gain for normal application.
Adding the heat gain in the room from the above steps 1 to 5 gives the total room
sensible heat and total room latent heat. Adding the additional heat gain as enumerated
in step 6 (i) to (iii), referred to effective room sensible heat and effective room latent
heat.
These loads are referred to as effective since both the coil leaving temperature and
humidity level must effectively be lower than conditions required at the room in order
to (1) absorb the losses along the way and then (2) absorb the room loads. These two
loads establish the air quantity to be cooled and dehumidified.
(iv) OUTSIDE AIR
The outdoor air, which in required to be introduced to ventilate conditioned space,
added considerable heat load on the system. Though this load is not considered as room
load, but this outside air is required to be treated to the air temperature supplying to the
room. Thus this load is considered the load on the coil to arrive the total capacity of the
plant. Table-9 shows the recommended ventilation standard for the most common
application.
For general application, a basis of estimating the cfm per person is
People not smoking - Recommended 15 Minimum 5
People smoking recommended 40 Minimum 25
The amount of outdoor air required primarily depends on the number of occupants and
on materials and apparatus that may give off odors within the space. To provide for
physiological needs, the outdoor air quantity should never be less than 4 cfm per
person.
(v) Return air system
If return air ducts pass through apace whose temperature is higher than transmitted air
or free air is collected through a space having higher temperature than transmitted air a
sensible heat gain is experienced.
Since the air in the return duct can be at a relatively negative pressure compared to the
air surrounding the duct, an inward leakage of warm air can take place.
This load is also generally expressed in percentage varying from 2 to 5%.
(vi) TYPE OF SYSTEM
If chilled water system is used to produce the cooling in the air conditioned space, then
heat loss in the chilled water piping, water circulating pumps etc are also considered.
Generally 5 to 10% of the total load is added to arrive the refrigeration load.
Thus following the calculations detailed in step 1 to 6 we arrive the total capacity of the
plant required to maintain inside design conditions.
DESIGN GUIDE SECTION
CONTENTS OF SECTION
Air Handling Units
Duct Design
Graphic Illustrations of Design Considerations:
Duct Design - Fan Connections, Duct Turns, Etc.
Duct Design - Diffuser Layouts, Balancing
Damper Locations
Mixing Boxes - Duct Connections, Mixing Baffle
Location, Etc.
Duct Sizing
Design Guide
Duct Design - Diffuser Layouts, Balancing
Damper Locations
Duct Design - Balancing Damper, Extractor Locations
Gauge and Thermometer Locations
Terminal Devices
DESIGN GUIDE MANUAL
AIR HANDLING UNITS
1. Either a variable pitch drive or provisions for the cost of one fixed sheave
change should be specified as it is unlikely that the system static pressure will be
exactly as calculated.
2. The air handling unit specified should have the ability to deliver (including
available HP) sufficient excess air volume and pressure over that required by the
outlets to allow for leaks from ductwork, housing and connections. An excess of
10% air volume and pressure is realistic on the average installation.
3. In addition to the standard automatic outside and return air dampers, provide
 manual type opposed blade dampers on the minimum outside air intake louvre
and on the return air ducts at the entrance to the mixed air plenum. These
manual dampers permit proper proportioning and setting of outside air and
return air quantities.
4. Provision should be made for a complete change of air filters in all systems at
the time of balancing (in event filters have become clogged due to fan operation
during construction). Artificial filter resistances can be added to the clean filter
bank by partial blanking off at filter face areas.
5. Manually operated opposed blade or quadrant type dampers must be provided in
each main zone duct of a multizone unit installation to permit the balancing
technician to set each zone to the required air delivery.
6. Care should be taken to assure that the discharge air from cooling towers,
condensing units, relief exhausts, roof exhaust fans, etc., cannot short circuit or
be carried back by wind induced currents to any fan system outside air intake.
7. The inclusion of a return air fan is recommended with system design
incorporating an economy cycle (100% Outside Air to Minimum Outside Air).
If return air fans are not included in the design, either exhaust fans or a power
operated relief system should be incorporated to limit the building pressurization
to approximately .05" WG.
8. The efficiency and operating characteristics of a fan system can be adversely
altered by connecting return or outside air to only one side of the fan inlet
plenum.
9. Many multizone units discharge their air at an angle between horizontal and
vertical. Turning vanes should be provided in the initial discharge duct fitting to
direct air flow smoothly to the elbow or transition that follows.
10. Avoid the application of internal duct linings at duct connections to multi zone
units or conventional air handling units with high outlet or discharge velocities.
Start the duct lining after the first transition has been reached where normal duct
velocities exist.
11. To assure proper internal air flow and uniform distribution across coil surfaces,
specify perforated static pressure plates at fan outlets of blow-through air
handling units.
12. Difficulties in air distribution generally arise over static imbalance of zones on a
multi zone installation. To minimize these problems, the ducts to the longer runs
should be oversized and any zone requiring 1.25 modules of the multi zone unit
outlet should be given two modules with the resulting shortage of outlet modules
being absorbed by the larger zones.
13. Single blade dampers with locking quadrant hardware are preferred for use at
each multi zone unit module. Care must be taken in the fabrication of this
damper assure that it closes properly with minimum leakage, as its use many be
required to correct a zone static imbalance.
14. Specify that access holes for tachometer readings be provided in all belt guards,
the newer split causing guards often have the half connections of the same line
as the fan and motor shaft centers, thus making tachometer readings impossible
without removal of the guard. This greatly hampers fan adjustments as well as
verification readings and presents on obvious equipment hazard.
15. Fan capacities must be selected for the elevation above sea level at which they
will be required to function. While delivered calculations are required to
determine exact correction factor, the following guide values may be used to
determine an approximate correction factor.
4% for each 1000 feet elevation above sea level.
2% for each 10 deg F above standard 70 deg F temperature air.
The following formulas apply to fan selections at elevated levels:
a. Fan selection CFM = Design Standard Density Air CFM x correction factor.
b. Fan selection CFM = Actual System SP x correction factor
c. Fan selection RPM = RPM listed in fan chart at corrected CFM (a) and SP (b).
17. Avoid selection or approval of fans that different CFM capacities and HP
requirements at the same static pressure and RPM as specified by the fan chart
 curve. Also avoid the selection of fans that indicate an increase in CFM when
the fan RPM is reduced or vice versa.
DUCT DESIGN
1. Splitter type dampers offer little or no control of air volume in ducts. They
should be regarded as air diverters only, with maximum effectiveness when
present on duct systems exhibiting low resistance to air flow. Valid application
of splitter dampers generally occurs at the ends of the branch ducts where need
to reduce or restrict air flow is not required.
2. The application of single blade quadrant volume dampers immediately behind
diffusers and grilles may tend to throw air to one side of the outlet, preventing
uniform air flow across the outlet face or cones.
3. Manually operated opposed blade or quardant type volume dampers should be
installed in each branch duct takeoff after leaving the main duct to control the
amount of air into these branch ducts.
4. Turning vane leading and trailing edges should be always be parallel with the
entering and leaving air stream to minimize air flow turbulence.
5. Manual volume dampers should be provided in the duct drop or takeoffs to
diffusers and registers to limit the total air to the face damper of the register or
neck damper of the diffuser. Sidewall and diffuser dampers cannot be used for.
6 Outside air louvers can create objectionable air noise on large systems. Louver
blades should be widely spaced with all edges rounded (or double folded) to
prevent the generation of high pitched air noises. Intake screens should have
openings of at least 1/2" squares to prevent clogging while offering ample
protection against large entering objects.
7. Manual dampers should be installed downstream of hot and cold zone dampers
on each zone of a double duct system.
8. Double thickness or extended edge turning vanes should be utilized in all
elbows, return as well as supply.
9. Furnish extractors where the main air stream in the main duct is a distance away
 from the branch duct takeoff (when located on the inside radius duct wall
following an elbow, etc.).
10. Vertical duct chases or main return ducts require manual balancing dampers to
be installed at each branch duct inlet.
11. Provide extension - ceiling mounted damper hardware wherever possible.
12. Require adequate size access doors to be installed within working distance of
volume dampers, fire dampers, pressure reducing valves, reheat coils, mixing
boxes, blenders, constant volume regulators, etc., to permit required
adjustments.
13. Avoid placing a return air opening directly in or adjacent to the return air
plenum. Sound lining of the duct opening and plenum will not reduce the
transmitted noise to accepted levels.
14. A slight space or opening between blades of an opposed blade volume damper
will generate a relatively high noise level as the air passes through the openings
under system pressure. Damper blades should be sealed with foam rubber or felt
to form an effective seal with the blades in the closed position.
15. Duct leakages may vary from 15 to 45% depending upon workman ship, type of
duct construction and fittings, system design, etc. To minimize this variable, all
duct seams, casing and plenum connections, etc., should be taped, thus generally
assuring a maximum of 5% duct seam leakage factor.
16. Avoid the use of masonry or composition wall vertical air shafts supply or
exhaust systems on multi-storey building.
Where the use of such shafts is unavoidable, extreme care must be taken to seal
not only the connections into the shaft, but the entire masonry or concrete
surface itself. The sealing of this type of shaft after it has been closed is
extremely expensive.
17. Indicate volume damper locations at accessible points and wherever possible, a
distance from a duct transition or fitting. Care should be taken during
installation to make certain that sheet metal fasteners (screws) do not protrude
 into the duct and interfere with damper operation.
18. Do not use extractors at branch or main duct takeoffs to provide volume control.
Extractors are principally effective in diverting air to ducts experiencing air
shortages, provided these shortages are not due to a considerably higher branch
duct resistance to air flow than the other branch ducts on the system. With the
condition of higher branch static, the extractor when positioned in the main duct
air stream cannot produce
19. sufficient velocity pressure diverted air to overcome the branch duct resistance.
When severe dampering is required to build pressure, etc., the high bypass and
leakage factors of the extractor nullify its effectiveness.
20. Proportion the sizes ofthe duct split fittings or branches based on the CFM
requirements of each resulting duct. If higher or lower duct pressure
requirements in the branches and outlets are present, adjustment of the
proportion of the split should be made.
21. Splitter dampers should be provided at all duct split fittings to permit balancing
without raising noise levels. Said dampers do not eliminate the necessity for
volume dampers in the resulting branch ducts.
TERMINAL DEVICES
1. Avoid installing diffusers or grilles directly into the bottom or sides of a main air
duct. No amount of adjustment will decrease the noise level generated.
2. Do not design light troffers on the same duct run or zone with standard diffusers
or registers due to the greater pressure requirements of truffers which will
necessitate excessive throttling at the standard outlets and generate objectionable
noise levels.
3. Restrict use of high induction type diffusers to those applications requiring high
air motion (CFM per square foot) when required.
4. Avoid long duct runs with large volume diffusers off the main and branch ducts
terminating in small diffusers or registers.
5. Avoid mixing supply registers and diffusers on the same duct section. The
 greater pressure requirement of the diffusers will necessitate extensive throttling
at the registers and generate air noise.
6. Avoid placing diffusers or registers so that air patterns will be discharged into
ceiling mounted light fixtures, or in having pattern follow the ceiling too closely.
7. If possible, provide adjustable extractors at each duct takeoff to a register.
8. Return air registers should be located on or near exterior walls, preferably at or
near floor level.
9. Do not use an outlet with a low induction characteristic where the air volume
being distributed is high and the distance of throw is short.
10. Select air outlets which have damper mechanisms readily accessible for
adjustments. Diffusers with removable cores which expose the dampering
devices are satisfactory; the principal difficulty lies with registers whose
dampering mechanism (OBD) are recessed too far behind the register face or do
not have alignment of the grille face openings with the damper mechanisms
operating key, preventing damper adjustments.
11. Return air grille should be selected for operation at low face velocities (100 to
600 FPM) to minimize noise levels.
12. When designing duct drops to diffusers, provide a minimum length of 2 times
the duct diameter (or square dimension) in length to assure even distribution
from the outlet.
13. Return air grilles and duct connections which open into common return plenums
without return air fans should be oversized when possible.
14. Avoid the passage of return air from one space or zone through that of another to
reach a return air grille.
15. Avoid the use of built-in door louvers for passage of return air when the supply
air system operates at low pressure (ceiling plenum supply, etc.).
16. Avoid the use of combination supply-return outlets. Air quantities handled by
supply and return section of outlet can be accurately measured and adjusted by
means of supply air to return cannot be determined.
17. Avoid designing supply registers and diffusers on the same duct section. The
greater pressure requirements of the diffusers will necessitate excessive
dampering at the registers with possibility of generating air noise.
MIXING BOXES
1. Require that mixing box manufactures set mechanical volume controllers to plus
or minus 5% of design CFM by actual air flow test methods, rather than by
measured spring adjustments. etc., which results in less than 40% of the boxes
being delivered and installed within 10% of the design air requirements.
2. Require that direct access be provided to each mixing box with sufficient
clearance for adjustment and if necessary, removal of the volume controller
element, etc.
3. Pressure testing of high pressure duct runs is an absolute necessity, Spiral duct
can be sprung in shipment or during installation, with the resulting leaks along
the casing walls rather than at the duct joints. Test should be made in the
presence of the design engineer or performed by an independent testing agency.
4. Avoid short discharge duct connections from the mixing box unit to the supply
register or grille due to the extremely large variation in the discharge air
velocities across the box outlet opening. It is possible to simultaneously
experience induced air flow and excessive discharge velocities accompanied by
air noise at the face of the register under the above arrangement.
5. To prevent stratification of warm and cool air in supply duct work,
supplementary mixing baffles (perforated plate, etc.,) should be installed at the
outlet of all mixing boxes. Temperature differences of 20 deg to 25 deg F can be
experienced in branch supply ducts due to this stratification.
6. Require installation of internal duct lining of the discharge duct after leaving
mixing box, said installation to follow mixing box manufacture's
recommendations.
7. Avoid short, abrupt connections from unit outlet to duct split fittings or
branches.
8. Specify mixing box dampers shall not leak more than 3% of the design CFM
when functioning at the design static pressure conditions.
9. On low velocity, double duct systems, install round volume dampers in each hot
and cold duct take off to all mixing boxes. Care should be taken that sufficient
takeoff duct is provided to house the damper mechanism so that the damper
blade does not protrude into the main branch duct, or strike the flexible duct
connection when open.
10. Differential pressure across an orifice offers the best method of assuring constant
volume. The reliance upon point static pressure (Duct or Box) should be avoided
as it is not reliable.
11. Pressure will vary from one side of a duct to the other when a unit is on heating
or cooling, and can give a false pressure signal to the controller. Pilot type static
pressure tips located in the center of the duct are recommended for consistent
readings.
DUCT SIZING
An air duct transmits air from the air handling unit to the space to be conditioned. As
such the ducts must be designed properly taking into consideration the available space,
friction loss, velocity, sound level, heat and leakage loss and gain and first and
operating cost. Generally ducts are designed with a velocity of 1500 fpm and it varies
for different applications.
Air distribution systems are divided into three pressure categories:
Low pressure - up to 33/4" of WG -class I fan
Medium pressure - 3314" to 6314" of WG class II fan
High pressure - 6314" to 121/4" of WG class III fan
The air handling unit in an air conditioning application has to over come the resistance
posed by return air grilles, return air ducting, return air filters, dampers, coils, fan
transformation, outlet dampers, special filters, supply air ducting and grilles.

Air passing through any duct meets a resistance to the flow on account of the friction
between the duct surface and the air stream rubbing against this duct surface.
Ducts are fabricated out of GS sheets, Aluminium sheets and MS sheets and may be
circular or rectangular. Flexible round ducts are also used for terminal connections.
ASPECT RATIO is the ratio of the long side to the short side of a duct. This ratio is an
important factor in duct design. Higher aspect ratio means higher first and operating
costs. Further large duct aspect ratios have more heat gain. A large aspect ratio duct
will call for more sheets of heavier gauge for fabrication and higher reinforcement.
Duct transformations are used to change the shape of a duct or to increase or decrease
the duct area. When the shape of the duct is changed without affecting the cross
sectional area a slope of 1 in 7 in is recommended. It this slope cannot be maintained a
maximum slope of 1 in 4 in should not be exceeded. Often ducts must be reduced in
cross sectional area to clear obstructions. It is a good practice not to reduce the area
more than 20% of the original area.
A variety of elbows are used for both rectangular and round ducts. A minimum throat
radius of 6 in. has to be maintained for the elbows. At a take off collar a splitter damper
or vanes are provided.
Duct may sweat when the surface temperature of the duct is below the dew point
temperature of the surrounding air. If the ducts are not passing around the conditioned
air it has to be insulated. If the length of the duct exceeds more than 50 feet it is a
general practice to insulate the tail end to prevent the heat gain at the tail end. Ducts are
acoustically treated for a length of approximately 15 feet from the fan discharge
internally for cordoning the noise of the fan.
The duct accessories are volume control dampers and fire dampers. A parallel acting
blade damper is used for isolating whereas an opposed blade damper is used for
throttling. Afire damper is a damper with a fusible link which will close in case of fire
by a spring once the fusible link melts.
DUCT DESIGN
In any duct section through which air is flowing, there is a continuous loss of pressure.
This loss is called duct friction loss and it depends on the following:
Air velocity Duct size
Interior surface roughness
Duct length
The friction rate of a duct is expressed in terms of inches of water per 100 ft of
equivalent length of duct work. To determine the loss in any section of duct work, the
total equivalent length in that section is multiplied by the friction rate. A duct designed
with a higher velocity results in smaller ducts and lower duct material cost but it
requires higher operating costs with a larger fan and vice versa for a duct designed with
a lower velocity. A duct is designed by using a duct friction chart or using a ductolator.
The ducts are designed either by equal friction method or by static regain method.
EQUAL FRICTION METHOD
In the equal friction method for a given air quantity an initial velocity is selected to
determine the friction rate. This friction rate is then maintained throughout the system
and the equivalent round duct diameter is selected from the duct friction chart. This
procedure of duct sizing automatically reduces the air velocity in the direction of air
flow. The loss in the duct having the highest resistance will be the basis for the fan
selection. The equivalent length of the duct including the fittings and elbows multiplied
with the friction rate will give the loss in the duct. The equal friction method does not
maintain uniform static pressure at all branches and terminals. As such to obtain the
proper air quantity at the beginning of each branch it is necessary to include a splitter
damper to regulate the flow to the branch. It is also required to have volume control
dampers to regulate the flow at each terminal.
STATIC REGAIN METHOD
In a duct carrying a certain quantity of air at a certain velocity, if the duct area is
suddenly increased with the cfm still remaining the same, the velocity is reduced. This
reduction in velocity is converted into static pressure. When the velocity changes from
V1 to V2 the static regain is (V2 /4005)2 - (V1/4005)2. The basic principle of the static
regain method is to size a duct run so that the increase in static pressure (regain to
reduction in velocity) at each branch or air terminal just offsets the friction loss in the
succeeding section of duct. The static pressure is then the same before each terminal at
each branch. For a given air quantity with the initial velocity initial duct section is
designed. The remaining sections are sized with the L/Q chart and the velocity charts.
With the L/Q chart knowing the air quantity and the length between the ducts L/Q ratio
is determined. With the velocity before take off and the L/Q ratio the velocity after take
off ie., the velocity in the duct section to be designed is determined. With the airflow
and the velocity the duct area is arrived which is helpful in sizing the duct.
The branch ducts designed by static regain method are bigger in size than the equal
friction method. However the increase in first cost is offset by reduced balancing time
and operating costs.
DUCT CONSTRUCTION
The sheet metal gauge used in the construction of ducts and the reinforcing required
depends on the pressure conditions. There is also a wide variety of joints and seams for
the manufacture od ducts. The enclosed table shows the recommended gauges of GS
and aluminium sheets required for duct construction having different dimensions.
AIR TERMINALS AND DISTRIBUTION
Air has to be distributed uniformly to various rooms or zones in proportion to the actual
load. Even though there is a single hall the distribution is important as there may be
more concentration of sensible heat in the peripheral regions than the core of the space.
The air admitted into the room should not create any draft. It is desirable to restrict to a
temperature difference of 15 deg. F between the supply air and the room temperature to
prevent cold drafts. In applications where the apparatus dew point selected is low it is
desirable to take more return air and bypass the same around the cooling coils.
The air distribution system must be designed to hold the temperature within tolerable
limits. The variation in temperature shall be limited to a maximum of 2 deg. F.
Temperature fluctuations are more noticeable than variations. The ideal room velocity
for comfort application is around 25 to 30 fpm. The desirable direction of air motion is
towards a person's face. It is tolerable if it is from the top or from the side but not
definitely from the back of the person.
Normally it is not necessary to blow air to the entire length or width of the room. It is
enough if the blow is 3/4th the length of the room. Exceptions may that when there are
local sources of heat at the end of the room opposite to the air outlet.
PRINCIPLES OF AIR DISTRIBUTION THROW
Throw is the horizontal distance that an air stream travels on leaving an outlet. This
distance is measured from the outlet to a point at which the terminal velocity of the air
stream has reached to 50 fpm and at a height of 6.5 ft above the floor.
DROP
Drop is the vertical distance the air moves between the time it leaves the outlet and the
time it reaches the end of the throw.
INDUCTION
Induction is the entrainment of the room air by the air ejected from the outlet and is a
result of the velocity of the outlet air. For two outlets having the same area, the outlet
with larger perimeter has the greatest induction but lesser blow. AB such greatest room
induction and shortest blow will occur with an outlet in the form of a narrow slot. The
air coming directly from the outlet is .called primary air. The room air which is picked
up and carried along by the primary air is called secondary air. Induction ratio is
defined as the ratio of the total air (primary + secondary air) to primary air.
SPREAD
Spread is the divergence of the air stream as it leaves the outlet. Spread occurs both
horizontally and vertically. The vanes in the grilles produce spread.
The outlets may be a rectangular wall grille or a square or round ceiling diffuser or a
linear continuous grill or diffuser. The outlets are fabricated out of MS sheets,
aluminum or plastic.
The wall grille should be located atleast twice its height below the ceiling to avoid
appreciable streaking of the ceiling with dirt. The principle thing to keep in mind in the
question of supply grille location is the fact that the conditioned air must be delivered to
the locations desired and no dependence placed upon the return grilles for proper
distribution. In other words, the location of the return grilles has little effect upon the
air circulation within the room. Some large areas may be successfully and evenly
cooled with only one large return air grille. Return air grilles need not be of any special
design but can be made to suit any desired architectural effect. The one point- to keep
in mind in locating the return air grilles is the fact that the velocity of the air returning
to this point should not exceed 50 fpm in the occupied zone.
The object of room air distribution is to provide satisfactory room air motion within the
occupied zone, and is accomplished by relating the outlet characteristics and
performance to the room air motion as follows:
Total air in circulation = outlet cfm x induction ratio
Average room velocity = 1.4 x total cfm in circulation / Area of wall opposite to outlet
Room circulation factor (K) = outlet cfm/ clear area of wall opp. outlet
= average room velocity / 1.4 x induction ratio
PIPING DESIGN
The materials used for piping systems in air conditioning are:
Mild steel - black and galvanized Copper - soft and hard
Mild steel pipes come in three classes light or Class A (yellow band), medium or Class
B (blue band), heavy or Class C (red band).
Copper pipes are generally used for packaged unit and semi hermetic compressor
refrigerant piping. Black steel heavy class pipes are used for other refrigerant piping.
For condenser and chilled water application either black steel medium or heavy class
pipes are used. Some customers specify heavy/ medium class Galvanized pipes for
condenser water application. Drain pipes are generally with Galvanized medium class
or with pvc pipes.
For pipes running for longer lengths suitable expansion joints/expansion loops and
offsets are to be provided to take care of the expansion and contraction. All piping
should be supported with hangers that can withstand the combined weight of the pipe,
pipe fittings, valves, fluid in the pipe and the insulation. There are recommendations for
support spacing. Pipes are to be isolated not to transmit the vibration from the
equipment to the building structures. Piping will involve fittings such as elbows, tees,
flanges, couplings, unions etc. The pipes are joined either by threading or welding!
brazing.
The valves used in air conditioning applications are back seating globe valves or ball
valves and angle valves for refrigerants and gate/globe/butterfly/ ball valves and
balancing valves for water. Gate valves are used for isolation whereas the globe valves
are used for throttling. Butterfly valves can be used for isolation as well as throttling.
Further butterfly valves cause lesser pressure drop in comparison to a globe valve for
the same size and water flow. Balancing valves are used for throttling and measuring
the water flow.
A non return valve either swing type or lift type is used along with water pump sets.
Lift type check valves are to be used only for vertical lines. Y strainers or Pot strainers
are used near cooling tower and pump sets.
WATER PIPING
The water piping systems may be once through or re-circulating type.
In a once through system water passes through the equipment only once and is
discharged. In a re-circulating system water is not discharged but flows in a repeating
circuit. Both types are further classified as open or closed systems. An open system is
one in which the water flows into a reservoir open to atmosphere. A closed system is
one in which the flow of water is not exposed to the atmosphere at any point. This
system usually incorporates an expansion tank to allow expansion of water.
The water re-circulating systems are further classified into reverse return piping, direct
return piping and reverse return header with direct return rises. If the units have the
same or nearly the same pressure drop one of the reverse return methods are used. If the
units have different pressure drops then it is economical to use direct return. Ina reverse
return piping system balancing the system is easier. In a direct return system balancing
valves are to be provided for system balancing. Reverse return system can be used only
for closed piping applications.
There is a pressure drop in any pipe through which water is flowing. This is due to the
friction in the pipe. Pressure drop is expressed as feet of water per 100ft length of pipe
for various rates of flow. The friction loss depends on the water velocity, pipe diameter,
interior surface roughness and pipe length. System pressure has no effect on the head
loss of the equipment in the system but they will dictate the use of a heavier pipe. To
properly design water piping the friction loss in the pipe, valves, fittings and other
equipment are to be considered. For working out the frictional pressure drop through
the pipe fittings and valves, these items are expressed in terms of an equivalent length
of pipe of the same size. Tables are enclosed for the equivalent length of the fittings and
valves. Pipes are generally sized so as to limit the maximum velocity within 10 fps. The
velocity ranges between 4 and 7 fps for pump suction and drain lines, 4 to 15 fps for
header lines, 8 to 12 fps for pump discharge, and 3 to 10 fps for risers. These
restrictions in velocity is to reduce the erosion of pipes. For sizing of pipes friction
charts are used. There are separate charts for open and closed piping systems.
EXPANSION TANK is used to allow expansion of water in the system due to
temperature rise. If this is not provided then the system will develop dangerously high
hydraulic pressure when water expands due to temperature rise. The expansion tank is
located at the highest point. The expansion tank should be sized so that the difference
between the lowest and highest water levels in the tank will account for not less than
3% of the total volume of water in the entire system. A permanent water supply
connection from an external source has to be connected to the tank with a float valve
and quick fill valve. It will have an over flow and drain pipe. There should not be any
valve between the expansion tank and the piping system as there is chance of
accidentally closing this valve thus making the expansion tank isolated. It may be of
interest to note that for every deg. F rise in temperature of water it will exert an
pressure of 18 psi in a closed water system. It is advisable to fill the system with water
from the lowest point as this will purge out all the air from the system.
Thermometers and pressure gauges are provided at convenient points to measure the
temperature and pressure. Separate thermowells are to be provided. Pressure gauges are
selected so that the normal reading of the gauge is near the mid point of the pressure
scale.
Air vents should be installed in the high points of any water system so that at the time
of initial filling air can be vented out by opening these air vent cocks. Automatic air
vents are also available. Drain plugs/caps are to be provided at the lowest points to
drain out the water and dirt. U trap has to be provided in the drain pipe for the air
handling units to prevent air being sucked through this point this preventing the water
from draining.
PUMPS
Pumps are classified into positive displacement and centrifugal pumps. A reciprocating
pump is a positive displacement pump. A centrifugal pump is simple in construction. It
has the following advantages over other types of pumps as such they are generally used
for air conditioning applications.
Simplicity in construction
Absence of valves
Fewer moving parts
Minimum power transmission losses
Steady non surging flow
Operation at shut off condition without excessive pressure build up
Absence of closer clearances
Compactness and lighter in weight
Longer life
Reasonable cost
Absence of contact between the liquid pumped and lubricant
Easy maintenance
The disadvantages are it is not self priming and it is inefficient for smaller capacities
with higher heads.
The impellers are of cast iron or bronze. They may have either gland packing or
mechanical seal
The various types of centrifugal pumps are mono bloc, split casing and back pull out
pump sets.
In any piping system, the pumping head is the algebraic sum of the static head on the
discharge side minus the static head on the pump suction plus the friction losses
through the entire system of fluid flow. With an increase in flow the friction losses
increase approximately as the square of the flow.
Static suction lift is the vertical distance from the surface of the liquid to the centre line
of the pump. The maximum theoretical suction lift of a pump depends on the
atmospheric pressure which at sea level is about 14.7 psi. But atmospheric pressure
decreases as we ascend above the sea level so does the maximum theoretical static
suction lift.
Pumps are selected from the manufacturer's performance curves. The horse power of
the motor selected to drive a given pump must be at least 15% hi2"her than the BHP to
allow voltage fluctuations as per NEMA standards.
BHP = USGPM X PUMP HEAD IN IT X SPECIFIC GRAVITY
3960 X PERCENT PUMP EFFICIENCY
GUIDELINES FOR PUMP INSTALLATION:
The suction line approach to the pump should be as straight as possible.
With an oversized suction pipe an eccentric elbow to be used.
A check valve and gate valve should be installed at the pump discharges of a multi
pump system to service one pump without draining the discharge line.
The suction line for the pump operating with a negative static head should have no
valves other than a foot valve.
The chilled water pump is generally insulated.
The pump has to be mounted on a base frame which has to be located on a concrete
pedestal which is at least two times heavier than the machinery. The base has to be
isolated from the ground by cork or high density thermocole. Unless the pump is self
priming it must be primed before starting. When starting the pump the discharge valve
is usually closed, then gradually opened so as not to run the risk of overloading the
drive motor. A reciprocating pump never has to be run with the discharge valve closed.
REFRIGERANT PIPING
A refrigerant piping has to be designed with optimum pressure drop with respect to
economics, friction loss and oil return. It is economical if the line size is as small as
possible, However this should not result in excessive suction and discharge line
pressure drop as this will result in loss of compressor capacity and excessive Bhp/ TR.
Too small a line size will also cause excessive pressure drop in the liquid line which
will result in flashing of the liquid refrigerant. A refrigerant line has to be designed to
accomplish the following:
To insure proper feed to evaporators. Provide practical line sizes without excessive
pressure drop.
To ensure oil return and orevent excessive lubricating oil fro~ being trapped in the
system.
Prevent liquid refrigerant from entering the compressor during operation and shut
down.
The pressure drop in refrigerant piping depends on the velocity of flow of refrigerant. It
is proportional to the square of the fluid velocity in the pipes. Refrigerant pressure drop
is usually expressed as Deg. F and not in terms of PSI. When the pressure drop is 2 deg.
F, it is the drop in saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure before and after
the drop.
For refrigeration and air conditioning applications, it has been established that the
optimum acceptable pressure drops in each interconnecting piping should be as follows:
Suction line (CHW) - 1 deg. F
Suction line (DX) - 2 deg. F
Hot gas line - 2 deg. F
liquid line - 1 deg. F
Piping design charts are available for design of copper and steel pipes for different
refrigerants.
Following is the procedure for sizing of the refrigerant pipes:
Measure the length of the straight pipe. Add 50% to obtain a trial total equivalent
length.
If necessary, correct for suction and condensing temperatures.
Read the piping chart the size of the pipe line for the tonnage and the equivalent length.
With this pipe size add the equivalent length for fittings and valves to the straight
length of the pipe and cross check this with the trial equivalent length.
Correct the equivalent length in case of difference address elect the pipe.
OIL RETURN
Oil is continuously carried from the compressor through the discharge line into the
condenser and then into the evaporator. This oil is generally in the form of very minute
droplets and they depend on gas velocity to flow through the suction line back to the
compressor. The flow of this gas does not pose much problems as far as horizontal
lines are concerned. It becomes a problem only in vertical lines/rises where gas travels
from one level to higher level in the suction line. For ensuring oil return through this
suction riser, we have to maintain a minimum velocity of gas flow in the suction line.
If the velocity becomes less than this then oil will not rise along with the suction gas
and will therefore accumulate in the evaporator thereby starving the compressor of oil.
It is therefore quite obvious that suction line should never be oversized. It is also
important that oil return goes uninterruptedly at all operation loads of any particular
system. In case of compressors with automatic capacity control, it is necessary to figure
out the likely minimum load at which the system is expected to operate. This minimum
tonnage has to be verified with the chart showing the minimum tonnage for oil
entrainment in suction risers. If ever this minimum partial load is likely to fall below
the minimum recommended load for oil return then alternate arrangement for ensuring
oil return has to be implemented. Generally double suction risers are used. Whenever
the load happens to fall below the minimum tonnage as required for oil return then oil
will not rise up through the suction pipe and tend to collect at the bottom level thereby
filling the trap underneath. This oil trap will render the larger suction pipe ineffective
and so the entire suction gas during such partial load operating conditions will go only
through the smaller pipe in which the velocity will be high enough for carrying the oil.
Refrigerant piping layout is shown for various arrangements including the system with
compressors running in parallel. All these layouts are to be followed strictly for proper
functioning of the system.
There are various accessories in a refrigerant piping:
Liquid suction heat exchangers This will subcool the liquid refrigerant and superheat
the suction gas. This prevents liquid slop-over to the compressor. Generally liquid
suction heat exchangers are used only for a chiller package. Excessive superheat of
suction gas has to be avoided.
Liquid indicator
Every refrigerant system should include a means of checking for sufficient refrigerant
charge. Liquid indicator or sight glass is installed in the liquid line and it shows
bubbling when there is insufficient refrigerant charge and a solid clear glass when there
is sufficient charge. Sight glass should be installed in full size of the main liquid line
and not in the bypass line that parallels the main.
Refrigerant driers
A refrigerant drier is used for low temperature systems to remove moisture entrained in
the system. It is essential for all systems using hermetic compressors since the motor
winding is exposed to the refrigerant gas. A filter drier is used in the bypass line along
with a moisture and liquid indicator. In case of moisture in the system, the refrigerant is
allowed to pass through the drier.
Solenoid valves
Solenoid valves are used in the following places:
In the liquid line for pumping down the system.
Along with the compressor for capacity control.
They are electrically operated and are of two way or three way type.
Charging connections
Refrigerant in liquid form is charged into the liquid line between the condenser shut off
valve and the expansion valve. Refrigerant in gas form is charged for small systems in
the suction line but this is generally not advisable as there is danger of dumping raw
liquid into the compressor. Suitable angle valves should be provided for this purpose.
Further angle valves/tappings are to be provided for connecting gauges and safety
cutouts.
Mufflers
It is used in the hot gas line and installed closer to the compressor. The hot gas
pulsations from the compressor can set up a condition of resonance with certain lengths
of refrigerant piping in the hot gas line. A muffler aids in eliminating such a condition.
Strainers
A strainer is installed ahead of an expansion valve. A shut off valve has to be installed
on both sides of the strainer to facilitate cleaning of the strainer.
Expansion valves
An automatic thermostatic expansion valve meters the refrigerant flow and it has to be
sized properly to avoid both the penalties of being undersized at full load and of being
excessively oversized at part load. Refrigerant pressure drop through the system has to
be evaluated for selection of the expansion valve. Tables are available for the selection.
A minimum superheat of 10 deg. F has to be considered in the selection. The expansion
valve bulb should be located immediately after the coil outlet on the suction line and at
45 degrees above the bottom of the pipe. The valve should be set such that overfeeding
does not occur at times of partial load.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING & CONTROLS
MOTORS
The air conditioning and refrigeration systems include fans, pumps and compressors.
The prime mover to put these equipments into motion is the electric motor. Motors may
be three phase or single phase. The various types ofthree phase motors are induction
and synchronous. Single phase motors are either capacitor start, induction run; capacitor
start, capacitor run; split phase; permanent split capacitor etc. Induction motors are
popular. They are fairly cheaper to produce and operate when compared to DC motor or
synchronous motors. Further they offer a very wide choice of operating characteristics
and therefore the flexibilities in selection to various drives.
Basically there are two types of induction motors; cage and slip ring. In cage motors,
uninsulated rotor bars are short circuited at both the ends of the core by heavy short
circuited rings. Hence for a given cage design, the rotor resistance is fixed and the
starting torque, starting current is an inherent charcteristic of a cage motor. In slipring
motor, the rotor is wound with insulated windings and the terminals are brought
through slip rings. By adding external resistance in the rotor circuit, it is possible to
control starting torque, current characteristics and also vary the speed. Slipring motors
are expensive when compared to cage motors. The induction motors may be screen
protected drip proof type (SPDP) or totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC). TEFC motors
are costlier.
Synchronous motors are inherently and strictly constant speed motors. Their application
is characterised by the high efficiency of conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Unlike other motors, their speed is unaffected by changes in voltage
or load. OEFINITIONS:
FULL LOAD CURRENT
The current drawn by the motor when producing the rated output at rated speed with
rated input.
PULL OUT TORQUE
The highest torque that the motor can develop while running at rated voltage and
frequency.
SLIP
Slip is the difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed at full load
expressed in terms of synchronous speed.
POLES
The number of poles of the motor is the frequency in cycles per second divided by half
the speed of the motor in revolutions per second.
To obtain uniformity in applications NEMA has defined specific designs of integral
horspower squirrel cage induction motors. Each design conforms to specific starting
and break down torque, starting current and slip.
The. motor may be said to have been properly selected and successfully applied, if it
srarts the load and accelerates to full speed within reasonable period of time and then
runs as required at rated load without exceeding the winding temperature limit for the
particular class of insulation used.
The first step in selecting a motor is to analyse the following and then match the motor:
1. The load to be driven and its torque speed characteristics
2. The motor operating conditions which include ambient, environment, altitude,
mounting, driving arrangement, speed variations.
3. lnertia of the load
4. Any limitations which may be imposed on acceleration on method of
starting.
5. Maximum torque required under worst conditions.
6. Supply system, voltage, frequency variation, limitations of starting current, if
any, current pulsations tolerated, effect of power factor and efficiency and
temperature rise of the motor etc.
Efficiency and power factor are two characteristics which will suffer to some extent
when special starting current and speed torque characteristics are required.
Induction motors with various types of enclosures are available depending on the
application and location and environmental conditions in which they are required to
operate. Proper selection of motor enclosure cuts down the maintenance cost of the
motor.
A few important types of enclosures are open drip proof enclosure (SPDP) IP 22/ 23
adopted for indoor applications. The ambient air circulates through the overhangs of the
motor, thereby dissipating more amount of heat efficiently. The initial investment for
the motor with this type of enclosure is significantly low.
Totally enclosed fan cooled enclosures (TEFC) IP 44/54/55 are suitable for either
indoor or outdoor clean or dirty location. The ambient air does not circulate through
the motor and thus windings stay clean. Though the initial investment for these motors
is high, the savings in maintenance expenses will offset the difference.
Special types of enclosures such as forced ventilated, flame proof etc. are available in
some ratings and the use of these enclosures depends mainly on the environmental
conditions.
The temperature rise which is associated with the class of insulation used in the motor,
indicates the thermal capability of the motor. Determination of the temperature rise of
the motor for various types of duty is therefore essential to select a proper motor. Final
temperature rise is directly proportional to the losses generated in the motor and is
inversely proportional to the heat dissipation capacity. In addition to motor surface and
ventilation, which decide the heat dissipation capacity of the motor, the ambient
temperature is also an important parameter to limit the final temperature rise and hence
the selection of frame size. The motor is to be derated for higher than the normal
ambient temperature i.e., either the ouput is to be reduced for the same frame size, or
the frame size is to be increased for the same output. The permissible temperature rise
over an ambient temperature of 40 deg. C for the insulation scheme in use are class E
120 deg. C; class B 130 deg. C; class F 155 deg. C and class H 180 deg.C.
As per NEMA standards the motors are oversized by 10 to 15% over the required HP to
compensate for the fluctuations in voltage and drive losses.
PROTECTION
Motors must be employed with protective devices to prevent cafastrophic failures when
the characteristic parameters of the drive motors exceed the rated values. The following
are the few important items to be provided:
RUNNING OVERLOAD PROTECTION
Motors must be protected against overload, the use of devices responsible to either
motor currents or motor temperature or both. Temperature detectors may be embedded
in the motor windings (hermetic compressor motors) which interrupt over current to the
motor.
UNDER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
All equipment are to be provided with under voltage protection in order to minimize
the damage to the equipment in the event of sudden drop in voltage or power failure.
SINGLE PHASING PROTECTION
This form of protection is to be provided to protect the polyphase induction motors in
the event of single phasing.
SPACE HEATERS
Corrosion of mechanical parts and damage to the insulation due of moisture is
eliminated by providing space heaters.
BEARING TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
These detect the increase in bearing temperature which is general due to the loss of oil
film caused by either contamination of lubricating oil or change in alignment. These
devices are to be set at a nominal value above the normal operating temperature in
order to cut off power supply to motor when the bearing temperature crosses the
preset value (This is popular in centrifugal machines which run at higher speeds).
At times there is a need for two or more fixed steps in speed change for the operation
of driven equipment particularly fans. The multispeed operation is obtained by either
multiplying or rearranging the stator windings.
Small integral motors are generally polyphase type; however in many areas of extensive
use, power is available only in single phase. In single phase induction motors there is
only one winding in the stator. The alternating current produces a magnetic field with
alternating polarity, but it does not revolve. Therefore an auxiliary means must be
provided to produce torque to start and accelerate the motors to full speed. At full speed
the single phase motor operates like a polyphase motor in respect to slip, efficiency and
power factor. The single phase motors are popular for fan coil units and window/ split
air conditioners.
There are three sources of energy losses appearing as heat that raise the motor
temperature; a) windings-heat produced by the flow of current against resistance and
equal to the product of the current squared and resistance, b)Iron core-heat produced by
hysteresis and eddy current losses set up by the magnetic field in the stator and rotor
and c) the mechanical losses in the bearings, brushes, fans etc.
STARTERS
Starter selection is integral with motor selection and should be so considered in relation
to the following factors: horsepower rating, permissible current, desirable torque,
necessary protection and combined economics.
There are two fundamental classes of starting equipment serving squirrel cage induction
motors: 1) full voltage, across the line and 2) reduced voltage, reduced current in rush
starters. The factors that influence a. choice between full or reduced voltage starters are:
1) cost, 2) size of the motor 3) current inrush and starting torque behaviour of the motor
with reduced voltage and 4) electricity board restrictions on the use of electric energy.
SWITCHES
A majority of air conditioning and refrigeration installations are low voltage
applications which at times may use manually operated circuit switches as permitted by
local electricity boards. There are several varieties:
1) Disconnect switches for isolating purposes. They have no interrupt rating and
should not be operated with a load on the line.
2) Enclosed safety switches, fused or unfused, available for light duty AC service.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The design performance of a motor is delivered under a normal supply of electric
energy. Any disturbance to normal flow leads either to overheating and eventual
destruction of the motor or to non delivery of the required mechanical power. The
greatest hazard to any electrical services is a short circuit, a flow of an enormously
excessive current caused by some fault either in the power line or at the motor.
Sufficient protection must be designed into the system to safeguard the feeder and the
branch circuits as well as to isolate the feeder from a fault in the individual branch.

A fuse is a low cost short circuit protection device. It may be a plug or cartridge type.
A circuit breaker functions both as circuit protector and as a branch circuit disconnect
switch. Its advantage is that upon being opened by short circuit it may be reset without
the necessity of replacement, as in the case of a fused disconnect switch. With the fused
circuit, there exists a danger, namely single phasing in case only one fuse blows. A
circuit breaker disconnects all the three phases.
MOTOR CONTROL CENTRES
It is the practice to use a central motor control centre with inbuilt switches, starters and
indication lamps and meters for control of all the motors and accessories in an air-
conditioning system.
The motor control centre may be of cubicle type or industrial type.
SWITCH FUSE FEEDERS CABLES AND EARTHING
The cable ratings and the back up fuse provided for motors should be as per the
enclosed tables. The cables may be of copper or aluminium conductor. The cable sizes
are valid only if the feeder lengths are limited to within 100 metres. In case feeder
lengths are more than this figure the size of cables selected should be cross checked
for voltage drop in normal operating conditions and also starting conditions. The size
requires revision in case of reduction in the derating factor as well.
The earthing scheme should be so designed to satisfy the basic statutory requirements
and also to provide adequate protection against ground faults. There should be double
earthing and it shall be copper or GI wires/flats. A typical arrangement of various
types of earth electrodes is shown in the enclosed sketches.
POWER FACTOR
The ratio of the real active power to apparent power is the power factor. A power
factor of unity is ideal. This exists only in resistive circuits. Low power factor means
more current per kilowatt used; hence power factor should be improved. Capacitors
are used with the induction motors for the purpose of power factor correction. Where
the capacitor is used for individual motors, fuses should not be introduced in the
capacitor circuits and the capacitor should be connected to the outgoing terminals of
the overload protective device used for the motor, with adequate correction applied for
over load 'setting. Recommended ratings of capacitors are enclosed.
STANDARD EQUATIONS
SINGLE PHASE:
HP = V x A x EFF x PF /746 x 100
THREE PHASE:
HP=1.73 x V x A x EFF x PF/746 x 100
HP IS HORSE POWER; V IS VOLTS; A IS AMPS; EFF IS EFFICIENCY AND PF
IS POWER FACTOR.
CONTROLS THERMOSTATS
Thermostats are temperature actuated controls. They are used to control the
temperature level of a conditioned space. Thermostats have definite cut in and cut out
points which is called the differential. They may be of room type or with a remote
bulb. The thermostat may be used for heating and cooling. Heating thermostat is one
which opens a circuit on a rise in temperature or closes a circuit on a fall in
temperature. It has a single pole single throw action. Cooling thermostat is one which
opens a circuit on a fall in temperature or closes a circuit on a rise in temperature. It
also has a SPST action. A thermostat has a provision for adjusting the range and
differential.
PRESSURE SWITCHES
Pressure actuated controls are of two types 1) Low pressure actuated and 2) High
pressure actuated. Low pressure controls are connected to the suction side of the
compressor which will trip the compressor in case of fall in suction pressure below the
set point. Generally Low pressure controls are of auto reset type. The setting can be
changed in the Low pressure cut out.
High pressure cut out is used in the discharge side of the compressor and it will trip the
compressor in case the discharge pressure exceeds the set point which can be set in the
cut out. They are of manual reset type.

There are dual pressure controls available for a combination of low and high pressure
cutouts.
Oil pressure switch is a differential pressure switch. It will sense the differential oil
pressure. By differential pressure we mean the gauge pressure of the oil minus the
gauge pressure of the gas in the crankcase which is the oil pressure developed. During
starting of the compressor the oil pressure will not build up immediately. As such there
is a heater which will usually hold the circuit for a pre- determined time by which the
compressor, has to build the required oil pressure. In the absence of this the compressor
will be tripped.
The above pressure controls are safety controls and are connected in series in the
control circuit. Isolating valves should not provided for connecting these controls.
PUMP DOWN CONTROL
A three way pilot solenoid valve is powered by a thermostat. In case conditioned area
has no load and the compressor has been unloaded to the possible extent then this
cooling thermostat will de-energise the pilot solenoid valve which will close the
refrigerant flow through the expansion valve and the compressor will trip due to low
pressure. As the refrigerant is pumped into the condenser there is no problem of dilution
of oil in the compressor and there is no fear of liquid being sucked into the compressor
during starting.
ANTIFREEZE THERMOSTAT
This thermostat is kept in contact with water in the chiller. In case the water
temperature falls near the freezing point of water this will switch off the compressor.
This is a safety control and is connected in series in the control circuit.
HUMIDISTAT
Hair is sensitive to changes in relative humidity. It contracts when there is a fall in
humidity and expands when the humidity is increased. The contraction and expansion
will actuate a strip to switch on and off. This is a humidistat. The humidity can be set
but this will have a fixed differential.
WATER PRESSURE FAILURE SWITCHIFLOW SWITCH
The water pressure failure switch will sense the water pressure and will not allow the
compressor to operate incase of lower pressure. When there is less water in circulation
due to chocking in strainers, or less water in cooling tower sump or due to non
operation of the required number of pumpsets the required flow is not maintained in the
system which is detrimental. In a water flow switch it senses the flow of water by a
paddle kept in the water flow path and actuates the switch.
An air flow switch is similar to a water flow switch with a paddle and will switch of the
heater in case there is no air flow due to broken belts or so even though the motor is
running.
WATER FLOW METERS
Orifice type flow meters or water flow meters are installed at convenient points to
measure the water flow.
MODUTROL MOTOR AND PROPORTIONAL THERMOSTATS
Instead of snap action thermostat a proportional thermostat will have a floating
operation. It is used to open or close or throttle the damper in the case of air flow or a
mixing valve in the case of water flow with the help of a modutrol motor. The modutrol
motor will generally operate at 24V AC and as such a step down transformer is used.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE
Thermostatic expansion valve is the most commonly used metering device for the
refrigerant. The top portion of the valve is called the power element and has a
diaphragm. The space between the diaphragm and the top cover has a capillary
extension terminating a bulb which is partly filled with the same refrigerant used in the
system. This bulb will sense the suction gas temperature. Hence the pressure within the
bulb will correspond to the saturation pressure of the refrigerant temperature it is
sensing. In case the temperature of the gas leaving the cooling coil is high then the coil
is starving of the refrigerant and the refrigerant in the bulb will sense this temperature
and will increase the pressure on the diaphragm which will actuate the plunger against
the spring pressure and open the valve to allow more refrigerant. The sensing bulb is
attached to the other end of the coil where, due to the coil pressure drop the gas
pressure is not the same as at the liquid inlet end. An external equaliser is used to
equalise the pressure below the diaphragm the same as the suction gas pressure at the
outlet of the evaporator.
AIR-CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
The various components of a vapour compression type refrigeration cycle are
COMPRESSOR
CONDENSOR
THROTTLING DEVICE EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR
A compressor is used to maintain the flow of the refrigerant and to raise the pressure of
the refrigerant so that it can be condensed suitably and reused many times. The basic
types of compressors are reciprocating, centrifugal, rotary screw etc.
A compressor may be hermetic, semi hermetic or open. The drive motor is sealed in a
single housing and access is possible only in the factory in the case of a hermetic
compressor. The windings are cooled by the refrigerant gas and there is no need of shaft
seal. In the case of semi hermetic compressor, service is possible in the field. Open type
compressors use external drive motor and is direct or belt driven and employs shaft
seal, as the drive shaft protrudes out of the compressor.
Single reciprocating compressors are used for a maximum capacity of around 120 TR
above which centrifugal machines are used. A reciprocating compressor has one or
more pistons and cylinder combinations. A centrifugal compressor has a single or
multistage high speed impeller to set up enough centrifugal force within a circular
casing to raise the pressure of the refrigerant. A helical rotary screw compressor
consists oftwo mating helically grooved rotors, a male and a female in a stationary
housing with suction and discharge ports.
CONDENSOR
Condensors remove the superheat and the heat of compression and condenses the high
pressure refrigerant gas in to high pressure liquid. Condensors may be water cooled or
air cooled. Water cooled condenser use cooling towers. Various types of water cooled
condensors are shell and tube, shell and coil, evaporative etc. Air cooled condensors
employ cooling coils and fans.
THROTTLING DEVICE
An expansion valve is used to regulate the flow of liquid refrigerant in to an
evaporator depending on the load. It reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant thus
dividing the high and low side of the system. An expansion valve may be a simple
capillary tube or automatic type with external equaliser.
EVAPORATOR
Evaporator is a heat exchanger and transfers the heat from the substance to be cooled.
The liquid refrigerant is evaporated in an evaporator. An evaporator is dry or flooded.
In a dry evaporator the expansion valve allows only enough liquid refrigerant to be
completely evaporated. In a flooded evaporator the evaporator is full of liquid
refrigerant.
TYPE OF AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS
ROOM AIR-CONDITIONERS
Room air conditioners employ hermetic compressors and are available in capacities
ranging from 1/2 to 2 TR and are suitable for 230 V single phase 50 cycles AC
operation. They are factory assembled and can be directly installed in the room to be
cooled and is ready for operation.
In a split air-conditioner the evaporator unit is kept inside the conditioned area
whereas the condensing unit is kept outside and both the unit's are connected by
refrigerant piping. As the condensing unit comprising the compressor and con dens or
fan is located outside, the noise level inside the conditioned area is reduced.
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONER
Packaged air conditioners are similar to room air-conditioners except that they ate
generally kept in a separate plant room and connected to the conditioned area by
ducting. They employ either air cooled or water cooled condensers. A split
configuration is also possible. They are available in capacities ranging from 5 TR to 15
TR. They use a hermetic or semi hermetic compressor and operates on 415 V AC 3
phase 50 cycles power supply.
CENTRALAIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
The system uses a semi hermetic or open type compressor and the capacity ranges from
5 TR to 120 TR for reciprocating machines and from 100 TR to 1000 TR for
centrifugal machines. They use air cooled or water cooled condensers. A DX plant is
most efficient from the thermodynamic point of view since the heat transfer is directly
between the air and the refrigerant. In case of multistoried buildings it is not possible to
install a single DX plant as there is a restriction on the length of the refrigerant piping.
In such cases chilled water system is used. In a chilled water system chilled water cools
the air. Incase of multistoried buildings a chilled water system with a single air-
conditioning plant, it is possible to air-condition the entire building with multiple air
handling units and fancoil units.
AIR WASHER SYSTEM
This type of system is mainly used for textile mills. Water is sprayed through the
nozzles over which air is passed. Cooled and humidified/dehumidified air passes over
an eliminator bank which prevents water carry over. In textile air-conditioning cooling
coil with fins are not possible to be used as the fluff will choke the coils. Similar
systems are used for air cooling in comfort applications.
ABSORPTION SYSTEM
An absorption system uses waste heat without using a prime mover. As there is lesser
moving parts it is compact and vibration less. In the case of Lithium Bromide
absorption system water is used as the refrigerant.
AIRHANDLING UNITS AND FANS
Fan is an air pump that creates a pressure difference and causes air flow.
Fans are classified into two general groups (a) Centrifugal (b) axial. The basis of
classification draws distinction in the way that air is handled by the fan. In a centrifugal
fan air flows radially C through the impeller. The centrifugal fans are further classified
into forward curved, backward curved, aerofoil and radial fans depending on the
curvature of the blade tip. In an axial fan air enters axially through the impeller. There
are three types of axial fans propeller, tube axial and vane axial.
STATIC, VELOCITY AND TOTAL PRESSURE
Static pressure represents the pressure useful in overcoming the resistance. Static
pressure is the pressure of air in the ducting above the atmospheric pressure. AB it is
lower in value it is measured in terms of a column of water. Static pressure is measured
by keeping an U tube containing water alongside of straight duct with the other end
open to atmosphere and measuring the difference in levels. If the U tube having a bend
is kept in the direction of flow inside the straight duct with the other end open to the
atmosphere the difference in levels is the total pressure. If the open end is also
connected along side the straight duct the difference in levels is the velocity pressure.
Static and velocity pressures are expressed in terms of inches of water gauge. Velocity
pressure is equal to (V/4005)2 whereas V is the velocity in feet per minute.
FAN LAWS
Capacity varies as the speed, Pressure varies as the square of the speed and Horse
power varies as the cube of the speed.
Q/Q2 = N/N2
P/P2 = (N/N2)2
HP/HP2 = (N/N2)3
Speed varies inversely as the fan size
N/N2 = D1
Q is the volume of air flow, N is the speed of the impeller, P is the pressure developed
by the fan either static or total, HP is the horse power input to the fan and D is the fan
wheel diameter.
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
AEROFOIL FANS are highest in efficiency of all centrifugal fans. Ten to sixteen
blades of aerofoil contour are curved away from the direction of rotation. For a given
duty it has the highest speed of centrifugal fans. Highest efficiency occurs at 50 to 60%
of the wide open volume. Power reaches maximum near peak efficiency and becomes
lower, or self limiting towards free delivery. They are used in larger systems.
BACKWARD CURVED fans have an efficiency slightly lesser than the aerofoil fans.
Ten to sixteen blades are curved or inclined away from the direction of rotation. They
are similar to aerofoil fans excepting that the peak efficiency slightly lower. They are of
non over loading type and are quieter. They are used in larger systems.
RADIAL fans have higher pressure characteristics than the aerofoil fans, backward
curved fans. Power rises continually to free delivery. They are not common in HVAC
applications and are basically used in material handling applications.
FORWARD CURVED fan has flatter pressure curve and lower efficiency. Power
rises continually towards free delivery and motor selection has to take this into
account. They run at low speeds. These fans are used for low pressure HVAC
applications.
CLASSES OF CONSTRUCTION
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
CLASS I UPTO 3 3/4" WG TOTAL PRESSURE
CLASS II 3 3/4" TO 6 3/4 " WG TOTAL PRESSURE
CLASS III 6 3/4" TO 123/4" WG TOTAL PRESSURE
CLASS IV MORE THAN 12 3/4" WG TOTAL PRESSURE
AXIAL FANS
PROPELLER fan has low efficiency. It is limited to low pressure applications. It has
high flow rate but very low pressure capabilities. Maximum efficiency is reached near
free delivery. They are used for low pressure high volume applications without a duct
work.
TUBE AXIAL fan is efficient than a propeller fan and is capable of developing more
static pressure than propeller fan. They are of High flow rate medium pressure capable
fans and are used for low and medium pressure ducted HVAC applications.
VANE AXIAL fan has high pressure capability and has good efficiency. They are
medium flow capable fans with high pressure characteristics. They are used in low
medium and high pressure where straight through flow and compact installation is
required.
As such when a duct system is needed in an air conditioning application, a tube axial,
vaneaxial or centrifugal fans are used. When there is no duct system and little
resistance to air flow is envisaged a propeller fan is used. Centrifugal fan is used for
comfort applications as they are quiet and efficient at comparatively high pressures.
FAN ARRANGEMENTS
AMCA has standardised the centrifugal fan drive arrangements referring the relation
of the fan wheel to the bearings and the number of fan inlets. Arrangements 1,2 and 3
are commonly used for air conditioning and arrangement 3 is most widely used as the
bearing location eliminates the necessity for a bearing platform as such the cost and
the space required is minimized. Fans are either directly driven or belt driven.
Fans are to be statically and dynamically balanced. Fans are to be run below the
critical speeds for which they are designed.
BRAKE HORSE POWER
The horse power required at the drive shaft to run the fan at its rated performance is
called the brake horse power. This power input at the shaft must include all frictional
losses in the bearings, losses due to windage and air friction, as well as the actual
power required to compress the air. The air horse power is the energy added to the air
stream to compress and move the air and this will not include the mechanical losses.
As such the mechanical efficiency of the fan will be its output or air horse power
divided by the input or brake horse power. Mechanical efficiency may be expressed as
static or total efficiency.
EFFICIENCY = CFM x PRESSURE (STATIC OR TOTAL IN INCHES) / (6350 x
BHP)
FAN SELECTION
The system requirements which influence the selection of a fan are air quantity, static
pressure, air density if other than the standard, prevailing sound level or the use of the
space served, available space and the nature of the load. When these requirements are
known, the selection of a fan involves choosing the most inexpensive combination of
size and class of construction with an acceptable sound level and efficiency. Outlet
velocity cannot be used as a criterion of selection from the sound point of view. The
best sound characteristics are obtained at maximum efficiency. The concept of specific
speed is useful in describing the
applications of various fan types. Specific speed is a fan performance index based on
the fan speed, capacity and the static pressure. Centrifugal fans reach peak efficiencies
at low speeds, low capacities and high static pressueres. Propeller fans reach high
efficiency at high speeds and capacities and at low static pressures.
SPECIFIC SPEED = RPM X (CFM) / (STATIC PRESSURE)
Variation of the volume of air delivered by a fan is achieved by the following methods:
Variable speed motor control Outlet damper control
Variable inlet guide vane control Fan drive change
Fans may be used in series or parallel if the desired operating conditions are not met by
a single fan. A booster fan is a fan used in series with another fan to step up the static
pressure. When there is extensive ducting a return air fan is used.
AIR HANDLING UNITS
Air handling units may be smaller fan coil units, self contained cabinet units or built up
air handling units. The air handling unit has to be centrally located to have a minimum
ducting and to obtain a minimum first cost. The air handling unit has to be located in an
area where reasonable sound levels can be tolerated. Locating air handling units near
critical areas such as living rooms, broadcasting, recording studios is not
recommended. It has to be borne in mind that correcting an objectionable sound or
vibration is costlier and difficult and the user may not be convinced even after the
sound and vibration is arrested or brought down. The weight of the air handling unit
should be distributed to the load bearing columns to avoid vibration. Equipment rooms
adjacent to the occupied spaces may be acoustically treated.
A cabinet type air handling unit is fabricated out of CRCA or GS sheets and has
different sections such as filter, damper, coil, and fan. The filter section will house
prefilters of metallic or HDPE. The damper section will have face and bypass dampers
which can be manually controlled or automatically controlled by a modutrol motor and
a proportional thermostat. The bypass section will allow a maximum of 30% of the
total air flow. The coil section will house multi row DX or Chilled water coils and will
have an insulated drain pan to collect the condensate water. The fan section will have
forward curved centrifugal blower with drive motor. The fan section will have a
vertical and horizontal discharge. The cabinet type air handling units may be or
horizontal or vertical type. At the outlet a canvas is used for connecting the duct to
isolate the vibration. It is a practice to use isolation dampers when multiple air handling
units are used in parallel operation to prevent bypass of air into idle air handling units.
The fan is belt driven. The air handling unit is mounted on cushy foots or vibration
isolation pads.
A fan coil unit will have a CRCA or GS casing housing filter, chilled water coil aild fan
as an integral unit. The fan is generally suitable for single phase operation and will
have three speed controls.
In a built up system generally the fan is of bigger capacity and is installed separately
and married with filter, damper and coil sections used in cabinet type units.
In a draw through system the fan is located after the cooling coil whereas in a blow
through system the fan is located before the cooling coil.
SELECTION
DIRECT EXPANSION PLANT
From the cooling load calculations, capacity in TR, Apparatus dew point in deg. F and
dehumidified cfm are obtained. Based on the dehumidified cfm an air handling unit is
selected. The static pressure against which the fan has to be operated has also to be
worked out. Generally it will be 40mm without fine filters and 50mm with fine filters.
In case of extensive ducting or with non standard equipments adding to the resistance
the external static pressure against which the fan has to work has to be estimated
methodically. Based on the air quantity and the static pressure the air handling unit can
be selected. The coil face velocity also determines the size of the cooling coil in turn the
air handling unit. The coil face velocity, the speed of the fan and the brake horse power
are obtained. The motor should generally be oversized by 15% over this brake horse
power considering the drive losses and the fluctuations in voltage. For the particular
size of cooling coil and the cooling capacity and apparatus dew point and the number of
rows deep, the refrigerant temperature is arrived. For a DX plant considering the length
of the suction pipe line a pressure drop equivalent to 2 deg. F drop in temperature is
considered. As such the suction temperature at which the compressor has to operate is 2
deg. F less than the refrigerant temperature.
For the selection of the compressor apart from the suction temperature we require the
condensing temperature also. For water cooled condensor over the ambient wet bulb
temperature an approach of 7 deg. F and a range of 8 deg. F and a split of 10 to 12 deg.
F is considered for arriving at the condensing temperature. Based on the suction and
condensing temperatures a compressor is selected. The speed at which the compressor
has to operate should be in line with the manufacturer's recommendations.
Based on the speed the compressor can be direct or belt driven. The motor selection
should be atleast 10% over the bhp for direct driven and 15% for belt driven
compressors.
Considering the capacity in TR and the brake horse power of the compressor the heat
rejected by the compressor is worked out which forms the basis of the condenser
selection. We know the condensing temperature and the temperature at which water
entering the condenser which .helps in working out the loading rate. Based on this
loading rate and the fouling factor a condenser is selected with optimum water velocity
and pressure drop. The water flow through a condenser is generally 4 USGPM of
nominal tons for a temperature rise of 8 deg. F.
With the condenser water cooling requirement and the head required for water
circulation a pump is selected. The pump may be mono bloc or horizontal split casing.
The cooling tower is selected based on the nominal tonnage, water flow, ambient wet
bulb temperature and the temperatures of water entering and leaving the tower. Based
on the make up water quantity make up water tank capacity is designed.

CIDLLED WATER PLANT

For a chilled water plant the compressor is selected first. For an air conditioning plant
generally the temperature of water entering the cooling coil is 45 deg. F as such a
refrigerant temperature of 36 deg. F is assumed. The split between the chilled water
temperature leaving the chiller and the evaporating temperature is 9 deg. F. A suction
line pressure drop equivalent to 1 deg. F is assumed. Based on this suction temperature
and the condensing temperature as discussed earlier the compressor is selected. The
condenser selection is also in the similar lines. For a chiller selection, considering the
difference in water entering and leaving with reference to the refrigerant temperature
the LMTD is found from the tables. From the chiller curves for a particular water
quantity and the LMTD, the loading factor is selected. Based on the capacity and the
loading factor the effective surface area for heat transfer is calculated and the chiller is
selected accordingly. The chilled water flow will be 3 USGPM per nominal tonnage
for a temperature difference of 8 deg. F.
The air handling unit is selected as mentioned above. The cooling coil is selected from
special curves working out the Q index. The cooling tower, pumpset are selected as
usual.
AIR COOLED CONDENSORS
The air cooled condensers operate at a high condensing temperature during peak
summer in comparison to the water cooled condensers. Generally the condensing
temperature is 25 to 30 deg. F above the ambient dry bulb temperature of air.
For a particular HRT, 600 to 1500 cfm of air per nominal tonnage is assumed. Based on
the temperature difference between the condensing and the air entering, MTD is arrived
at by which the velocity for different rows of coils is selected. With the total air
quantity and the face velocity, the face area of the coil is calculated. Fans are selected
based on the total air quantity.
 NOISE AND NOISE CONTROL IN AIRCONDITIONING .
BASICS OF SOUND
Sound is something we hear as a result of vibration of air. These vibrations are
pressure fluctuations which we can measure on a sound level meter. We are familiar
with the idea of a weight vibrating up and down on a spring. Air has mass and like a
spring it has stiffness, that it resists compression. As sound travels through air it is
locally compressed and expanded. The air tries to regain its normal state for instance, a
region of compression will try to expand and in so doing so acts on the next region
compressing it in turn and so the sound wave is propagated.
SOUND GENERATION
Any moving surface will cause disturbance of the air around it. If it vibrates slowly or
if the air can travel easily from the front to the back then all that happens is air
movement. If the surface is large or vibrates at a high frequency or if as in a loud
speaker, the air is prevented from moving to the back of the vibrating cone and the
disturbance moves away from the surface as a sound wave.
If moving air is stopped or changed in direction or if there is expansion of air, then
sound is generated in this process. In an air-conditioning system, the blades of a fan
accelerate and change the direction which results in sound.
FREQUENCY
Frequency is the number of pressure waves per second. If sound travels at a velocity 'c'
then the distance between successive compressions, known as the wavelength ( ) is
related to the period and frequency by:
f = Iff = cI
Humans have an audio range that is they can hear sounds at frequencies from about 20
Hz upto 18 KHz.
AMPLITUDE
The ear responds to sound pressure which we can measure in units of Newtons/sq.mt
now known as pascals. Calculations start with another quantity, sound power, which is
the rate of sound energy output of a source and can be measured in watts. Sound power
is an inherent property of a sound source whereas sound pressure is dependent on
surroundings .
DECIBELS (db)
A measure of ratio of a logarithimic scale. Decibel levels are always expressed in terms
of a reference, just as we give land heights in feet about mean sea level.
SOUND POWER LEVEL
Sound power is the output of a source.
SWL = 10 log10 CWfW)
where W = sound power in watts
W. = reference sound power = 10.12 watts.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
What we measure is sound pressure and it depends on factors such as distance and
sound absorption.
SPL = 10 log10 p21P.2
= 20 log10 PIP.
Where P is the sound pressure in Pa (N/sq.mt)
P is the reference pressure = 2 x 10.s Pa .
DECIBEL ARITHMETIC
Decibels being a logarithmic scale are handled differently from more usual units. If we
have two identical sources of known sound power level, 100 dB, what is the sound
power level of both sources put together?
DECIBEL ADDITION
DIFFERENCE ADD TO HIGHER
0 OR 1 3
2 OR 3 2
4 TO 9 2
10 OR MORE 0
DECIBEL SUBTRACTION
(SOURCE + BACKGROUND) - BACKGROUND
DIFFERENCE SUBTRACT FROM TOTAL
10 + 0
6 to 9 1
4 to 5 2
3 3
2 4 OR 5
SOUND LEVEL METERS
Devices to measure sound pressure in decibels, calibrated to a standard reference level.
Three scales, A, B, C are used corresponding roughly to the way the ear weighs sound
of different frequencies at the levels of under 55 db (A), 55-85 db (B) and 85 db or
more (C). Sound meter comprises of a microphone, which converts pressure to an
electrical signal and passes it through amplifiers and attenuators to the meter.
NOISE CRITERIA
No room is absolutely quiet. One could not stand to live in it. A certain amount of
sound is necessary. What noise may be added to the room by the air-conditioning and
ventilation system is determined by the use the room is put to. A conference room has
a lower noise level than a restaurant.
People are not bothered more by intermittent sounds than by continuous sounds and by
high pitches than low pitches. Therefore, it is frequently advisable to raise the noise
level in a room by a continuous noise of the proper frequency spectrum, since this
masks out the intermittent sounds of talking, coughing etc., which annoy the people.
NOISE CONTROL
The usual steps in the solution of any noise problem in order are:
1. Reduce the original source of the noise
2. Enclose within barriers
3. Absorb it
With air-conditioning and ventilating equipments, the original source of noise is
affected by factors as type, size, power, speed, weight and vibration isolation. A larger
low speed fan may be quieter than a small, high speed one. Using canvas, ant vibration
mounts on the floor may prevent transmission of vibration into a structure.
Installing the fan in a separate room whose floors, walls, ceiling and doors having good
sound insulating qualities, tends to contain the noise within the room. If the noise goes
directly through thin sheet metal duct, walls to cause annoyance, the duct can be
enclosed in an additional casing of fibrous insulation to keep the noise in the duct.
The fan room can be lined with sound absorbing material. This keeps the noise down
by preventing excessive reverberation between hard surfaces. The ducts can be lined
with a sound absorbing material or coupled with sound attenuators in a special
construction. This reduces the loudness in travelling along the duct. The receiving
room may have an acoustical ceiling and a carpet. These absorb the sound and reduce
the loudness in the office.
AIRBORNE SOUND THANSMISSION
When mechanical equipment rooms containing fans, pumps, compressors or other
noisy air conditioning equipments are located adjoining the critical areas such as
bedrooms, conference rooms, sound recording theatres, a very severe problem arises.
Under such circumstances, construction of sound barrier separating the two must be of
necessity. It takes up a great deal of space, be very heavy, be completely airtight from
floor) slab above and in all probabilities, it must be quite expensive. For these reasons
and the very important consideration that a small mistake in the design of the partition,
construction of the partition or vibration isolation of the equipment may result in
something less than the estimated degree of isolation; it is exceedingly advisable to
avoid placing mechanical equipment adjacent to very critical areas.
AIRBORNE NOISE THROUGH DUCTS
Noise output from a fan is maximum at the fan discharge and almost equally as loud as
the fan intake. This and the fact that acoustically untreated ducts act like speaking tubes
or as highly efficient airborne sound transmitters, makes transmission of fan noise
through duct work a major problem. The severity of the problem increases as the fan
horse power increases. In the past, the material most frequently used to reduce or
attenuate fan noise transmission through duct works was duct lining. Nowadays sound
attenuators are used in special applications. The design of the sound attenuator should
provide practically negligible pressure drop through it. Middle and high frequency
noise can be generated at grilles, diffusers and- other orifices; low and middle
frequency noise is generated at take-offs, elbows, etc. Most grille and diffuser
manufacturers furnish noise output data with their literature giving noise output as
related to the velocity of air through the open area of the grille and the pressure drop
across the grille.
CONDENSER AND CIDLLED WATER PIPING
In addition to the necessity of isolating vibrating piping from the structure to avoid
structural transmission of noise from the piping, piping can also be an airborne source
of noise. Pipelines installed horizontally above suspended ceilings will frequently
generate and transmit noise in excess of criteria to critical spaces below when the
suspended ceiling is transparent to sound as are most acoustical tile ceilings. The
solution to this problem is usually to substitute a suspended plaster ceiling for the
acoustical tile ceiling and if necessary, cement the acoustical tile to the underside of
the plaster or to box the piping with wire lath and plaster or equivalent materials.
COOLING TOWER AIR COOLED CONDENSER NOISE
Major source of cooling tower fan noise are fan, water, motor, speed reducing
gears/belts and external sources.
Sound level produced by a given type of cooling tower is primarily a function of total
horse power of the fans. Although for a given duty centrifugal fan requires more
horsepower than the axial fans, it is found that for a given specific duty, the centrifugal
fan despite its higher horsepower is quieter than the axial flow induced draft cooling
tower.
Air borne water noise will ordinarily be a factor only in the high frequency end of the
spectrum since its level in the lower frequencies is usually below that of the cooling
tower fan.
Noise from belt or gear drives is not ordinarily significant unless they are misaligned
or damaged. The drives may be vibration generators and should be isolated with the
fan and motor.
In the case of induced draft cooling towers, higher intensity sound, especially at the
blade passage will be radiated from the fan discharge side of the tower, than from
either the louvered or encased sides. More sound will be radiated from sides containing
louvered openings than from those that are completely encased. It is desirable to
arrange the fan discharge so that it is not overlooked by windows or similar occupied
spaces and if possible place the encased tower sides in a position where sound criteria
are most critical.
Air cooled condensers circulate a larger quantity of air per ton than cooling towers.
Thus it can be expected that for a given cooling capacity, these fans will be noisy than
those of cooling towers. Air cooled condensers are connected to the compressors by
refrigerant pipelines. The high intensity sound in the third octave band was identified
as being produced by pulsations being carried along the refrigeration pipe with the hot
gas and radiating from the condenser. Mufflers are used for this purpose.
Neglect of acoustical problems in mechanical systems can result in a completely
unsatisfactory acoustical environment. Corrective measures taken after a building has
been completed are rarely fully satisfactory and are always more expensive than if the
design had been incorporated earlier.
VIBRATION
The isolation efficiency is 1- 1/(1-fdlfn)2. fd is the disturbing frequency and should be
taken as the rotation speed of the equipment or the driver whichever is lower. The
natural frequency is a function of the static deflection of the resilient supports.
Cork, rubber, steel springs and cushy foots are the most frequently used isolating
materials in air-conditioning applications. The primary choice of vibration isolation
material depends upon the amount of static deflection required. Cork has the lower
deflection and the steel springs has the highest deflection.
 APPLICATIONS

OFFICE AIR CONDITIONING

HOTEL AIR CONDITIONING
INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
PROCESS COOLING
HOSPITAL AIR CONDITIONING
TEXTILE AIR CONDITIONING
LOW HUMIDITY APPLICATIONS

OFFICE AIR CONDITIONING

The productivity of the employees working in an AC environment was 6.5% to 13.5%
higher than that working in a non AC area. Absenteeism in non AC areas was 2.5%
more than the AC area. - This was the study made by General Services Administration
of the United States carried out in the year 1959.
It is very important to provide a comfortable environment to employees. The business
transaction nowadays are getting complicated, competitive as such the need for
providing a comfortable environment for the employees is of paramount importance.
The creation of a comfortable inside design conditions is achieved by a properly
designed air conditioning system.
ASHRAE has conducted several tests to arrive at the most comfortable conditions. A
majority of people felt comfortable under the following conditions:
Dry bulb temperature : 75 to 77 Deg. F
Relative Humidity : 50 to 60%
Air velocity : 15 to 20 fpm.
For small offices window/split units can be' used. For medium sized offices packaged
units are used. For bigger offices DX type central plants for used. In the case of
multistoried offices it is the practice to use chilled water systems.
It is desired to have a separate air conditioning system for the computer room as this is
likely to operate after office hours also during which time it is not required to run the
entire system. A proper diversity in the loads is to be considered. The routing of ducts
and the location of the equipments/ equipment room has to be discussed thoroughly
with the owners/architects/consultants. The design of ducting and the location of air
terminals should eliminate the problem of cross talk. The acoustic insulation of the
ducting and the plant room has to be done properly to prevent the transmission of noise
into the conditioned area.
Various check figures are established which may be used only for cross checking the
heat load calculations.
HOTEL AIR CONDITIONING
People who stay at hotels tend to be more discriminating in their tastes than they would
be at home. Thus hotel Industry will be much more demanding on AC&R services. The
hotel business is very competitive and the space is always at premium. The equipment
selected should be such that it occupies little space.
Hotels have different public areas with varying hours of operation. The lobby will
operate round the clock, the Banquet halls may operate for 6 hours, the meeting hall
may operate for 12 hours, the coffee shop may operate for 24 hours, the restaurant may
operate for 15 hours and the office may operate for 8 hours etc. The guest rooms have
occupancy during the nights and will be partially occupied during the day. The nature
of the loads and periods of operation for the different zones are such that no two zones
can be combined and conditioned as a common unit. It is therefore essential that each
zone has its own air distribution system. Guest rooms will have its own fan coil units
with treated fresh air supply and exhaust for the toilet. There will be separate exhaust
system for the kitchen, boiler room, generator room, etc.
A proper diversity factor has to be arrived at after discussions with the concerned for a
proper sizing of the air conditioning system. It is preferable to use an absorption system
for a hotel as steam is available and considering the fluctuations in the air conditioning
load.
The guest rooms should have very low noise levels. Precautions should be taken to
avoid cross talk and cross contaminations. The guest rooms should be supplied with a
treated fresh air of around 50 cfm. Each room should have its own room thermostat
with speed selector switch for the fan.
The kitchen should have a supply system with minimum 25 air changes per hour and
the exhaust system has to remove 10 to 15% more air so that the kitchen smell will not
enter the public areas.
Since the load is highly latent this will call for a lower ADP and as such lower
dehumidified air quantity. More air is required to be bypassed around the cooling coils
to prevent cold blast of air hitting the occupants and to maintain minimum required air
motion.
Kitchen, Laundry, Guest room toilets, public area toilets, Locker/store rooms, boiler
room, generator room, plant room, swimming pool water treatment plant, basement
service area and service floor will have ventilation system whereas the guest rooms
including corridors, lobby and front office, Restaurants, coffee shop, Banquet halls,
Bars, Discotheque halls, Gymnasiums, Beauty parlours/health clubs, shopping arcade,
telephone exchange/computer room and lift machine rooms are air conditioned.
The ducting particularly for fresh air and exhaust for the guest rooms has to be done
with utmost care to have lesser leak as the length of this ducting is extensive compared
to the air quantity being handled. It is a must to use reverse return piping system for
easy water balancing. Isolation valves at essential locations are to be provided for
isolating a particular zone during maintenance as shut down of the entire system is not
possible. Drain connection has to be done with utmost in guest rooms otherwise it will
give perennial problem of water leakage.
Acoustic treatment of the ducts and the equipment rooms is important. All insulation
material used should be flame proof. There should not be exchange of smell for one
area to another and the air distribution system should be designed properly as the
ducting is extensive particularly for public areas.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
Unlike comfort applications industrial applications' require stringent inside design dry
bulb temperature and relative humidity conditions. They will require filtration of air
atleast down to five microns. The System should have proper standby as the complete
failure of AC is detrimental to the process/ manufacture. Further the air conditioning
system will operate round the clock. The equipment machine load will be a
considerable chunk in the cooling load which is mostly sensible. As such this will call
for higher dehumidified cfm. There may l1eload concentration in a particular zone
which should receive more air quantity. As more air quantity has to be distributed
properly the air distribution system has to be designed to avoid drafts. It is important to
maintain Relative Humidity also along with the temperature. As such it may be
required to use reheaters and steam humidifiers. The equipment load may fluctuate
there by calling for a system with capacity control facility. The inside conditions will
vary from application to application. As mentioned earlier as the equipment load will
constitute the major portion of the cooling load it is important to consider a correct
diversity on the equipment load for an economical system.
PROCESS COOLING
Process cooling involves cooling of a fluid for the process requirements. A process
cooling system has a primary & secondary flow. The primary circuit is the production
loop consisting of the chiller package and primary pump. The production loop is to
provide a supply of chilled water at a constant temperature irrespective of the process
load conditions. The secondary circuit or the distribution loop consists of a pumping
system with multiple pumps and number of process equipments. The primary and
secondary circuit is connected by a mixing tank having hot well and cold well
compartments. The primary pump draws water from the hot well pumps into the chiller
and supplies cold water to the cold well. The cold water from the cold well is drawn by
the secondary pump and pumped into the process and back to the hot well. There may
be several pumps of different sizes for the process circulation. Further different process
may require different inlet temperatures. Under this circumstances it is required to use
three way mixing valves controlled by thermostats. The primary pump is normally
sized for handling slightly more flow rate than the secondary pumps. This ensures that
the cold solution compartment will always be full and there will be continuous
overflow back to the hot well. The mixing tank has to be sized in such a way that
whenever the entire system is stopped, it should be capable of holding all the drain
back. The make up water connection has to be in a separate compartment as there will
be turbulence in the hot and cold well. Depending upon the nature of the process, the
flow rate of water in circulation through the -process may vary from 0 to 100% as such
there should be by pass arrangement. A schematic sketch showing the process cooling
system is enclosed.
HOSPITAL AIR CONDITIONING
Today hospitals are offering very high standards in treatment and diagnostic facilities.
As such hospital air conditioning plays a more important role than just the promotion
of comfort. Dry conditions constitute a hazard of explosion and may cause secondary
infection. As such an RH of 55 to 60% is the range for a hospital application. The air
distribution and filtration system should remove bacteria from the room. The ducts for
critical areas should be of aluminum only. Acoustic lining is not recommended as this
is likely to be carried over to the conditioned area or may choke the filers. As such the
duct has to be designed with low velocities to avoid the noise problems. Even though
it is preferred to have 100% fresh air for operation theatres it is acceptable to have a
fresh air of 5 air changes per hour while the room air circulation rate is minimum 25
air changes per hour. The air flow pattern should not cause any turbulence. The
distribution of air should be so designed that there is air movement from clean to less
clean areas. Unlike a hotel application diversity should not be applied to the load since
this being a critical application. The equipments should be totally reliable and should
have sufficient standby. HEPA filters are to be installed in the terminals in such a
manner that they do not permit any leakage of air around the sides. Filter gaskets
should be fixed properly for better sealing. It is advisable to have separate ducts for
supply and return air to have a closed path and thereby preventing contamination. The
thermal insulation of the ducts should not shred dust. Sterility of rooms are to be taken
care when systems are designed for intensive care units. This will ensure speedy
recovery of patients. In addition to providing an environment which is comfortable
and reasonably free from dust and odour, the engineer is confronted with an additional
consideration in air quality in hospital environment design, that of air borne bacterial
contaminants. Properly designed air systems using high efficiency air filters can
deliver air equally free from bacterial contaminants. It is advisable to use a central
chilled water system with independent air handling units or independent packaged
units with proper stand by. The fan should have sufficient static pressure to overcome
the static pressure posed by the HEPA filters.
LOW HUMIDITY APPLICATIONS
Low humidity has to be maintained in certain industrial applications where the control
of moisture content in the area to be conditioned is crucial such as pharmaceutical,
printing, seed storage, plastic manufacturing, leather manufacturing, engraving and
etching, fertilizer storage etc.,. The process of pulling down the relative humidity and
maintaining the relative humidity of a given space at a low level can be accomplished
by taking recourse to any of the following methods:
1. Refrigeration plant with a conventional cooling coil.
2. Dehumidification by brine spray.
3. Chemical dehumidification with subsequent cooling of dry air.
In the first method both cooling and dehumidification of the air is done by maintaining
a low temperature at the cooling coil. The refrigerant temperature is not allowed to
drop below o deg. C in order to avoid freezing of the moisture on the cooling coil. As
such for applications which do not require supply air at temperatures less than 5 deg. C
this type of refrigeration plant can be used.
In the brine spray process, air is blown across a cooling coil on which suitable brine is
being sprayed at the same time. The moisture which condenses from the air gets
absorbed by the brine and thereby does not freeze on the cooling coil. As a result the
brine gets diluted. The brine solution is maintained at a fixed concentration by addition
of salts. Otherwise the brine itself will freeze.
The third method is to use a chemical dehumidifier using silica gel. Silica gel is
packed in beds which will be in uniform rotation. Air passes over the beds and it is
dehumidified. The moisture absorbed by the gel is removed during the activation
stage. The process rises the temperature of the dehumidified air which is cooled by a
refrigeration process.
The schematics of the process is explained by a sketch.
Moisture permeation has to be estimated carefully. The inner surface of the room
wherein low humidity to be maintained has to be treated with rubber base paint and
aluminium cladding to prevent moisture permeability. When there exists a moisture
difference of more than 100 grains/lb between outside and inside there is appreciable
moisture permeation from the outside air into the conditioned area through the porous
structure of the walls and roof of the conditioned area.
TEXTILE AIR CONDITIONING
A textile mill has blow room, preparatory section, spinning, winding and weaving
sections. Humidification or air conditioning system is required for giving strength to
the fibre, reduce static electricity, improve fibre spinnability, prevent yarn breakage,
improve the quality of the fibres, improve the yield, minimise the fluff flying in the
area and to improve the productivity by maintaining a fairly comfortable atmosphere
for the workers.
Unlike air-conditioning, a textile mill requires to maintain mainly humidity using the
evaporative cooling system. As such the inside dry bulb temperature depends on the
outside wet bulb temperature for a particular relative humidity inside the conditioned
area. The textile mills have high machinery load and a proper diversity factor has to be
worked out. Carding will call for an RH of 50 to 55% , spinning preparatory will
require 55% RH, spinning and winding will require 60% , weaving preparatory will
require 65% whereas the weaving dept will call for an RH of 80% minimum.

The humidification plant will have distribution plates which are designed to give proper
direction and distribution of air over the spray banks. The spray banks may be of two
bank or three banks opposed type with spray nozzles. The cooled and humidified air
carrying moisture passes over eliminators which prevents moisture carry over into the
department. It is advisable to have a blow through system to prevent corrosion of the
fans. The air changes maintained in the departments will be very high. Return is
collected in the floor trenches and taken to the humidification plant or exhausted by
return air/exhaust fans. The fans are of axial type with variable pitch blades.
The filters are v shaped brass or nylon mesh type. A face velocity of around 550 fpm is
maintained across the air washer.
There are semi central systems and mini humidifiers like the packaged air conditioners
and window air conditioners used for air conditioning in humidification plants.
The modern humidification plant uses rotary air filters, high efficiency fans, non clog
PVC nozzles, PVC distribution and eliminator plates and automatic controls.