National University Of Science And Technology

Department Of Civil And Water Engineering

Fluid Mechanics – TCW 2101

Lecture notes: Explanation of the basic concepts - refer to textbooks listed in reference section for
detailed explanations (these notes do not replace textbooks). Worked examples have not been
included and will be covered in class

1.0 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS/FLUID PROPERTIES

Units: The internationally agreed version of the metric system (SI) of units is the MKS (Metre-
Kilogramme-Second). Different countries may use different terminology as well as different units
for the same thing - even the same name for different things e.g. an American pint is 4/5 of a British
pint!
The SI System of units: The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may
be described. For convenience secondary units are used in general practice that are made from
combinations of these primary units.
Primary Units: The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:

Quantity SI Unit Dimension

length metre, m L
mass kilogram, kg M
time second, s T
temperature Kelvin, K 
current ampere, A I
luminosity candela Cd

The first 4 units are of particular interest in this course. All physical quantities can be described by a
set of 3 primary units, mass (kg-M), length (m-L) and time (s-T). The term dimension tells what the
unit represents. (The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, but there are other ways
of writing dimensions)
Secondary Units: There are many secondary units all obtained from combination of the above
primary units. Those most used are shown in the table below:
Quantity SI Unit Dimension
velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1
acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2
N
force
kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
Joule J
energy (or work) N m,
kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
kg m2/s2
Watt W
power N m/s Nms-1
ML2T-3
kg m2/s3 kg m2s-3

1
 Pascal P,
pressure ( or stress) N/m2, Nm-2
ML-1T-2
kg/m/s2 kg m-1s-2
density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3
N/m3
specific weight
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2
a ratio 1
relative density
no units no dimension
N s/m2 N sm-2
viscosity
kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
N/m Nm-1
surface tension
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2

In calculations all parameters should be in SI units or have to be converted to appropriate SI unit.

Fluid Properties: What is fluid mechanics?

As its name suggests it is the branch of applied mechanics concerned with the statics and dynamics
of fluids - both liquids and gases. The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based on the
fundamental laws of mechanics, which relate continuity of mass and energy with force and
momentum together with the familiar solid mechanics properties (Newton’s laws).
There are two aspects of fluid mechanics which make it different to solid mechanics: The nature of a
fluid is much different to that of a solid; In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of
fluid without a beginning or end. In solids we only consider individual elements ie elements
in know mass.
Fluids (gases and liquids): in contrast to solids they lack the ability to resist deformation. Because a
fluid cannot resist the deformation force, it deforms under the action of the force. Its shape will
change continuously as long as the force is applied. A solid can resist a deformation force while at
rest, this force may cause some displacement but the solid does not continue to move indefinitely.
Th

Table 1: Comparison of solids vs fluids

Property Fluid Solid
shape Unable to retain unsupported Definite unsupported shape
shape-takes shape of container
Lacks ability to offer
permanent resistance to a
deforming force

Table 2: Comparison of liquids vs gases

Property Gas Liquid
Fills the container Takes shape of container
Readily compressible Only slightly compressible

2
Liquids vs. Gases: Although liquids and gasses behave in much the same way and share many
similar characteristics, they also possess distinct characteristics of their own. Specifically
 A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as being incompressible.
A gas is easily to compress and usually treated as such - it changes volume with pressure.
 A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and will occupy the container it is in and
form a free surface (if the container is of a larger volume).
A gas has no fixed volume, it changes volume to expand to fill the containing vessel. It will
completely fill the vessel so no free surface is formed.
The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a surface. Referring to the
figure below, we see the force F acting tangentially on a rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC.
This is a shearing force and produces the (dashed lined) rhombus element A'B'DC. Shearing force,
F, acting on a fluid element. We can then say:
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected to shearing forces.
and conversely this definition implies the very important point that: If a fluid is at rest there are no
shearing forces acting. All forces must be perpendicular to the planes which they are acting. When a
fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to one
another. When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid velocity is the same
at every point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.
Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing. At the pipe wall the velocity of the water will
be zero. The velocity will increase as we move toward the centre of the pipe. This change in velocity
across the direction of flow is known as velocity profile and shown graphically in the figure below:

Velocity profile in a pipe.

Because particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different velocities there are shear
forces in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are normally present in a moving fluid. On the other
hand, if a fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling with the same
velocity, the velocity profile would look something like this:

Velocity profile in uniform flow

and there will be no shear forces present as all particles have zero relative velocity. In practice we
are concerned with flow past solid boundaries; aeroplanes, cars, pipe walls, river channels etc. and
shear forces will be present.
Newton's Law of Viscosity: How can we make use of these observations? We can start by
considering a 3d rectangular element of fluid, like that in the figure below.

3
 Fluid element under a shear force
The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This area is given by .

We can thus calculate the shear stress which is equal to force per unit area i.e.
The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size of the angle  and is know
as shear strain. In a solid shear strain, , is constant for a fixed shear stress .
In a fluid  increases for as long as  is applied - the fluid flows. It has been found xperimentally
that the rate of shear stress (shear stress per unit time, /time) is directly proportional to the shear
stress. If the particle at point E (in the above figure) moves under the shear stress to point E' and it
takes time t to get there, it has moved the distance x. For small deformations we can write shear

strain ,

where is the velocity of the particle at E. Using the experimental result that shear stress is
proportional to rate of shear strain then

. The term is the change in velocity with y, or the velocity gradient, and

may be written in the differential form . The constant of proportionality is known as the

dynamic viscosity, , of the fluid, giving . This is known as Newton's law of

For a solid the strain is a function of the applied stress (providing that the elastic limit has not been
reached). For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress. The strain in a solid is
independent of the time over which the force is applied and (if the elastic limit is not reached) the
deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow for as long as the force
is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is removed. It is usually quite simple

4
to classify substances as either solid or liquid. Some substances, however, (e.g. pitch or glass)
appear solid under their own weight. Pitch will, although appearing solid at room temperature,
deform and spread out over days - rather than the fraction of a second it would take water.
Newtonian / Non-Newtonian Fluids: Even among fluids which are accepted as fluids there can be
wide differences in behaviour under stress. Fluids obeying Newton's law where the value of  is
constant are known as Newtonian fluids. If  is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on
velocity gradient. This is true for most common fluids. Fluids in which the value of  is not constant
are known as non-Newtonian fluids. There are several categories of these, and they are outlined
briefly below. These categories are based on the relationship between shear stress and the velocity
gradient (rate of shear strain) in the fluid. These relationships can be seen in the graph below for
several categories

Shear stress vs. Rate of shear strain u/y

Each of these lines can be represented by the equation , , where A, B and n are
constants. For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B =  and n = 1. Below are brief description of the physical
properties of the several categories:
 Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences.
 Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress must be achieved. With
this classification n = 1. An example is sewage sludge.
 Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity decreases with rate of
shear, e.g. colloidial substances like clay, milk and cement.
 Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. quicksand.
 Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of time shear force is applied e.g.
thixotropic jelly paints.
 Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of time shear force is applied
 Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large change in shear
they behave like plastic.
 There is also one more - which is not real, it does not exist - known as the ideal fluid. This is
a fluid which is assumed to have no viscosity. This is a useful concept when theoretical
solutions are being considered - it does help achieve some practically useful solutions.
Causes of Viscosity in Fluids
Viscosity in Gasses: The molecules of gasses are only weakly kept in position by molecular
cohesion (as they are so far apart). As adjacent layers move by each other there is a continuous
exchange of molecules. Molecules of a slower layer move to faster layers causing a drag, while
molecules moving the other way exert an acceleration force. Mathematical considerations of this

5
momentum exchange can lead to Newton law of viscosity. If temperature of a gas increases the
momentum exchange between layers will increase thus increasing viscosity. Viscosity will also
change with pressure - but under normal conditions this change is negligible in gasses.
Viscosity in Liquids:There is some molecular interchange between adjacent layers in liquids - but
as the molecules are so much closer than in gasses the cohesive forces hold the molecules in place
much more rigidly. This cohesion plays an important roll in the viscosity of liquids. Increasing the
temperature of a fluid reduces the cohesive forces and increases the molecular interchange.
Reducing cohesive forces reduces shear stress, while increasing molecular interchange increases
shear stress. Because of this complex interrelation the effect of temperature on viscosity has
something of the form:

where is the viscosity at temperature TC, and is the viscosity at temperature 0C. A and B are
constants for a particular fluid. High pressure can also change the viscosity of a liquid. As pressure
increases the relative movement of molecules requires more energy hence viscosity increases.
Density: The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the
substance. It can be expressed in three different ways.
Mass Density : Mass Density, , is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume. Units:
Kilograms per cubic metre, (or ) ,Dimensions: , Typical values: Water = 1000
, Mercury = 13546 , Air = 1.23 , Paraffin Oil = 800 . (at pressure =1.013
and Temperature = 288.15 K.)
Specific Weight: Specific Weight , (sometimes , and sometimes known as specific gravity) is
defined as the weight per unit volume. or The force exerted by gravity, g, upon a unit volume of the
substance. The Relationship between g and can be determined by Newton's 2nd Law, since
weight per unit volume = mass per unit volume g, , Units: Newton's per cubic metre,
(or ) , Dimensions: . Typical values: Water =9814 , Mercury = 132943
, Air =12.07 , Paraffin Oil =7851
Relative Density: Relative Density, , is defined as the ratio of mass density of a substance to
some standard mass density. For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the maximum mass
density for water (which occurs at c) at atmospheric pressure.

Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number. Dimensions: 1. Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury =
13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
Viscosity: Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between
molecules, which offers resistance to sheer deformation. Different fluids deform at different rates
under the same shear stress. Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup, deforms more slowly than
fluid with a low viscosity such as water. All fluids are viscous, "Newtonian Fluids" obey the linear

relationship given by Newton's law of viscosity. , where is the shear stress, Units

; , Dimensions . is the velocity gradient or rate of shear strain, and has

Units: , Dimensions , is the "coefficient of dynamic viscosity" - see below.

6
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity: The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, , is defined as the
shear force, per unit area, (or shear stress ), required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity
past another layer a unit distance away.

, Units: Newton seconds per square

metre, or Kilograms per meter per second, . (Although note that is often
expressed in Poise, P, where 10 P = 1 .)
Typical values: Water =1.14 , Air =1.78 , Mercury =1.552
, Paraffin Oil =1.9 .

Kinematic Viscosity: , is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.

Units: square metres per second, , (Although note that  is often expressed in Stokes, St,
where St = 1 .) , Dimensions: . Typical values: Water =1.14 , Air
=1.46 , Mercury =1.145 , Paraffin Oil =2.375 .

Vapor Pressure: The pressure at which a liquid will boil is called its vapor pressure. This pressure
is a function of temperature (vapor pressure increases with temperature). In this context we usually
think about the temperature at which boiling occurs. For example, water boils at 100oC at sea-level
atmospheric pressure (1 atm abs). However, in terms of vapor pressure, we can say that by
increasing the temperature of water at sea level to 100 oC, we increase the vapor pressure to the
point at which it is equal to the atmospheric pressure (1 atm abs), so that boiling occurs. It is easy to
visualize that boiling can also occur in water at temperatures much below 100oC if the pressure in
the water is reduced to its vapor pressure. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 10oC is 0.01
atm. Therefore, if the pressure within water at that temperature is reduced to that value, the water
boils. Such boiling often occurs in flowing liquids, such as on the suction side of a pump. When
such boiling does occur in the flowing liquids, vapor bubbles start growing in local regions of very
low pressre and then collapse in regions of high downstream pressure. This phenomenon is called as
cavitation
Compressibility and the Bulk modulus: All materials, whether solids, liquids or gases, are
compressible, i.e. the volume V of a given mass will be reduced to V - V when a force is exerted
uniformly all over its surface. If the force per unit area of surface increases from p to p + p, the
relationship between change of pressure and change of volume depends on the bulk modulus of the
material.
Bulk modulus (K) = (change in pressure) / (volumetric strain)
Volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the original volume. Therefore,
(change in volume) / (original volume) = (change in pressure) / (bulk modulus)
i.e., -V/V = p/K, Negative sign for V indicates the volume decreases as pressure increases. In
the limit, as p tends to 0,
K = -V dp/dV  1, Considering unit mass of substance, V = 1/  2
Differentiating, Vd + dV = 0, dV = - (V/)d 3, putting the value of dV from equn.3 to
equn.1,
K = - V dp / (-(V/)d), i.e. K = dp/d
The concept of the bulk modulus is mainly applied to liquids, since for gases the compressibility is
so great that the value of K is not a constant.

7
 The relationship between pressure and mass density is
more conveniently found from the characteristic
equation of gas.
For liquids, the changes in pressure occurring in many
fluid mechanics problems are not sufficiently great to
cause appreciable changes in density. It is therefore
usual to ignore such changes and consider liquids as
incompressible.
Gases may also be treated as incompressible if the
pressure changes are very small, but usually
compressibility cannot be ignored. In general,
compressibility becomes important when the velocity of
the fluid exceeds about one-fifth of the velocity of a
pressure wave (velocity of sound) in the fluid.
Surface Tension: A molecule I in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in
all directions and the vector sum of these forces is zero. But a molecule S at the
surface of a liquid is acted by a net inward cohesive force that is perpendicular to the
surface. Hence it requires work to move molecules to the surface against this opposing force, and
surface molecules have more energy than interior ones.
The surface tension ( sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to bring enough molecules
from inside the liquid to the surface to form one new unit area of that surface (J/m2 = N/m).
Historically surface tensions have been reported in handbooks in dynes per centimeter (1 dyn/cm =
0.001 N/m).
Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic
membrane. There is a natural tendency for liquids to minimize their surface area. For this reason,
drops of liquid tend to take a spherical shape in order to minimize surface area. For such a small
droplet, surface tension will cause an increase of internal pressure p in order to balance the surface
force.
We will find the amount  (p = p - poutside) by which the pressure inside a liquid droplet of radius r,
exceeds the pressure of the surrounding vapor/air by making force balances on a hemispherical drop.
Observe that the internal pressure p is trying to blow apart the two hemispheres, whereas the surface
tension  is trying to pull them together. Therefore, p r2 = 2r
i.e. p = 2/r
Similar force balances can be made for cylindrical liquid jet.
p 2r= 2
i.e. p = /r
Similar treatment can be made for a soap bubble which is having two free surfaces. p r2 = 2 x
2r
i.e. p = 4/r
Surface tension generally appears only in situations involving either free surfaces (liquid/gas or
liquid/solid boundaries) or interfaces (liquid/liquid boundaries); in the latter case, it is usually called
the interfacial tension.
Representative values for the surface tensions of liquids at 20oC, in contact either with air or
their vapor (there is usually little difference between the two), are given in
Table.
Surface Tension
Liquid
 dyne/cm

8
Benzene 23.70

Benzene 28.85

Ethanol 22.75

Glycerol 63.40

Mercury 435.50

Methanol 22.61

n-Octane 21.78

Water 72.75

Capillarity:
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative
magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing
vessel.
Liquids rise in tubes if they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion >
adhesion).

2.0 FLUID STATICS

Static pressure relationships: Recall that

 a static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and that

9
  any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at right angles to the boundary.

Pressure force normal to the boundary

Note that this statement is also true for curved surfaces, in this case the force acting at any point is
normal to the surface at that point. The statement is also true for any imaginary plane in a static
fluid. We use this fact in our analysis by considering elements of fluid bounded by imaginary planes.
We also know that:
 For an element of fluid at rest, the element will be in equilibrium - the sum of the
components of forces in any direction will be zero.
 The sum of the moments of forces on the element about any point must also be zero.
It is common to test equilibrium by resolving forces along three mutually perpendicular axes and
also by taking moments in three mutually perpendicular planes an to equate these to zero.
Pressure: a fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. Since these
boundaries may be large and the force may differ from place to place it is convenient to work
in terms of pressure, p, which is the force per unit area.
If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the pressure is said to be uniform.

Units: Newton's per square metre, , . (The same unit is also known as a Pascal, Pa,
i.e. 1Pa = 1 ). (Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where
), Dimensions: .
Pascal's Law for Pressure At A Point: (Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions.)
By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which contains a point P,
we can establish a relationship between the three pressures px in the x direction, py in the y direction
and ps in the direction normal to the sloping face.

10
 Triangular prismatic element of fluid
The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force are acting at
right angles to the surfaces .i.e. acts perpendicular to surface ABCD, acts perpendicular to
surface ABFE and acts perpendicular to surface FECD. And, as the fluid is at rest, in
equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero. Summing forces in the x-direction: Force
due to , , Component of force in the x-direction due to ,

( ) , Component of force in x-direction due to , , To be at rest (in equilibrium)

, , Similarly, summing forces in the y-direction. Force due to ,

Component of force due to ,

( ), Component of force due to , , Force due to gravity,

, to be at rest (in equilibrium)

11
The element is small i.e. , and are small, and so is very small and considered
negligible, hence

thus

Considering the prismatic element again, is the pressure on a plane at any angle , the x, y and z
directions could be any orientation. The element is so small that it can be considered a point so the
derived expression . indicates that pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
(The proof may be extended to include the z axis).
Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascal's Law and applies to
fluids at rest.
Variation Of Pressure Vertically In A Fluid Under Gravity:

Vertical elemental cylinder of fluid

In the above figure we can see an element of fluid which is a vertical column of constant cross
sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density . The pressure at the bottom of the
cylinder is at level , and at the top is at level . The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all
the forces in the vertical direction sum to zero. i.e. we have

Taking upward as positive, in equilibrium we have

12
 Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure decreases with increase in height .

Equality Of Pressure At The Same Level In A Static Fluid

Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below, with cross-sectional area A,
in a fluid of density , pressure at the left hand end and pressure at the right hand end.

Horizontal elemental cylinder of fluid

The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the forces acting in the x direction is zero.

Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.

This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two connected tanks which appear
not to have any direct connection, for example consider the tank in the figure below.

Two tanks of different cross-section connected by a pipe

We have shown above that and from the equation for a vertical pressure change we have
and
so

13
This shows that the pressures at the two equal levels, P and Q are the same.
General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid:
Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements of fluids can be
generalised for an element of any orientation.

A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation.

Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the figure above, inclined at an angle to the vertical,
length , cross-sectional area A in a static fluid of mass density . The pressure at the end with
height is and at the end of height is .
The forces acting on the element are

There are also forces from the surrounding fluid acting normal to these sides of the element.
For equilibrium of the element the resultant of forces in any direction is zero.
Resolving the forces in the direction along the central axis gives

Or in the differential form

14
If then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal),so

Confirming that pressure on any horizontal plane is zero.

If then s is in the z direction (vertical) so

Confirming the result

Pressure And Head: In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship , as
shown above. This can be integrated to give , In a liquid with a free surface the
pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface so that z = -h (see the figure below)

Fluid head measurement in a tank.

This gives the pressure: , At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned
with, the pressure is the atmospheric pressure, . So ,As we live
constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything else exists under this pressure, it is
convenient to take atmospheric pressure as the datum. Pressure quoted in this way is known as
gauge pressure i.e. Gauge pressure is

The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum. Pressure measured
above this datum is known as absolute pressure i.e.

Absolute pressure:
As g is (approximately) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating the vertical height of
any fluid of density which is equal to this pressure. [ ]. This vertical height is known as
head of fluid. Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also be given.

Pressure Measurement :
15
Pressure is normally measured by a pressure difference
Vacuum/suction pressure: pressure below that of the atmosphere
Gauge pressure: pressure difference btwn the pressure of the fluid and that of the atmosphere; +ve
if greater than atmosphere and –ve if less than atmsphere
Vacuum pressure: pressure difference of fluid and that of a vacuum or gauge pressure +
atmospheric pressure
There are basically 3 methods of measuring pressure
a. fluid pressure may be applied to a movable diaphragm or piston which is balanced by
weights – pressure = force/diaphragm area
b. fluid pressure is applied to a device which either deflects/alters some other property
which can be mechanically or electricall calibrated and the output calibrated to evaluate
the pressure eg. Bourdon gauge
c. fluid may be balanced by a hydrostatic column of fluid height h and p = ρgh ie use is
made of the simple relation between the height of a column and the pressure at the base
using a barometer or a manometer

The Piezometer Tube Manometer: The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is
attached to the top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be
measured. An example can be seen in the figure below. This simple device is known as a
Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to
atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

A simple piezometer tube manometer

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the liquid height is
convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and pressure changes must be
detectable.

16
The "U"-Tube Manometer: Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be
measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled
with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should
have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be
able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible.

A "U"-Tube manometer
Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,

For the left hand arm

For the right hand arm

As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract giving

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in comparison to the
density of the manometric fluid i.e. ρman >> ρ. In this case the term can be neglected, and the
gauge pressure give by

Measurement Of Pressure Difference Using a "U"-Tube Manometer: If the "U"-tube

manometer is connected to a pressurised vessel at two points the pressure difference between
these two points can be measured.

17
 Pressure difference measurement by the "U"-Tube manometer
If the manometer is arranged as in the figure above, then

Giving the pressure difference

Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and , then the
terms involving can be neglected, so

Advances to the "U" tube manometer: The "U"-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the
change in height of the liquid in both sides must be read. This can be avoided by making the
diameter of one side very large compared to the other. In this case the side with the large area
moves very little when the small area side move considerably more.

18
Assume the manometer is arranged as above to measure the pressure difference of a gas of
(negligible density) and that pressure difference is . If the datum line indicates the level of
the manometric fluid when the pressure difference is zero and the height differences when pressure
is applied is as shown, the volume of liquid transferred from the left side to the right
. And the fall in level of the left side is

We know from the theory of the "U" tube manometer that the height different in the two columns
gives the pressure difference so

Clearly if D is very much larger than d then (d/D)2 is very small so

So only one reading need be taken to measure the pressure difference.

If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the arm provides a convenient way of
obtaining a larger (more easily read) movement of the manometer. The above arrangement with a
tilted arm is shown in the figure below.

19
 Tilted manometer.
The pressure difference is still given by the height change of the manometric fluid but by placing the
scale along the line of the tilted arm and taking this reading large movements will be observed. The
pressure difference is then given by

The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a greater inclination of the manometer
arm, alternatively the density of the manometric fluid may be changed.

Choice Of Manometer: Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no burrs must
be present around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure variations to
affect the measurement. Some disadvantages of manometers:
 Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no use at all for
fluctuating pressures;
 For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken simultaneously to get the h
value. This may be avoided by using a tube with a much larger cross-sectional area on one
side of the manometer than the other;
 It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different manometric fluid may
be required - alternatively a sloping manometer may be employed; It cannot be used for very
large pressures unless several manometers are connected in series;
 For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between temperature and  must be
known;
Some advantages of manometers:
 They are very simple.
 No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first principles.

Buoyancy
Upthrust on body = weight of fluid displaced by the body
This is known as Archimedes principle.

If the body is immersed so that part of its volume V1 is immersed in a fluid of density ρ 1 and the
rest of its volume V2 in another immiscible fluid of mass density ρ 2,
Upthrust on upper part, R1 = ρ1gV1
acting through G1, the centroid of V1,

20
Upthrust on lower part,R2 = ρ 2gV2

acting through G2, the centroid of V2,

Total upthrust = ρ 1gV1 + ρ 2gV2.

The positions of G1 and G2 are not necessarily on the same
vertical line, and the centre of buoyancy of the whole body
is, therefore, not bound to pass through the centroid of the
whole body.

Recall that only force exerted by fluid on an immersed body is buoyancy which is a vertical force
since resultant horizontal fluid pressure on the body is zero ie. Vertical pressure intensities on
vertical sides cancel each other out.

For analysis - Consider a body of rectangular shape as shown below

h1
A B
h2

C D

Fluid above surface AB = ρgh1 A = Fv1

Fluid above surface CD = ρgh2 A = Fv2
Fb = Fv2 - Fv1 = ρgh2 A - ρgh1 A = γ A (h2 – h1)
h2 –h1 = length of the body, l and Al = Volume, V

F = γ Al = γV, V is the submerged volume

The line of action of Fb, ie. Center of buoyancy is through the centroid of the submerged volume
acts vertically through up. It follows that Fb is equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced
by the body, ρgV Archimedes’ principle

Floatation and Stability of immersed and floating bodies:

Barge – usually a flat-bottomed vessel used for transporting freight
Pontoon – vessel/watertightfloat used where buoyancy is required
A body can only float if its average density is less than that of the liquid in which it floats

immersed bodies - consider the following

21
 a
b c
C
C,G
G G
C

C = center of buoyancy; G = center of gravity

Conditions for stability

Static equilibrium requires that: ∑Fv = 0 and ∑M = 0
a. If the body is neutrally stable then C = G;
b. if stable then C is above G(righting moment when heeled);
c. if unstable then G is above C (heeling moment when heeled)

floating bodies - the situation is slightly more complicated since the center of buoyancy will
generally shift when the body is rotated depending upon the shape of the body and the
position in which it is floating.
Positive GM Negative GM - The center of buoyancy (centroid of the displaced volume) shifts
laterally to the right for the case shown because part of the original buoyant volume AOB is
transferred to a new buoyant volume EOD. The point of intersection of the lines of action of the
buoyant force before and after heel is called the metacenter M and the distance GM is called the
metacentric height. If GM is positive, that is, if M is above G, then the ship is stable; however, if
GM is negative, the ship is unstable.

M
A
o E
B G
D
C C’

The height of the center of gravity, G is important for determining the stability of a floating vessel,
whether it is stable and able to right itself when tilted, or unstable so that it capsizes when tilted.
The higher G, the further to the left W will act when the pontoon is tilted, increasing the
possibility of over- turning. Consequently:
1. If a pontoon or ship carries heavy ballast in its bottom holds then the centre of gravity will be
relatively low, so it will be more stable and less likely to overturn.
2. If a pontoon or ship carries a heavy cargo on deck, then the centre of gravity will be relatively
high so the risk of overturning is increased.

22
3. If a pontoon carries a crane which lifts something heavy off the deck and raises it to some
significant height, this will increase the height of the centre of gravity of the pontoon and its cargo
as a result of a redistribution of the weight, so increasing the risk of overturning. This effect will be
magnified if the crane also moves its load towards the side, or over the side, of the pontoon since G
will also move side- ways so increasing the overturning couple.
The concept of the metacentre is an impor- tant one, and a difficult one. If you imagine a ship tilting
from side to side, the mast swings through a sector of a circle, like the wind- screen wipers on a car.
However, motion is relative. If the point M on the mast is consid- ered to be stationary, then the ship
would appear to swing like a pendulum beneath it. Thus the metacentre, M, is the point about which
a ship or pontoon appears to rotate.
The metacentre and the metacentric height have an important application, which is in determining
whether a vessel is stable or unstable.

Determining the metacentric height

CM = Iws/V where V is the volume of water displaced by the body, and Iws is the second moment of
area calculated about an axis through the centroid of the area of the body in the plane of the water
surface. This axis must be at 90° to the direction in which the displacement or tilt occurs.
Iws = Ib3/12 (3.2)
where 1 is the length of the pontoon and b its breadth. Note that the dimension in which the tilt or
dis- placement takes place, b, is raised to the cubic power, so altering b significantly affects the
analysis. A common mistake with students is to ~ attach the power to the wrong variable, so take
care. It should now be apparent that BM depends only upon:
1. 1 and b, the dimensions of the pontoon which govern the value of Iwsi and
2. 2. Vi the volume of displaced water which depends only upon the weight of
the pontoon.
It is also apparent that if the dimensions and weight of the pontoon do not change, then neither will
CM. So for a particular vessel, CM is constant and has a fixed value. However, if the vessel is
loaded or unloaded so that its weight changes, then this will .

Calculation GM: CM = CG + GM
GM is solved for by
a. basic definition for centroid of V; and
b. trigonometry

Forces due to hydrostatic pressure

For a static fluid, the shear stress is zero and the only stress is the normal stress, i.e., pressure p.
Recall that p is a scalar, which when in contact with a solid surface exerts a normal force towards
the surface. Line of action is towards and normal to the area,A on which it acts through the center of
pressure ( Xcp, Ycp).
In general pressure at a point in a fluid in the same in all direction (Pascal’s law) and on a horizontal
plane but pressure varies with depth. A number of scenarios exist
It is often required to calculate:
i. the resultant force on the surface
ii. line of action of the resultant

a. pressure variation with depth when the surface is plane e.g vertical retaining wall:
The pressure varies linearly with depth according to the equation p = ρgh = γh

the total force on the wall is F = average pressure x total area of wall, A

23
 average pressure = (0 + γh)/2 = γh/2
Total force = γhA
Because the pressure increases with depth, the greater portion of the force acts on the lower part
of the wall than on the upper part. The center of pressure is at the centroid of the pressure
distribution triangle.

b. inclined surface
A plane surface of area A is immersed in a liquid of weight density γ. The surface is set so that all of
it is at an angle α to the surface of the liquid. Consider an elemental strip of area dA which forms
part of the total surface.

O
α

hP hG h L
LG
δF LP

The pressure on one side of the element p = ρgh. The force on the element is dF = ρghdA
If the distance from O to the element is L, then by geometry the vertical depth of the
element below the surface is h = Lsin α, so dF = ρgLsin α dA
The total force, F, on the surface is obtained by integrating over the whole area A, so F = ρgsin α
∑LdA.
Now ∑LdA = ALG, where LG is the inclined distance from O to the centroid of the surface, G. The
integral is the first moment of area of A about 0, and essentially is the summation all the elements
dA over the whole surface area multiplied by the distance from O to each elemental area.
Thus: F = ρgsin aALG ………………………………………………………………………………..1
but hG = . sin aLG and therefore F = ρghG A…………………………………………………………2
The position of the resultant force, F, can be obtained by taking moments. The sum the moments
(M) about O of all the elemental forces, 8F, acting on all the elemental areas, 8A will be equal to the
total force, F, multiplied by Lp. In other words = ∑8M = FLp.
Now for the single element, 8M = 8FL. Substituting for 8F gives: 8M = pgLsina8AL.
Integrating this expression between the limits O and A to get the total moment acting all of the
elemental strips that comprise the surface: M = pgsin a∫ L2dA.
The integral in this equation is the second moment of area of the surface, Io calculated about an axis
through O. Therefore
M = pgsin a Io ……………………………………………………………………………………….3
but also M = FLP which leads to pgsin a Io = FLP = ρgsin aALG
pgsin a Io = ρgsin aALGLP
and LP = Io/ALG ………………………………………………………………………..….4
24
This defines the position of the centre of pressure, P, where the resultant force acts, but is not a very
convenient expression to use since the second moment of area of the body has to be calculated about
an axis through 0. The use of the parallel axis theorem makes the expression more usable by shifting
the axis about which it is calculated from O to G, so IG appears in the equation instead of I0, where IG
is the second moment of area calculated about an axis through the centroid of the surface, G. This is
the 'normal' value used in mechanics. The parallel axis theorem is: I0 = IG + ALG2. Dividing by ALG
and combining with equation (4), gives
Lp = (IG / ALG) + LG (1.13) Since h = L sin a and sin 90° = 1, for a vertical surface the above
equation becomes:
hp = (IG / AhG) + hG

c. Curved surface - curved immersed surface

The resultant force, R, acts at right angles to the curved surface. Since the surface is curved, the
forces produced by the fluid pressure on the small elements making up the area will not be parallel.
The force can be resolved into a horizontal, RH and vertical, RV component
Procedure (when fluid lies above the immersed surface)
a. RH is calculated by projecting the curved surface onto a vertical plane. This is effecctively
what would be seen if one looked at the curved surface from the front. Calculate the force on
this projected vertical surface as would be done on any other vertical surface. The area A, is
the area of the projected vertical surface and not the area of the actual curved surface
RH = ρghGA
b. RV is calculated by evaluating the weight of the volume of water above the curved surface,
RV = ρgV
c. Resultant force, R = (RH + RV)1/2
d. R acts through the centre of curvature of the curved surface and at an angle θ to the
horizontal given by tan θ = RV/ RH
e. If fluid is below the curved surface – consider an equal and opposite force acting on the other
of the surface for the case where the liquid lies above the curved surface. However the
vertical force acts upwards (buoyancy)

Worked examples

3.0 PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW

Introduction:
Flow of real fluids is complex and as result cannot be solved without the use of certain simplifying
assumptions. Equations developed assuming ‘ideal’ fluid are adopted. (ideal fluid - ………). The
fundamental equations of fluid dynamics are:
a. Conservation of matter/mass (excludes chemical activity)
b. Conservation of energy
c. Conservation of momentum

We define
Control volume: a purely imaginary region within a body of flowing fluid. Usually the region is at
fixed location and of fixed size. Only forces acting externally on the control volume are considered
since all the dynamic force inside the region cancel each other.

25
pathline: trace showing the position at successive intervals of time of a particle which started from a
given point
streamline: an imaginary curve in the fluid which, at a given instant, there is no flow. Velocity of
every particle along a streamline is tangential to it at the moment. For steady conditions and non-
varying flow patterns pathlines and streamlines are identical.
Streamtube: series of streamlines drawn through every point on the perimeter of a small area of the
atream cross-sections
Flow can be one, two or three dimensional
1-D flow parameter vary in one direction
2-D flow parameter vary in two directions
3-D flow parameter vary in three directions

26
When streamlines are not essentially straight and parallel, variations of pressure, velocity, and
density are to be expected.
Flow classification: flow classified in terms of time and space variation (later laminar and turbulent
flow will be considered)
Steady flow (time): When the velocity at each location is constant, the velocity field is invariant
with time and the flow is said to be steady. Much simpler to analyse than unsteady flow
Uniform flow(distance): Uniform flow occurs when the magnitude and direction of velocity do not
change from point to point in the fluid. Flow of liquids through long pipelines of constant diameter
is uniform whether flow is steady or unsteady.
Non-uniform flow occurs when velocity, pressure etc., change from point to point in the fluid.
Steady, unifrom flow: Conditions do not change with position or time. e.g., Flow of liquid through
a pipe of uniform bore running completely full at constant velocity.
Steady, non-unifrom flow: Conditions change from point to point but do not with time. e.g., Flow
of a liquid at constant flow rate through a tapering pipe running completely full.
Unsteady, unifrom Flow: e.g. When a pump starts-up.
Unsteady, non-unifrom Flow: e.g. Conditions of liquid during pipetting out of liquid.

Continuity: principle of conservation of mass is represented by the continuity equation

Continuity Equation
Let us make the mass balance for a fluid element as shown below: (an open-faced cube)

Fixed
region

Mass of fluid entering region mass of fluid leaving region

Recall that mass is neither created or destroyed: therefore accumulation of mass in fixed region =
rate at which mass enters the region –rate at which mass leaves the region

For steady flow: rate at which mass enters the region = rate at which mass leaves the region

27
Mass balance:
Accumulation rate of mass in the system = all mass flow rates in - all mass flow rates out --> 1
The mass in the system at any instant is ρΔx Δy Δz. The flow into the system through face 1 is

and the flow out of the system through face 2 is

Similarly for the fcaes 3, 4, 5, and 6 are written as follows:

Substituting these quantities in equn.1, we get

Dividing the above equation by Δx Δy Δz:

Now we let Δx, Δy, and Δz each approach zero simulaneously, so that the cube shrinks to a point.
Taking the limit of the three ratios on the right-hand side of this equation, we get the partial
derivatives.

This is the continuity equation for every point in a fluid flow whether steady or unsteady ,
compressible or incompressible.
For steady, incompressible flow, the density is constant and the equation simplifies to

For two dimensional incompressible flow this will simplify still further to

Bernoulli Equation:

28
 --> 1
This is the basic from of Bernoulli equation for steady incompressible inviscid flows. It may be
written for any two points 1 and 2 on the same streamline as

--> 2
The constant of Bernoulli equation, can be named as total head (ho) has different values on different
streamlines.

--> 3
The total head may be regarded as the sum of the piezometric head h* = p/g + z and the kinetic
head v2/2g.

Bernoulli equation is arrived from the following assumptions:

1. Steady flow - common assumption applicable to many flows.
2. Incompressible flow - acceptable if the flow Mach number is less than 0.3.
3. Frictionless flow - very restrictive; solid walls introduce friction effects.
4. Valid for flow along a single streamline; i.e., different streamlines may have different ho.
5. No shaft work - no pump or turbines on the streamline.
6. No transfer of heat - either added or removed.

Range of validity of the Bernoulli Equation:

Bernoulli equation is valid along any streamline in any steady, inviscid, incompressible flow. There
are no restrictions on the shape of the streamline or on the geometry of the overall flow. The
equation is valid for flow in one, two or three dimensions.

Modifications on Bernoulli equation:

Bernoulli equation can be corrected and used in the following form for real cases.

where 'q' is the work done by pump and 'w' is the work done by the fluid, and h is the head loss by
friction.

Application of Bernoulli equation for solving unsteady state problems

The problem is to find the the efflux time (time needed to empty the vessel contents), for the given
experimental setup consisting of Circular tank
(i) with Orifice opening at the bottom
(ii) with an exit pipe extending from the bottom of the tank

29
Time needed to empty the vessel (tefflux) can be found theoretically by unsteady state mass balance
and steady state energy balance.

Mass Balance:
Rate of mass in - Rate of mass out = rate of change of mass accumulation
If there is no input, then
- rate of mass out = rate of change of mass accumulation
- mout = dm/dt
mout = volumetric flow rate x density = Ao v2 
Rate of change of mass accumulation = rate of change of volume x density
= dV/dt
where dV is the change in volume of water for a time interval of dt
Since V = area of tank x height of water = AT h,
and, dV = ATdh
Therefore,
Ao v2 = AT  dh/dt  1

v2 is obtained by making energy balance between the section 1 and 2:

p1 = 0 atm (g)
p2 = 0 atm (g)
v1 = 0 (negligible velocity compared to position 2)
Taking reference as position 2, (position 1 and 2 are in a continuous column of fluid)
z2 = 0
Therefore, Bernoulli equation reduces to
v22 = 2gz1
v2 =  (2gz1)
The height z2 - z1 can be taken as h. (water level with respect to position at any time t)
Therefore,
v2 =  (2gh)  2
Substituting from Equn.2 for v2 in Equn.1,
 (2gh) = (AT/Ao) dh/dt
Separating the variables,
(AT/Ao) dh/ (2gh) = dt
30
Integrating between the limits z1 to z2 for a time of 0 to tefflux
tefflux = 2 AT [ z1 -  z2] / [Ao (2g)]
To account for the effect of contraction, Co is introduced; and the is modified as,
tefflux = 2 AT [ z1 -  z2] / [CoAo (2g)]
Similar Equation can be derived for the tank with an exit pipe extending from the bottom.

Euler's Equation of Motion:

Mass in per unit time = Av =

For steady flow, mass out per unit time =
Rate of momentum in =
Rate of momentum out =
Rate of increase of momentum from AB to CD = = Av v  1
Force due to p in the direction of motion = pA
Force due to p + ∆p opposing the direction of motion = (p + ∆p)(A + ∆A)
Force due to pside producing a component in the direction of motion = pside∆A
Force due to mg producing a component opposing the direction of motion = mgcos()
Resultant force in the direction of motion = pA - (p + ∆p)(A + ∆A) + pside∆A - mgcos()  2
The value of pside will vary from p at AB to p + ∆p at CD, and can be taken as p + kp where k is
fraction.
Mass of fluid element ABCD = m = g(A + 1/2 A) s
And s = z/cos(); since cos(z/s
Substituting in equn.2,
Resultant force in the direction of motion = pA - (p + p)(A + A) + p + kp - g(A + 1/2 A)
z
= -Ap - pA + kpA - gAz - 1/2 Az
Neglecting products of small quantities,
Resultant force in the direction of motion = -Ap - gAz  3
Applying Newton's second law, (i.e., equating equns.1 & 3)
Av dv = -Ap - gAz
dividing by As,

31
or, in the limit as s  0,

This is known as Euler's equation, giving, in differential form

the relationship between p, v,  and elevation z, along a streamline for steady flow.
It can not be integrated until the relationship density and pressure is known.
For incompressible fluid,  is constant; therefore the Euler's equation is integrated to give the
following:

which is nothing but the Bernoulli equation.

The momentum equation

Application of Newton’s laws of motion
1st law -
2nd law -
rd
3 law -
Newton’s laws of motion are viewed in the light of the conservation of momentum – momentum can
neither be created nor destroyed in a specified direction.

Force = rate change of momentum (2nd law) = ma = m (v2-v1)/t

But mass rate = m/t = ρQ = ρAv; since Q = A1v1 = A2v2 (from continuity equation)

Therefore F = ρ A1v1(v2-v1)
The momentum equation should always be applied in a specified direction because velocity is a
vector quantity. A change in momentum is experienced when:
-there is a change in velocity
-change in direction of flow (even without change in velocity)
-change in both direction of flow and velocity

Using the concept of control volume the momentum equation can be summarized as:

The sum of the external forces acting on the fluid in the control volume in a given direction, ΣF
= the rate of change of momentum in the given direction as a result of the fluid passing
through the control volume, ρ A1v1(v2-v1)

Application of the momentum equation

a. Pipe bends (scanned document)
b. Nozzles (scanned document)

Worked examples

32
 Boundary Layer
Boundary layer is the region near a solid where the fluid motion is affected by the solid boundary. In
the bulk of the fluid the flow is usually governed by the theory of ideal fluids. By contrast, viscosity
is important in the boundary layer. The division of the problem of flow past an solid object into
these two parts, as suggested by Prandtl in 1904 has proved to be of fundamental importance in fluid
mechanics

Development over flat plate

Entry Length: There is an entrance region where a nearly inviscid upstream flow converges and
enters the tube. Viscous boundary layers grow downstream, retarding the axial flow v(x, r) at the
wall and thereby accelerating the center-core flow to maintaintain the incompressible continuity
requirement
Q = v dA = constant
At a finite distance from the entrance, the boundary layers merge and the inviscid core disappears.
The flow is then entirely viscous, and the axial velocity adjusts slightly further until at x = Le it no
longer changes with x and is said to be fully developed, v = v(r) only. Downstream of x = Le the
veocity profile is constant, the wall shear is constant, and the pressure drops linearly with x, for
either laminar or turbulent flow.
Le/D = 0.06 ReD for laminar
Le/D = 4.4 ReD1/6 Where Le is the entry length; and
ReD is the Reynolds number based on Diameter.

Boundary layer thickness – distance from the boundary at which the velocity becomes equal to 99%
of the free stream velocity. In the boundary layer shear stresses are developed btwn layers of fluid
moving with different velocities as a result of viscosity and the interchange of momentum due to
turbulences causing partivles of fluid to move from one layer to another. Thickness oof boundary
layer depends on velocity and viscosity of fluid.

33
Further flow classification
flow in real fluids

Recall that we have already classified flow in terms of space and temporal variation. Flow can
further be classified as laminar (viscous, streamline) or turbulent.
Laminar: major stresses are viscous shear stresses- fluid particles move in smooth layers
Turbulent: disorderly type of flow - fluid particles move in erratic paths causing instantaneous
fluctuations in the velocity components and exchange of momentum – slower fluid particles
adjacent to the pipe wall mix continuously with the high-speed particles in the midstream, resulting
in the high-speed particles being slowed down. The velocity distribution is more uniform than in
viscous flow and gets flatter with increase in velocity.
According experiments carried out by Osborne Reynold transition of the type of flow from
viscous to turbulent is dependent on velocity, u, p and a characteristic length eg diameter in the case
of pipe flow and is defined by a dimensionless called the Reynolds Number. The relationship is
described by the ratio of inertia force to viscous force in a pipe.
The fundamental equations of continuity, momentum and energy will be extended to flow of real
fluids (as opposed to ideal fluids were is it assumed that viscosity is negligible- therefore frictionless
flow).
Flow has already been as steady, uniform, unsteady uniform etc. As classified by Osborn Reynolds
further can be laminar (viscous) and turbulent ( both already defined). The inertia of a disturbed
particle in a stream will tend to carry in new direction but the viscous forces due to the surrounding
fluid will tend to make it conform to the motion of the rest of the stream. Ratio of the inertial force
to the viscous force determines the type of flow.
Taking l as the characteristic length of the system, eg. for a circular pipe l is the diameter and t for
time. Considering a small element of density ρ,

Volume of element = k1l3,

Mass of element = ρk1l3,
Velocity of element, v = k2 l/t,
Acceleration of element = k3 l/t2, where k1, k2, k3 are constants.

Force = mass x acceleration = ρk1l3 x k3 l/t2 = k1k3ρl2(l/t)2 = (k1k3/k22)ρl2v2 = inertial force

Force = stress (pressure) x area = viscous shear stress x area on which stress acts = µ x velocity
gradient x area = µ (v/k4l) x k5l2 = (k5/k4) µvl = viscous force
Reynolds number, Re = inertial force/ viscous force = constant x ρvl/ µ = a dimensionless number.
For water: laminar flow, Re < 2000; transitional flow, 2000 < Re < 4000; turbulent flow, Re > 4000.
The transition behavior depends on entrance conditions and distance from the inlet

Laminar flow in circular pipes - The Hagen-Poiseuille equation

34
Normally applicable at low flow rates (commonly does not occur in nature) - fluids move in layers
and velocity components of individual elements do not cross the streamlines-individual particles are
held in place by molecular forces that prevent them from wandering outside their streamline. The
viscous forces predominate over inertial forces.
For Steady laminar flow in circular pipes – consider the case of flow in circular pipes but laminar
flow can also occur in other situation eg. flow between 2 very close parallel plates. The analysis of
flow is based on
i. -application of the momentum equation
ii. -application of the shear stress velocity gradient relationship
iii. -the knowledge of flow condition at the wall pipe, which allows the constants of integration
to be evaluated etc

Fig. *: forces acting on an annular element in a laminar pipe flow situation

Suppose we have a circular pipe of internal radius, R. Taking an annular element in the flow of
internal radius, r and radial thickness dr, τ is shear stress at radius r, p = pressure and W =mg =
weight of the element = 2πrdrdxρg.
Applying the momentum equation, considering forces acting on the annulus

p2πrdr – (p +dp/dx. dx) 2πrdr + τ2πrdr dx – [2πr τ dx +d/dr(2πr τ dx)dr] + Wsinθ = 0…1

sin θ = -dz/dx, z = elevation of the pipe above some horizontal. Equation reduces to

-dp/dx – d/rdr (rτ) – ρgdz/dx = 0 and dividing by 2πrdrdx. Rearranging, gives

d/dx(p + ρgz) + 1/r.d/dr(rτ) = 0……………………………………………………………2

(p + ρgz) is the piezometric pressure. Equation can be integrated with respect to r yielding

r2/2.d/dx (p + ρgh) + rτ +C1 =0 …………………………………………………………3

35
Considering boundary conditions at r = 0 and C1 = 0 and τ as τ = -µdu/dr (from centre of pipe),
substituting for τ in equation (3)

r2/2.d/dx (p + ρgz) = rµdu/dr - C1 and

du =[ r/2µ.d/dx(p + ρgz)+ C1/rµ]dr ……………………………………………………….4

integrating with respect with r yields an expression for velocity variation, and applying boundary
conditions r=0 and r=R and also considering the volumetric flow rate which is calculated by
integrating the incremental flow dQ through an annulus of radial width dr at radius r across the flow
from r = 0 to r = R leads to

Q = Δpπd4/128 µl and rearranging gives the Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Δp = Q128 µl / πd4………………………………………………………………………5
Equation (5) gives the fall in peizometric pressure which converted to a fall in head is

hf = Δp/ρg = (Q128 µl / πd4)/ ρg =

Turbulent flow – Darcy-Weisbach equation

Type of flow that is mostly encountered in real life situations. Inertia forces predominate over
viscous forces. Flow is characterized by flow with eddies, not all of which are easily discerning.

B l

p1A

A
Consider a small element of fluid as shown above. Flow is incompressible, steady, uniform. Fluid
acceleration in the flow
Δzdirection is zero. Applying the momentum equation in the direction yields
p1A – p2A – τ0lP + Wsin θ = 0……………………………………………………………6
τolP p2A
where P = wetted perimeter
D
W = ρgAl and sin θ = -Δz/l and therefore equation (6) leads to

36
 τ0 = boundary shear stress
[(p1-p2) - ρg Δz] - τ0P/A = 0
[(p1-p2) - ρg Δz] = piezometric head over a length l of conduit and the ratio A/P = m
τ0 = mdp*/dx, .…………………………………………………….…………………….7
dp*/dx = rate of piezometric head along conduit
Introducing the concept of flow friction factor f, (experimentally determined factor)
τ0 = fpv2/2 and therefore,

dp*/dx = fpv2/2m, taking l as length of conduit and hf as frictional head loss over l leads to
dp*/dx = fρv2/2m = ρghf/l

hf = flv2/2mg
and for pipes running full A/P = D/4 = m and we obtain the Darcy-Weisbach equation

hf = 4fl/d.v2/2g for head loss in circular pipes

NB- The Darcy-Weisbach equation is equivalent to the Hagen-Poiseulle equation except that the
friction factor f is included in turbulent flow. f depends on relative roughness of the pipe, k/d or e/d
and the Re number.
Calculation of friction losses in turbulent pipe flow depends on the use of empirical results. The
Moody diagram is commonly used

Rough and smooth pipes – The Moody diagram

( Choice of friction factor f )

The value of f must be chosen with care or else the head loss will not be correct. Assessment of the
physics governing the value of friction in a fluid has led to the following relationships
11. hf ∝ L
22. hf ∝ v2
33. hf ∝ 1/d
44. hf depends on surface roughness of pipes
55. hf depends on fluid density and viscosity
66. hf is independent of pressure
Consequently f cannot be a constant if it is to give correct head loss values from the Darcy equation.
An expression that gives f based on fluid properties and the flow conditions is required.

Note: Friction Factor Value

The f value shown above is different to that used in American practice. Their relationship is
f American = 4 f
Sometimes the f is replaced by the Greek letter λ. where
λ = f American = 4 f
Consequently great care must be taken when choosing the value of f with attention taken to the
source of that value.

The value of f for Laminar flow

As mentioned above the equation derived for head loss in turbulent flow is equivalent to that derived
for laminar flow – the only difference being the empirical f. Equation the two equations for head
loss allows us to derive an expression of f that allows the Darcy equation to be applied to laminar
flow. Equating the Hagen-Poiseuille and Darcy-Weisbach equations gives:

37
 Equation 8
Blasius equation for f
Blasius, in 1913, was the first to give an accurate empirical expression for f for turbulent flow in
smooth pipes, that is:
Equation 9
This expression is fairly accurate, giving head losses +/- 5% of actual values for Re up to 100000.

Nikuradse
Nikuradse made a great contribution to the theory of pipe flow by differentiating between rough and
smooth pipes. A rough pipe is one where the mean height of roughness is greater than the thickness
of the laminar sub-layer. Nikuradse artificially roughened pipe by coating them with sand. He
defined a relative roughness value ks/d (mean height of roughness over pipe diameter) and produced
graphs of f against Re for a range of relative roughness 1/30 to 1/1014.

A number of distinct regions can be identified on the diagram.

The regions which can be identified are:
11. Laminar flow (f = 16/Re)
22. Transition from laminar to turbulent A unstable region between Re = 2000 and 4000. Pipe
flow normally lies outside this region
33. Smooth turbulent The limiting line of turbulent flow. All value of relative roughness tend
toward this as Re decreases.
44. Transitional turbulent The region which f varies with both Re and relative roughness. Most
pipes lie in this region.
55. Rough turbulent. f remains constant for a given relative roughness. It is independent of Re.

Colebrook-White equation for f

Colebrook and White did a large number of experiments on commercial pipes and they also brought
together some important theoretical work by von Karman and Prandtl. This work resulted in an
equation attributed to them as the Colebrook-White equation:
1/λ1/2 = -2log [k/3.7D + 2.51/(Re λ1/2)]

It is applicable to the whole of the turbulent region for commercial pipes and uses an effective
roughness value (ks) obtained experimentally for all commercial pipes.
The 3 zones of turbulent flow on Moody diagram are described by work by Prandtl and Nikuradse
Zone 1: Smooth turbulent zone
-friction factor is a function of Re only and is expressed as
1/λ1/2 = 2log Re λ1/2 /2.51
Zone 2: transitional turbulent zone
λ is a function of both k/D and Re
Zone 3: rough turbulent zone
λ is a function of k/D only and expressed as
1/λ1/2 = 2log 3.7D/k
Combinng the equation for zone 1 and 3 gives the Colebrook-White equation. If the Colebrook-
White equation is combined with the Darcy-Weisbach equation, we yield an expression in velocity,

v = -2(2gDsf)1/2. log[k/3.7D + 2.51v/D(2gDsf)1/2]

38
Which forms the basis for “Charts for hydraulic design of Channels and Pipes”(hydraulics Research,
1990) produced by the Hydraulics Research Station. The Hydraulics charts provide a way of
calculating headloss in a pipeline. They show the relationship between D, Q, V and headloss (sf)

λ was expressed by Moody as λ =.0055[1+ (20000k/D +106/Re)1/3

This equation of Moody gives f correct to +/- 5% for 4 × 103 < Re < 1 × 107 and for ks/d < 0.01.

Here the last term of the Colebrook-White equation has been replaced with 5.1286/Re 0.89 which
provides more accurate results for Re > 105. The problem with these formulas still remains that
these contain a dependence on ks. What value of ks should be used for any particular pipe?
Fortunately pipe manufactures provide values and typical values can often be taken similar to those
in table 1 below.

Pipe Material ks (mm)

Brass, copper, glass, Perspex 0.003

Asbestos cement 0.03
Wrought iron 0.06
Galvanised iron 0.15
Plastic 0.03
Bitumen-lined ductile iron 0.03
Spun concrete lined ductile iron 0.03

Slimed concrete sewer 6.0

Table 1: Typical ks values

Equation 7

Local Head Losses : In addition to head loss due to friction there are always head losses in pipe
lines due to bends, junctions, valves etc. (See notes from Level 1, Section 4 - Real Fluids for a
discussion of energy losses in flowing fluids.) For completeness of analysis these should be
taken into account. In practice, in long pipe lines of several kilometres their effect may be
negligible for short pipeline the losses may be greater than those for friction. A general theory
for local losses is not possible, however rough turbulent flow is usually assumed which gives
the simple formula

Equation 14
Where hL is the local head loss and kL is a constant for a particular fitting (valve or junction etc.)
For the cases of sudden contraction (e.g. flowing out of a tank into a pipe) of a sudden enlargement
(e.g. flowing from a pipe into a tank) then a theoretical value of k L can be derived. For junctions
bend etc. kL must be obtained experimentally.

Losses at Sudden Enlargement:

Consider the flow in the sudden enlargement, shown in figure 6 below, fluid flows from section 1 to
section 2. The velocity must reduce and so the pressure increases (as follows from Bernoulli). At
position 1' turbulent eddies occur which give rise to the local head loss.

39
 Figure 6: Sudden Expansion
Apply the momentum equation between positions 1 and 2 to give:

Now use the continuity equation to remove Q. (i.e. substitute Q = A2u2)

Rearranging gives

Equation 17
Now apply the Bernoulli equation from point 1 to 2, with the head loss term hL

And rearranging gives

Equation 18
Combining Equations 17 and 18 gives

Equation 19
Substituting again for the continuity equation to get an expression involving the two areas, (i.e.
u2=u1A1/A2) gives

Equation 20
Comparing this with Equation 14 gives kL

Equation 21
When a pipe expands in to a large tank A1 << A2 i.e. A1/A2 = 0 so kL = 1. That is, the head loss is
equal to the velocity head just before the expansion into the tank.
Losses at Sudden Contraction

In a sudden contraction, flow contracts from point 1 to point 1', forming a vena contraction. From
experiment it has been shown that this contraction is about 40% (i.e. A1' = 0.6 A2). It is possible to
assume that energy losses from 1 to 1' are negligible (no separation occurs in contracting flow) but
that major losses occur between 1' and 2 as the flow expands again. In this case Equation 16 can be
used from point 1' to 2 to give: (using, by continuity u1 = A2u2/A1 = A2u2/0.6A2 = u2/0.6)

Equation 22
i.e. At a sudden contraction kL = 0.44.
Other Local Losses :
Large losses in energy in energy usually occur only where flow expands. The mechanism at work in
these situations is that as velocity decreases (by continuity) so pressure must increase (by Bernoulli).
When the pressure increases in the direction of fluid outside the boundary layer has enough
momentum to overcome this pressure that is trying to push it backwards. The fluid within the
boundary layer has so little momentum that it will very quickly be brought to rest, and possibly
reversed in direction. If this reversal occurs it lifts the boundary layer away from the surface as
shown in Figure 8. This phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation.
At the edge of the separated boundary layer, where the velocities change direction, a line of vortices
occur (known as a vortex sheet). This happens because fluid to either side is moving in the opposite
direction. This boundary layer separation and increase in the turbulence because of the vortices
results in very large energy losses in the flow. These separating / divergent flows are inherently
unstable and far more energy is lost than in parallel or convergent flow.

40
Some common situation where significant head losses occur in pipe are

A divergent duct or diffuser Tee-Junctions

Y-Junctions Bends

Local losses in pipe flow

The values of kL for these common situations are shown in Table 2. It gives both the theoretical
value and that used in practice.
kL value
Theory Practice

Bellmouth entry 0.05 0.10

Sharp entry 0.44 0.5
Sharp exit 0.2 0.5
90° bend 0.4 0.4
90° tees
In-line flow 0.35 0.4
Branch to line 1.2 1.5
Gate value (open) 0.12 0.25

Table 2: kL values

41