Chapter 1 - Full PDF

Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 1
CHAPTER NO 1
Portion Functions,Limits Portion

1 and Graphs 3
Function and their types Graphs, Domain and Range
Portion
2
exercise 1.1 exercise 1.5
exercise 1.2
Limits and Continuity
exercise 1.3
exercise 1.4
BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

Bahauddin zakariya university, Multan (Pakistan)
2 Advance Calculus with Analytical Geometry Mathematics (New 2nd Edition) class xii
1.1 Introduction
Function are important tools by which we describe the real world in mathematics terms. They
are used to explain the relationship between variable and quantity and hence play a central
role in the study of calculus.
1.1.1 Concept of a Function
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was born in Leipzig, Germany. He was six-year-
old when his father, a professor of philosophy and left his son the key to his library and a life
of book and learning, Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig at age 15, graduated at 17,
and received a doctor of law degree from university of altodor four years later. He wrote on a
legal matter, but was more interested in philosophy. He also developed original theories
about language and the nature of the universe. His background in philosophy led him to very
original, though not always rigorous, results.
The term Function was recognized by a Greek mathematician Leibniz who is equally
famous as a philosopher and as mathematician (1646-1716) to describe the dependence
of one quantity on other quantity. The following examples illustrates how this term is used.
Simple examples:
(i) The area “ A ” of a square depends on one of its sides “ x ” by the formula A  x2 , so
we say that A is a function of x.
(ii) The volume “ V ” of a sphere depends on one of its sides “ r ” by the formula
4
V   r 3 , so we say that V is a function of
3
Important note: in (i) a square of a given side has only one area.
In (ii) a sphere of a given radius has only one volume.
1.1.2 Function definition
 A function is a rule or correspondence, relating two sets in such a way that each
element in the first set corresponds to one and only one element in the second set.
 A function f ( x ) from a set X to a set Y is a rule or a crosspondnace that assigns to
each element in X a unique element in Y .
f ( x)
Such that
f :XY
Domain: 1 x
2 y
The set X is called the domain of f ( x ) .
3 z
Range: The set of cross ponding elements of Y
is called range of f ( x ) .
Figure 1.1.2
1.1.3 Presentation and Value of the Function
If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that value of x determines exactly one
value of y , we say that “ y is a function of x ”
Swiss Mathematician Euler (1707-1783)
Invented a symbolic way to write the statement “ y is a function of x “as y  f ( x) , which is

read as “ y is equal to f of y ”
 Where x and y both are variables

 x is independent variable.
 y is dependent variable.
Important note: Function is also denoted by f, g and h etc. And in capital letters F, G and
H etc.
Example: Given that f ( x)  x 2  x

(ii) f ( 2) (ii) f (0) (iii) f ( x  1) (iv) f ( x 2  4)
Now we will find
(i) f (2)
(ii) f (0)
Solution :
Solution :
f ( x )  x 2  x  (1)
f ( x)  x 2  x  (1)
putting x  2 in (1) ,we get
putting x  0 in (1) ,we get
f (2)  (2) 2  ( 2)
f (0)  (0) 2  (0)
6
 0
f (2)  6
(iv) f ( x 2  4)
 iii  f  x  1
Solution :
Solution :
f ( x)  x 2  x  (1)
f ( x )  x  x  (1)
2
putting x  x 2  4 in (1) ,we get

putting x  x  1 in (1) ,we get
f ( x 2  4)  ( x 2  4) 2  ( x 2  4)
f ( x  1)  ( x  1) 2  ( x  1)
 x 4  16  8 x 2  x 2  4
 x2  1  2x  x  1
 x 4  7 x 2  12
 x  3x  2
2
1.1.4 Important and Basic types of the Functions

Algebraic Functions
Algebraic function are those functions which are defined by algebraic expression. We classify
algebraic functions as follows:
(i) Polynomial Function

A function of the form
P( x)  a0 x0  a1x1  a2 x2 ...........  an1xn1  an xn is called Polynomial Function.
 The co-efficient a0 , a1 , a2 ,.........., an 1 , an are real numbers.
 Exponents are non-negative integers such that n  0.
 If an  0 , then p( x) is called polynomial function of degree n and an called leading co-
efficient.
 The domain and range of p( x) is the subset of the real numbers.
Examples: (1) 4x 3  x 2  5 x  1 (2) 2x 2  5 x  9
We can see Example (1) is a cubic polynomial of degree three and example (2) is a
quadratic polynomial of degree two.
(i) Linear Function or Linear Polynomial

A polynomial function of the form
f ( x)  ax  b is called linear function or linear polynomial of one degree.
 The power of x is only one.
 a and b are real numbers ,where a  0.
 Its domain and range are the subset of real numbers
Examples: (1) f ( x)  2 x  3 (2) f ( x)  4x  5
Here in given examples are linear functions of one degree
(ii) Identity Function

For every set X
A function I : X  X of the form I ( x)  x  x  X , is called an identity
function.
 In particular if X  R , then I( x)  x  x  R , is the identity function.
 Its domain and range is the set X itself.
Example: A function I : R  R define by I (3)  3  x  R is an identity function.
(iii) Constant Function

Let X and Y be the two sets of the real numbers
A function C : X  Y of the form C ( x)  a  x  X , a  Y is called constant
function.
Example: A function C : R  R define by C ( x)  3 , x  R is a constant function.
(iv) Rational Function

P( x)
A function R( x) of the form
is called a rational function.
Q( x)
 Where P( x) and Q( x) are polynomial functions and Q( x)  0 .
 Its domain and range are the set of real numbers.
1.1.5 Trigonometric Functions
We denote and define trigonometric function as follows.
NO. Functions Domain Range
(i) y  sin x   1  y  1
x
2 2
(ii) y  cos x 0 x  1  y  1
(iii) y  tan x   (, )

x
2 2
(iv) y  csc x     y  1 or y  1
 2 , 2  , x  0
(v) y  sec x  y  1 or y  1
[0,  ], x 
2
(vi) y  cot x 0 x  (, )
Fundamental Trigonometric Identities
1: sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1 2 : sec 2 x  tan 2 x  1 3 : csc2 x  cot 2 x  1

x x x x x x
4 : sin 2  cos 2  1 5 : sec 2  tan 2  1 6 : csc 2  cot 2  1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Fundamental Trigonometric Identities
1: sin 2 x  cos2 x  1 2 : sec2 x  tan 2 x  1 3: csc2 x  cot 2 x  1

Fundamental Law of Trigonometric:
1: sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y 2 : sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y
3 : cos( x  y )  cos x cos y  sin x sin y 4 : cos( x  y )  cos x cos y  sin x sin y
tan x  tan y tan x  tan y
5 : tan( x  y )  6 : tan( x  y) 
1  tan x tan y 1  tan x tan y
Sum and Difference of Sines and Cosines:
x y x y x y x y
1: sin x  sin y  2sin cos 2 : sin x  sin y  2cos sin
2 2 2 2
x y x y x y x y
3: cos x  cos y  2cos cos 4 : cos x  cos y  2sin sin
2 2 2 2
Product of Sines and Cosines:

1: 2sin x.cos y  sin( x  y )  sin( x  y ) 2 : 2 cos x.sin y  sin( x  y )  sin( x  y )
3 : 2 cos x.cos y  cos( x  y )  cos( x  y ) 4 : 2sin x.sin y  cos( x  y )  cos( x  y )
Double Angles and Half Angles Trigonometric Identities
x x x 1  cos x
1: sin 2 x  2sin x.cos x 2 : sin x  2sin cos 3: cos 2 
2 2 2 2
x 1  cos x 1  cos 2 x 1  cos 2 x
4 : sin 2  5 : cos 2 x  6 : sin 2 x 
2 2 2 2

Triple Angles Trigonometric Identity:
3tan x  tan 3 x
1: sin 3x  3sin x  4sin 3 x 2 : cos3x  4cos3 x  3cos x 3: tan 3x 
1  3tan 2 x
1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We denote and define inverse trigonometric function as follows.
NO. Function Domain Range
(i) y  sin 1 x 1  x  1  
 y
2 2
(ii) y  cos 1 x 1  x  1 0 y 
(iii) y  tan 1 x (, )  

 y
2 2
(iv) y  csc 1 x x  1 or x  1    
 2 , 2  , y  0
(v) y  sec 1 x x  1 or x  1 
[0,  ], y 
2
(vi) y  cot 1 x (, ) 0 y 
1.1.6 Exponential Function
A function in which the variable appears as exponent (power) is called exponential function.
Examples:
(1) y  e x (2) y  e x ln x (3) y  e ax (4) y  2 x Etc. are the exponential functions of x.
1.1.7 Logarithmic Function
If x  a y then y  log a x where x, a  0 and a  0 then the function f ( x)  log a x is called

logarithmic with base a .
Common Logarithmic Function:
The logarithmic function with base 10 is called the common logarithmic function. The function
f ( x)  log10 x is usually expressed as f ( x)  log x
Natural Logarithmic Function:
The logarithmic function with base e is called the natural logarithmic function. The function
f ( x)  log e x is usually expressed as f ( x)  ln x .and also,
 If a  10 then we have log10 x (written as lg x ) which is called the common logarithm

of x.
 If a  e ,then we have log e x (written as ln x ) which is called the natural logarithm of x.
General log Properties Common Log Properties Natural Log Properties

log b b  1 log10  1 ln e  1
log b 1  0 log1  0 ln1  0
log b b x  x log10 x  x ln e x  x
blog x  x 10log x  x eln x  x
Important Note: A Logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function.
1.1.8 Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic sine function:
e x  e x
 sinh x  is called hyperbolic sine function.
2
 Its domain and range are the set of real numbers.
Hyperbolic Cosine Function:
e x  e x
 cosh x  is called hyperbolic sine function.
2
 Its domain is the set of real numbers.
 Its range is the set of all numbers in the interval [1, )
The remaining four hyperbolic functions are defined in the term of the hyperbolic sine and
cosine function as follows.
e x  e x 1 2 e x  e x
(1) sinh x  (2) csch x   x x (3) cosh x 
2 sinh x e  e 2
1 2 sinh x e x  e  x 1 e x  e x
(4) sech x   x x (5) tanh x   (6) coth x   x -x
cosh x e  e cosh x e x  e  x tanh x e  e
Hyperbolic Identities:
(1) sech 2 x  tanh 2 x  1 (2) coth 2 x  csch 2 x  1 (3) cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
Important note: The hyperbolic functions have the same properties that resemble to
those of trigonometric functions.
1.1.9 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
The inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in term of natural logarithms and we shall
study in higher class.
(1) sinh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1) , x (2) cosh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1) ,  x  1

1 1 x  1  x 1 
(3) tanh 1 x  ln   , x 1 (4) coth 1 x  ln   , x 1
2  1 x  2  x 1 
1 1  x2  1 1  x2 
(5) sech 1 x  ln    ,0  x  1 (6) cosech 1 x  ln    ,x  0
x x  x x 
   

1.1.10 Explicit Function
If y is easily expressed in term of the independent variable x , then

y is called explicit function of x.
Examples: (1) y  3x 2  x  5 (2) y  2x  7
 It is denoted by y  f ( x)
1.1.11 Implicit Function
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in term of the independent variable
x , then y is called implicit function of x.
 It is denoted by f ( x, y)  0
3xy 2 2 y  5
Examples: (1) 3x 2  xy  y 2 (2) 7 
9 xy
1.1.12 Parametric Functions
The functions of the form

 x  at 2  x  a cos t  x  a cos   x  a sec 
(1)  (2)  (3)  (4) 
 y  at  y  a sin t  y  b sin   y  b tan 
Are called parametric functions.
Parameter:
When a curve is described by expression both x and y as a function of third variables " t "
and " " then these variables are called parameters.
Parametric Equations:
The equations of the form
x  f (t ) And y  g (t ) are called parametric equations of the curve.
Example1: x  a cos  , y  a sin  is parametric form of the circle x  y  a .

2 2 2
Example 2: x  at 2 , y  2at is parametric form of the parabola y 2  4ax
Where " t " and " " are parameters in both examples.
Example 3: show that represent the equation of parabola y  4ax

2
Solution :
x  at 2  (1) , y  2at  (2)
from (2) we can written as
y
t putting this in (1),we get
2a
 y 
2
 y2 
x  a   a 
 2a   4 a 2 
 
y2
x
4a
y  4ax
2
Required equation of parabola.
1.1.13 even function
A function is said to be an even if f ( x)  f ( x).
Example 1: Show that function f ( x ) = x 2 is even.
Solution :
f ( x) = x 2
replace x by  x
f (  x) = (  x) 2  x 2
f (  x)  f ( x)
Hence, the function is even.
Example 2: Show that function f ( x )  cos y is even.
Solution :
f ( x)  cos x
replace x by  x
f ( x)  cos( x)
as we know that
cos( y  x)  cos y cos x  sin y sin x
putting y  0 on both sides,then
cos(0  x)  cos 0 cos x  sin 0sin x  1.cos x  0.sin x
cos( x)  cos x
f ( x)  f ( x)
Hence, function is even
1.1.14 Odd function
A function is said to be an odd if f ( x)   f ( x).
Example 1: Show that function f ( x )  x 3 is odd.
Solution :
f ( x)  x 3
replace x by  x
f (  x )  (  x )3  ( x 3 )
  f ( x)
Hence, the function is odd

Example 2: Show that function f ( x)  sin x is odd.

Solution :
f ( x)  sin x
replace x by  x
f ( x)  sin( x)
as we know that
sin( y  x)  sin y cos x  cos y sin x
putting y  0 on both sides,then
sin(0  x)  sin 0 cos x  cos 0sin x  0.cos x  1.sin x
sin( x)   sin x
f (  x)   f ( x)
Hence, function is odd
x 1
Example 3: Show that function f ( x) = is neither even nor odd
x+1
Solution :
x 1
f ( x) 
x 1
replace x by  x
( x)  1 ( x  1)
f ( x)  
( x)  1 ( x  1)
x 1

x 1
 f ( x)
Hence, the function is niether even nor odd
Important note: in both the cases for each x in the domain of f ( x) , x must also be in
the domain of f ( x) .
EXERCISE 1.1
QUESTION 1: Show the given functions are even functions

2
(i) f ( x )  x 3  6 (ii) f ( x )  x 2 (iii) f ( x )  3x 4 2 x 2 7 (iv) f ( y )  cos y
QUESTION 2: Show the given functions are odd functions.
x3  x 3x
(i) f ( x)  x 3  x (ii)f ( x )  x x 2 5 (iii) f ( x )  (iv) f ( x ) 
x2  1 x 2 1
(v) f ( x )  x 3 (vi) f ( y )  sin y
QUESTION 3: Show that the functions, neither even and nor odd.
x 1
(i) f ( x)  ( x  2) 2 (ii) f ( x)  (iii) f ( x)  sin x  cos x
x 1
QUESTION 4: Prove the identities:
(i) sinh 2 x  2sinh x.cosh x (ii)sec h 2 x  1  tanh 2 x (iii) csc h 2 x  coth 2 x  1

(v) cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  cosh 2 x
QUESTION 5: Show that the parametric equation.
(i) x  at 2 , y  2at Represent the equation of parabola y 2  4ax
(ii) x  a cos t , y  a sin t Represent the equation of circle x 2  y 2  a 2
x2 y2
(iii) x  a cos t , y  b sin t Represent the equation of ellipse  1
a2 b2
x2 y2
(iv) x  a tan t , y  b sec t represent the equation of hyperbola 2  2  1
a b
QUESTION 6: Given that (a) f ( x )  x 2  x Find.
(i) f  2  (ii) f  0 (iii) f  x  1 (iv) f ( x 2 4)
Answers: (i) 6 (ii) 0 (iii) ( x 2 3x  2) (iv) ( x 4 7 x 2 12)
QUESTION 7: Given that (a) f ( x )  x 3  2 x 2  4 x  1 Find

1
(i) f (0) (ii) f (1) (iii) f ( 2) (iv) f (1  x ) (v) f  
x
1 2 4
Answers: (i)  1 (ii)2 (iii)  25 (iv) ( x 3  x 2  3x  2) (v)   1
x3 x 2 x
QUESTION 8: Given that (b) : f ( x)  x4 Find.
(i) f ( 2) (ii) f (0) (iii) f ( x  1) (iv) f ( x 2 4)
Answers: (i) 2 (ii)2 (iii) x  3 (iv) x 2 8
QUESTION 9: Given that f ( x )  x 3  ax 2  bx  1
If f (2)  3 and f (1)  0 . Find the values of a and b. Answers: a  2 , b  2

QUESTION 10: Express the following.

(a) The perimeter P of square as a function of its area A.
(b) The area A of a circle as a function of its circumference C.
(c) The volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of its base.
3
1
Answers: (a) P  4 A (b) A  C2 (c) V  ( A) 2
4
f (a  h)  f (a)
QUESTION 11: find and simplify where
h
(i) f ( x )  6 x  9 (ii) f ( x )  x 3 2 x 2 1 (iii) f ( x )  sin x (iv) f ( x )  cos x
Answers:
2  h h 2  h h
(i) 6 (ii) h 2 ( a 2  ah)3  2( h  2a ) (iii) cos  a   sin (iv)  sin  a   sin
h  2 2 h  2 2
1.2 Composite of the Function and Inverse of a Function
Suppose f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions then there composite of f and g is a

function, denoted by gof : X  Z and is define as
( gof )( x)  g ( f ( x))  gf ( x) , x  X
1.2.1 Composite of Functions
gf
Explanation:
Let two real valued functions
f ( x ) and g ( x) define
f ( x)  2 x  3 and g ( x )  x 2
Then
gof ( x)  g ( f ( x))
 g (2 x  3)
 (2 x  3) 2 X Y Z
Figure 1.2.1
The arrow diagram of two
consecutive mappings, f ( x ) followed by g ( x) denoted by gf ( x ) is shown in the
diagram. Thus a single composite function gf ( x) is equivalent to two successive functions
f ( x ) followed by g ( x) .
Example 1: Let the real value functions f ( x) and g ( x) be defined by
1
f ( x)  x  1 ; g ( x)  ,x  0
x2
Find out the (i) fg ( x) (ii) gf ( x) (iii) f 2 ( x) (iv) g 2 ( x)
(i) fg ( x )
Solution :
f ( x )  x  1  (1)
fg ( x)  f  g ( x) 
 1  1
 f  2 1 by using (1)
 x  x2
1  x2 1  x2
 
x2 x
(ii) gf ( x)
Solution :
f ( x)  x  1  (1)
 1  1
fg ( x)  f  g ( x)   f  2   1 by using (1)
 x  x2
1  x2 1  x2
 
x2 x
2
(iii) f ( x)
Solution :
f ( x)  x  1  (1)
f 2 ( x)  f  f ( x)   f  
x 1  x 1 1 by using (1)
(iv) g 2 ( x)
Solution :
1
g ( x)  2  (1)
x
 1 
g 2 ( x)  g  g( x)   g  2 
x 
1
 = x 4 by using (1)
 1 2
 2
x 
Important note: it is important to note that,
 Briefly we write fog as fg.

2 3
 We usually write ff as f , fff as f and so on.
 In general, fg ( x)  fg ( x)
 fg ( x) Means that g is applied first then followed by f .
 gf ( x) Means that f is applied first then followed by g .
1.2.2 Inverse of a function
Suppose f : X  Y be a one- one function the inverse of f , is denoted by f 1 : Y  X and is
Defined by:
y  f ( x)  x  f 1 ( y )  x  X , y Y

Illustration by arrow diagram:

The inverse function reverses the correspondence of the original function, so that
y  f ( x)  x  f 1 ( y )
1
We find the composition of the functions f and f as follows.
( f 1of )( x)  f 1 ( f ( x))  f 1 ( y )  x and
( fof 1 )( y )  f ( f 1 ( y ))
 f 1 ( x)  y
Y
X
We note that f 1of and fof 1 are f
identity mapping on the domain and

range of f and f 1 respectively. 1
f
Domain f Range f
Range f 1 Domain f 1
Figure 1.2.2
Important note: the change of name of variable in the definition of the function does not
change that function where the domain and range coincide.
Example 1: Find a : f 1 ( x ) and b : f 1 ( 1) of the given function. And prove that
c: f ( f -1 ( x))  f -1 ( f ( x))  x
f ( x)  ( x  9)3
Solution : a
Suppose, f ( x)  y  x  f 1 ( y )  (1)
so, y  ( x  9)3
1 1
y 3   ( x  9)3  3
1
y  x  9
3
1
x  9  y  (2)
3
By comparing (1) and (2)

1
f 1 ( y )  9  y 3
Replace y by x, we get
1
f 1 ( x )  9  x 3  (3)
b: Now, putting x  1 in (3)
1
1
f (1)  9  (1) 3
c:
1
1
f(f ( x))  f (9  x ) 3
1 1
 [(9  x 3 )  9]3  [9  x 3  9]3
1
 (x )  x
3 3
f 1
( f ( x))  f 1  ( x  9)3 
1
 9  (  x  9)3  3  9  x  9  x
1 1
Hence, f(f ( x))  f ( f ( x))  x

EXERSICE 1.2
QUESTION 1: The real valued functions f ( x) and g( x) are defined below.
A: Find fog ( x ) .
3
(i) f ( x )  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x )  x  1 ; g ( x)  2 ,x  0
x
1
(iii) f ( x )  ,x 1 ; g ( x )  ( x 2  1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x )  3x 4  2 x 2 ; g ( x)  ,x  0
x
(v) f ( x )  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  x  1
2
(vi) f ( x )  2 x  3 ; g ( x)  x 2
Answers:
5 x 1 x2 1 8(6 x  1)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 2 x 2  1 (vi)
x 1 x x x 2 2 x2
B: Find gof ( x) .
3
(i) f ( x )  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x )  x  1 ; g ( x)  2 ,x  0
x
1
(iii) f ( x )  ,x 1 ; g ( x )  ( x 2  1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x )  3x 4  2 x 2 ; g ( x)  ,x  0
x
(v) f ( x )  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  x  1
2
(vi) f ( x )  2 x  3 ; g ( x)  x 2
Answers:
2
3 1  x  2
(i) (ii) (iii)   (iv) (v)4 x 2  4 x (vi)(2 x  3) 2
2x x 1  x 1  x 3x 2 2
C: Find fof ( x ) .
3
(i) f ( x)  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x)  x  1 ; g ( x)  2 ,x  0
x
1
(iii) f ( x)  ,x 1 ; g ( x)  ( x 2  1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x)  3x 4  2 x 2 ; g ( x)  ,x  0
x
(v) f ( x)  2 x  1 ; g (x)  x  1
2
(vi) f ( x)  2 x  3 ; g (x)  x2
Answers:
x 1
(i) 4 x  3 (ii) x  1  1 (iii) (iv) 3(3x 4 2 x 2 ) 4 2(3x 4 2 x 2 ) 2 (v) 4 x  3 (vi)
1 x 1
D: Find gog ( x) .
3
(i) f ( x )  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  ,x 1
x 1
1
(ii) f ( x )  x  1 ; g ( x)  2 ,x  0
x
1
(iii) f ( x )  ,x 1 ; g ( x )  ( x 2  1) 2
x 1
2
(iv) f ( x )  3x 4  2 x 2 ; g ( x)  ,x  0
x
(v) f ( x )  2 x  1 ; g ( x)  x  1
2
(vi) f ( x )  2 x  3 ; g ( x)  x 2
Answers:
3( x  1)
(i) (ii) x 4 (iii) [( x 2 1) 4 1] 2 (iv) 2 x (v) x 4  2 x 2 (vi)
4 x
QUESTION 2: For real valued function f . defined below.
Find (a): f -1 ( x) (b): f -1 ( 1)
(c): Prove f ( f -1 ( x))  f -1 ( f ( x))  x in each part:
2x  1
(i) f ( x)  2 x  8 (ii) f ( x)  3x 3 7 (iii) f ( x )  ( x  9) 3 (iv) f ( x)  , x 1
x 1
1 1
8 x 9  x  7  3  8  3
1 1
x 1
Answers: (i) , (ii)   ,  (iii) 9  x 3 ,9  (  1) 3 (iv) ,0
2 2  3   3  x2
Portion 2:
1.3 Limit of a Function and Theorem on limits
The concept of the limit of a function is the basic on which the structure of the calculus rests.
Before the definition of the limits of a function .it is essential to have a clear understanding of
meaning of the following phrase.
1.3.1 Meaning of phrase “ x Approaches zero”
Suppose a variable x assume in succession a series of the value as

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , ........ .i.e. 1, , 2 , 3 , 2 ...... n .....
2 4 8 16 2 2 2 2 2
We notice that x is becoming smaller and smaller as n increasing and can made as small
as we please by taking n sufficiently large. This unending decrease of x is symbolically
written as x  0 and read “ x approaches zero or” x ”tends to zero”.
Important notes: the symbol x  0 is quite different from x  0
 x  0 means that x is very close to zero but not actually zero

 x  0 means that x is actually zero
1.3.2 Meaning of Phrase “ x Approaches infinity”
Suppose a variable x assume in succession a series of the value as
1,10,100,1000,10000,...... .i.e. 1,10,102 ,103 ,.....10n

We notice that x is becoming larger and larger as n increasing and can made as small as
we please by taking n sufficiently large. This unending increase of x is symbolically written
as x   and read “ x approaches infinity “or” “ x tends to infinity”.
1.3.3 Meaning of Phrase “ x Approaches a”
Symbolically written as x  a and read “ x approaches a “or” “ x tends to a”. Which means
that x is sufficiently close to but different from the number a. from the left and right sides of a
i.e. x  a Becomes smaller and smaller as we please but x  a  0
1.3.4 Concept of Limit of a Function
(i) By Finding the Area of Circumscribing Regular Polygon
Consider a circle of unit radius which circumscribes a squate ) 4-sided regular polygon)as
shown in Figer (a).
The side of square is 2 and its area is 2 square unit.it is clear that the area of inscribed 4-
sided polygon is less than the area of the circum-circle.
Bisecting the arcs between the vertices of the square,we get an inscribed 8-sied polygon as
shown in Figer (b).its area is 2 2 square unit which is closer to the area of circum-circle.a
furthe
(Fig: a) 4-sides polygon (Fig: b) 8-sides polygon (Fig: b) 16-sides polygon
similar bisection of the acrs gives an inscribed 16- sided polygon as shown in the Figer (c)
with area 3.061 square unit which is more closed to the area of the circum-circle. It follows
that as"n" the number of sides of the inscribed polygon increase , the area of polygon
increas and becoming neare to 3.142 which is the area of circle of unit radius that is
 r 2   (1) 2  3.1416...
We express this situation by saying that the limiting value of the area of the inscribed
polygon is the area of the circle ax "n" approachees infinity that is,
area of inscribed polygon  area of circle
as n  
Thus area of circle of unit radius    3.1416 (approx..)
(ii) Numerical Approaches
Suppose the function f ( x )  x 3 the domain of f ( x) is the set of all real numbers.
Let us find the limit of f ( x )  x 3 ax x approaches 2.
The table of values of f ( x) for different values of x as x approaches 2 from left and right is
as follows:
From left 2 2 from right of 2

x 1 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.2 2.5 3
f ( x)  x3 1 3.375 5.832 6.859 7.8806 7.988 7.9988 8.0012 8.012 8.1206 9.261 10.648 15.625 27
The table show that,as x get closer and closer to 2 (sufficiently close to 2), from both sides,
f ( x) when x approaches 2 and written as:
f ( x)  2 as x2 or lim( x 3 )  8
x 2
1.3.5 Limit of a Function:
Suppose, f : A  R be function define in an open interval near the number a (need not at a)
As x approaches “ a ” from left and right of “ a ” f ( x) approaches specific number “ L ” Then

f ( x)
Has a limit L at a point “ a ”
Symbolically it is denoted by:
lim f ( x)  L And read as limit of f ( x) is L as x  a

xa
It is neither desirable nor practicable to find the limit of a function by numerical approach. We
must be able to evaluate a limit in some mechanically way the theorems on limits will be
serve this purpose their proofs will be describes in higher class.
1.3.6 Theorem on Limits of Functions
Suppose f ( x) and g ( x) be the two functions, for which

lim f ( x)  L And lim g ( x)  M

xa x a
Theorem 1: The Limit of the sum of two Functions is equal to the sum of their limits.
lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  L M

x a x a x a
Example 1: Find the limit lim(6 x  5) Example 2: Evaluate the limit lim(6 x2  5x  1)
x 3 x 1
lim(6 x  5)  lim(6 x)  lim(5) lim(6 x  5 x  1)  lim(6 x )  lim(5 x)  lim(1)

2 2
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
 6(3)  5  6(1)  5(1)  1

2
 18  5  6  5 1
 23  12
Theorem 2: The limit of the difference of two functions is equal to the difference of their
limits.
lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x)  L M

Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim(9 x  5) Example 2: Find the limit lim( x2  5x  7)
x 1 x 1
lim(9 x  5)  lim(9 x)  lim(5) lim( x  5 x  7)  lim( x )  lim(5 x)  lim(7)

2 2
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
 9(3)  5  (1)  5(1)  7

2
 27  5  1 5  7
 22  11
Theorem 3: If " k " is any real number, then
lim kf ( x )  k lim f ( x )
x a x a
Example 1: Find limit lim(15 x) Example 2: Find the limit lim(9 x )

x2 x4
lim(15 x)  lim(15 x) lim(9 x)  lim(9 x)

x2 x2 x4 x4
 15(2)  9(4)
 30  36
Theorem 4: The limit of the product of two functions is equal to the product of their limits.
lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x)  L M

Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim(5 x)( x  3) Example 2: Evaluate the limit lim(3 x)( x  6)
x2 x 1
lim[(5 x)( x  3)]  lim(5 x) lim( x  3) lim(3x)( x  6)  lim(3x) lim( x  6)

x 2 x 2 x 2 x 1 x 1 x 1
 5(2)(2  3)  3(1)(1  6)
 10(5)  3(7)
 50  21
Theorem 5: The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits
provided the limits of the denominator is non-zero.
 f (x)  lim f ( x) L
lim    x x  , where g ( x)  0, M  0

x a g ( x )
 lim
x x
g ( x) M
 2x  4   x4
Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim   Example 2: Find the limit lim  
x2
 x5   x5
x 1
 2 x  4  lim(2 x  4)  x  4  x1lim( x  4)
lim    x 2
lim  
x 2
 x  5  lim( x 2
x  5) x 1 x  5
  lim(
x 1
x  5)
2(2)  4 8 1 4 5
   
25 7 1 5 6
Theorem 6: The limit of  f ( x )  , where " n " is any integer.

n
Example 1: Evaluate the limit lim(3x  5)2 Example 2: Evaluate the limit lim(3x  5)3
x 4 x 1
lim(3x  5)  lim(3x  5)
2 2
lim(3x  5)  lim(3x  5)3
3
x 4 x 4 x 1 x 1
2 3
 lim(3x  5)   lim(3x  5) 
 x 4   x1 
  3(4)  5)   3(1)  5)
2 3
 (7)2  49  ( 2)3  8
1.3.7 Limits of Important Functions
If, by substitution the number that x approaches into the function, we get then we evaluating
the limits as follows:
We simplify the given function by using algebraic technique of making factors if possible and
cancel the common factors. The method is explained in the following important limits.
1.3.8 Some Special limits questions:
x n a n
Evaluate: lim  na n 1 , where n is integer and a  0
x a x  a
Case 1: when " n " is a positive integer

Suppose n is positive integer
Here factor of ( x n  a n ) is
x n a n  ( x  a )(a 0 x n 1  a1 x n 2  a 2 x n 3  .....  a n 1 x 0 )
x n a n ( x  a )(a 0 x n 1  a1 x n 2  a 2 x n 3  .....  a n 1 x 0 )
lim = lim
x a x  a x a xa
0 n 1 1 n 2 2 n 3
= lim( a x  a x  a x  .....  a n 1 x 0 )
x a
=a 0a n 1  a1a n 2  a 2a n 3  .....  a n 1a 0 )

=a 0n 1  a1n 2  a 2 n 3  .....  a n 10
=a n 1  a n 1  a n 1  .....  a n 1 (n-times)
=na n 1
Case 2: when " n " is a negative integer (say n  m )
x n a n x  m a  m
Now  replacing n by m , we get
xa xa
x n a n x  m a  m
lim  lim
x a x  a x a xa
m
x a  m
= lim
xa xa
1 1 a m x m
m
 m
= lim x a = lim x m a m
xa xa xa xa
 1 a x  m m
= lim  m m 
xa x a
 xa 
 1   x m a m 
= lim  m m  lim  

xa x a
 x a  x  a 
 1  x n a n
 lim  m m  ma m 1 (by case :1) lim  na n 1
x a x  a

x a x a

1 1
= m m ma m 1 = 2 m ma m 1
a a a
2 m  m 1
=  na  ma  m 1
replace  m  n
x  m a  m
lim  na n 1
x a xa
x n a n
Evaluate: lim
x a x m a m
x n a n
x an n
lim m m  lim xm  am
x a x a x a x a
xa
(divided numerator and denominator) by ( x  a)
x n a n
lim
xa x  a na n 1
 
x m a m ma m 1
lim
xa x  a
n
 a nm
m
xh  x
1.3.9 Evaluate the lim
h 0 h
xh  x  xh  x xh  x 
lim  lim    by rationalization
h 0 h h 0
 h x  h  x 
( x  h )2  ( x )2  xhx
 lim  lim  
h 0 h h  0
 h 
h
 lim  
 
h 0 h
1
x 3
Example 1: Find lim
x 3 x 3
x3  x3 x 3
lim  lim    , by rationalization
x 3 x  3 x 3  x  3 x  3 
 ( x  3)( x  3) 
 lim  2 
 ( x )  ( 3) 
x 3 2
 ( x  3) ( x  3) 
 lim  
x 3  ( x  3) 
 
 lim( x  3)  3  3  2 3
x 3
x 3x
Example 2: Find lim
x 1 x  1
x 3 x x 3 x
lim  lim
x 1 x  1 x 1 x  1
x( x 2 1)
 lim
x 1 x 1
x ( x  1) ( x  1)
 lim
x 1 ( x  1)
 lim x( x  1)  1(1  1)  2
x 1
1.3.10 Limit at Infinity

f ( x)
We have studied the limits of the function f ( x), f ( x) g ( x) and when x  c (a number)
g ( x)
Let us see what happens to the limit of the function f ( x) if c is  or - (limit at infinity) i.e.
When x   and x  -
(a) Limit as x  
1
Let f ( x)  , x  0 this function has the property that the value of f(x) can be made as close
x
as we please to zero when the number x is sufficiently large. we express this phenomenon
by writing
1
f ( x)  , where x  0
x
we can solve this
1 1
lim f ( x)  lim   0
x  x  x 
(b) Limit as x  
This types of the limits are handled in the same way as limits ax x  

1
Let f ( x)  , x  0 this function has the property that the value of f(x) can be made as close
x
as we please to zero when the number x is sufficiently large. we express this phenomenon
by writing
1
f ( x)  , where x  0
x
we can solve this
1 1
lim f ( x)  lim  0
x  x  x 
The following theorem are use full to evaluating the limits at infinity.
Theorem: if x p is define, then
a
(a) lim 0
x  x p
a
(b) lim p  0
x  x
 " p " is any positive rational number.

 " a " is any real number.
6
Example 1: Evaluate the given lim
x  x3
Solution :
6
lim
x x3
case:i ; case:ii
6 6 6 6
lim  ; lim 
x  x 3
( ) 3 x  x 3
()3
0 ; 0
4
Example 1: Evaluate the given lim
x  x3
Solution :
4 4 4
lim  lim 1
 1
0
x  x x  x  2    2
1.3.11 Method for Evaluating the Limits at Infinity.

Theorem: if P( x) and Q( x) are Polynomial then,
P( x)
(a) lim
x  Q ( x )
P( x)
(b) lim
x  Q ( x )
In this case first we divide each term of both the numerator and denominator by the highest
power of the x that appears in the denominator and then use the above theorem.
 5 x 4  3 x 2 1 
Example 1: Evaluate the limit at infinity. lim  
 3x 2 x 20 
x  3 2
Solution :
 5 x 4  3x 2 1 
lim  
x  3 x 3 2 x 2 20
 
(  and  numerator and denominator by x3 )
 5 x 4 3x 2 1   3 1 
 3  3  3   5x   3 
lim  x x x   lim  x x 
x  3 x 3 2  2
 2 x 50  x
 3  2 x  20 
 3  3  3  
 x x x   x3 x3 
 3 1 
 5()    3     0  0  
   
2 20  
 3   3   3  0  0  3
   
 4 x 4 5 x 3 
Example 2: Find the given limit lim  
 3 x 2 x 1 
x  5 2
Solution :
 4 x 4 5 x 3 
lim  
x  3 x 5 2 x 2 1
 
(  and  numerator and denominator by x5 )
 4 x 4 5 x3   4 5   4

5 
 5
 5   x  x2    () 2   00 
x x
lim    lim    0
x  3 x 5
  3 0 0 
2
 x  3  2  1   3 
 2 x 1 2 1
 5  5  5   
 x x x   x3 x5   () ()5
3

5  6x 2  3x
Example 3: Find the following given limits (i): lim (ii): lim
x 
3  4x 2 x 
3  4x 2
5  6x
(i): lim
x 
3  4x 2
Solution :
Here x 2  x   x , as  0
5  6x
lim
x 
3  4x 2
( and  numerator and denominator by -x )
5 6x 5
  6
 lim  x  x  lim x
x  3 x  3
2
4 4
x x2

5
 6
() 06 6
   3
3 04 2
4
() 2
2  3x
(ii): lim
x 
3  4x 2
Solution :
Here x 2  x  x , as x  0
2  3x
lim
x 
3  4x 2
( and  numerator and denominator by x)
2 3x 2
 3
 lim x x  lim x
x  3 x  3
2
4 4
x x2
2
3
 03 3
  
3 04 2
4
( ) 2
n
 1
1.3.12 lim 1    e
n 
 n
Proof :
By using bionomial theorem
n  1  n(n  1)  1  n(n  1)(n  2)  1 
n 2 3
 1
1    1           ......
 n 1!  n  2!  n  3! n
1  n 2  n  1  n(n 2  3n  2) 
 1 1       ......
2!  n 2  3!  n3 
1  1  1  (n3  3n 2  2n) 
 11 1       ......
2!  n  3!  n3 
n
 1 1  1  1  1  2 
1    1  1  1    1  1    ......
 n 2!  n  3!  n  n 
take lim on both sides
n 
 
n
 1 1  1  1  1  2 
lim 1    lim 1  1  1    1  1    ......
n 
 n  n  2!  n  3!  n  n  
1  1 1  1  2 
 1  1  lim 1    lim 1  1    ......
2! n  n  3! n  n  n 
1  1  1  1  2
 1 1  1    1  1    ......
2!    3!     
1 1 1 1
 1 1    ......
2! 3! 4! 5!
 1  1  0.5  0.16667  0.04166667  .....
n
 1
lim 1    2.718281 (approximate)
n 
 n
we know that approximate value of e is 2.718281
Hence proved.
n
 1
lim 1    e
n 
 n
1
Deduction: lim 1  x  x  e
x 0
Proof :
we know that
n
 1
lim 1    e  (1)
n 
 n
Suppose that
1 1
n   x  putting this in (1)
x n
when x  0 then n   (1) becomes
1
lim 1  x  x  e
x 0
hence proved
a x 1
1.3.13 lim  log e a
x 0 x
Proof :
a x 1
lim  log e a
x 0 x
ax 1
L.H.S  lim  (1)
x 0 x
Suppose that
y  ax 1 when x  0 then y  0
a x  1  y  (i)
take log on both sides
log a (1  y )  x
log a (1  y )  x  (ii)
putting (i) and (ii) in (1)
y
L.H.S  lim
y  0 log (1  y )
a

1 1
 lim  lim 1
y 0 1 y 0
log a (1  y ) log a (1  y ) y
y
1
1
 1
lim 1  x  x  e
x 0
log a lim(1  y ) y
y 0
1
  R.H.S
log a e
ex 1
Deduction: lim  log e e  1
x 0 x
Proof :
ex 1
lim  log e e
x 0 x
ex 1
L.H.S  lim  (1)
x 0 x
suppose that
y  e x 1 when x  0 then y  0
e x  1  y  (i)
take log on both sides
log e (1  y)  x
log e (1  y)  x  (ii)
putting (i) and (ii) in (1)
y
L.H.S  lim
y 0 log (1  y )
e
1 1
 lim  lim 1
y 0 1 y 0
log e (1  y ) log e (1  y ) y
y
1
1
 1
lim 1
x 0
 x  x e
log e lim(1  y ) y
y 0
1
  log e e
log e e
 1  R.H.S Hence, proved
x
 x 
Example 1: Express the lim   in the term of the number e .
x 
 1 x 
Solution :
x
 1 x 
x
 x 
lim    lim  
x  1  x
  x  x 
x
 1
 lim 1  
x 
 x
1
  1 
x
  lim  1   
 x   x  
x
1  1
 (e)1  lim 1    e
e x 
 x
2n
 3
Example 2: Express the lim 1   in the term of the number e :
n 
 n
Solution :
3
 3 
2n
 3 
2n 3
lim 1     lim 1   
n 
 n  n  n  
6
 n

  1  3

  lim  1   
n   n 
  3 
 
n
 1 
3
 (e ) 6  e 6 
lim 1  e
n   n 
 3
Important result to Remember:
(1) lim (e x )  
x 
 1 
(2) lim (e x )  lim   x   
x 

x  e

a
lim    0, where is any real number.
 
x  x
1.3.14 The Sand-witch Theorem
Statement: Let f ( x), g ( x) and h( x) be function such that f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) for all x in

some open interval containing “ c ” except possibly at c itself.
if lim f ( x )  L and lim h( x)  L

x c x c
then lim g( x)  L
x c
Many limit problems arise that cannot be directly evaluated by algebraic method. they
require geometric arrangements, so we evaluate an important theorem.
sin 
1.3.15 if Measure in Radian, then lim 1
 0 
Proof: To evaluate this limit, we apply a new technique .take  a positive acute central angle
of

The circle with radius r  1 as show in diagram. OAB represent a sector of the circle.
given:
D
OA  OB  1 (radius of unit circle)
B
BC BC
in right triangle OCB , sinθ =  OB  1
OB 1 r 1
AD AD
in right triangle OAD , tanθ =  OA  1
OA 1 
O r 1 C A
In term of  , the areas are expressed as.
Produce OB to D so that AD  OA. draw BC  OA. join AB Figure 1.3.15
case:i
1 1 1
Area of OAB = OA BC  (1)(sin )  sin
2 2 2
case:ii
1 1 1
Area of sector OAB = r 2  (1)2 ( )  
2 2 2
case:iii
1 1 1
Area of OAD = OA AD  (1)(tan )  tan
2 2 2
from the diagram we can see
Area of OAB  Area of OAB  Area of OAD
1 1 1
 sin    tan
2 2 2
1 1 1 sin
 sin     (1)
2 2 2 cos
2
multiplying (1) by ( )
sin
1 2 1 2 1 sin 2
 sin ( )  ( ) ( )
2 sin 2 sin 2 cos sin
 1
 1 
sin cos
sin 1 1
 1>  cos x y 
 x y
sin
 1  cos

by applying lim
 0
sin
 lim (1)  lim( )  lim(cos )
 0  0   0
here we can see

lim (1)=1 , lim(cos0)  1
 0  0
According to sendwitch theorem

sin
lim( ) 1 Hence proved.
 0 

Important note: The same result hold for   0
2
sin 7 x
Example 1: Evaluate the lim
x 0 x
Solution :
sin 7 x 7 sin 7 x
lim  lim (divided and multipling by 7)
x 0 x 7 x 0 x
 sin 7 x  sin 
 7  lim   7(1)  7 lim =1
 0 
 x 0 7 x 
sin x
Example 2: Find the lim
x    x
Solution :
sin x
lim  (1)
x    x
Suppose
  x if x   then   0
x     putting this in (1)
sin(   ) sin 
lim  lim 1
 0   0 
sec x  cos x
Example 3: Evaluate the lim
x0 x
Solution :
1
 cos x
sec x  cos x
lim  lim cos x
x 0 x x 0 x
1  cos 2 x
1  cos 2 x
 lim cos x  lim
x 0 x x  0 x cos x
2
sin x 1
 lim .lim
x 0 x x 0 cos x
divided and multipling by x
sin 2 x 1
 lim 2
.lim x.lim
x 0 x x 0 x  0 cos x
2
 sin x  1
  lim  .lim x.lim
 x 0 x  x 0 x 0 cos x
 (1) 2 .(0).(1)  0

1.3.16 Limits of the important Functions

sin x tan x
1: lim 1 2 : lim cos x  1 3 : lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x 0 x
xn  an 1
1
4 : lim  na n 1 5 : lim(1  x)  e
x
6 : lim(1  ) n  e
xa x  a x 0 n  n
ex 1 a 1
x
7 : lim ee  1 8 : lim  log e e  1 9 : lim  log e a  1
x 0 x 0 x x 0 x
EXERCISE 1.3
QUESTION 1: Evaluate each limit by using above theorems of limits.
(i) lim(2 x  4) (ii) lim(3 x 2 2 x  4) (iii) lim x 2  x  4 (iv) lim x x 2 4
x 3 x 1 x 3 x2
 2 x 5 x  3
(v) lim( x 3 1  x 2 5) (vi) lim   (vii) lim( x  5) (viii) lim( x  5)
x2 x 2
 3x  2  x 1 x 3
 3x  4 
(ix) lim 3 x (x) lim(2 x)( x  4) (xi) lim(2 x  3)3 (xii) lim  
x2 x 1 x4 x2
 x3 
Answers:
13
(i) 10 (ii) 5 (iii) 4 (iv) 0 (v) 0 (vi) (vii) 6 (viii)  2 (ix) 6 (x) 10 (xi) 125 (xii) 2
5
QUESTION 2: Evaluates each limit by rationalizing techniques.
 x 2 xh  x x 5 xa  a
(i) lim   (ii) lim (iii) lim (iv) lim
 x2  x 5
x 2 h 0 h x 5 x 0 x
1 1 1
Answers: (i) (ii) (iii)2 5 (iv)
2 2 2 x 2 a
QUESTION 3: Evaluates each limit by algebraic techniques.
x 3 4 x  3x 3 4 x  x3  8 x 3 3x 2 3x  1
(i) lim (ii) lim  2  (iii) lim 2 (iv) lim
x 1 x  2 x 0
 x x  x 2 x  x  6 x 1 x 3x
2 x 2 32  x 3x 2  2 x 2 32 x 2 1
(vi) lim (v) lim  2  (vi) lim (vii) lim
x 4 x 3 4 x 2 x 1
 x 1  x 4 x 3 4 x 2 x 1 x 2 x
12
Answers: (i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) (iv) 0 (v) (vi) 1 (vii) 2
5
QUESTION 4: Some special questions:
x n a n x n a n
(i) lim , where n is an integer and a  0 (ii) lim m m
x a x  a x a x  a
n n m
Answers: (i) na n1 (ii) x
m
QUESTION 5: Evaluate the following limits.
sin 7 x sin x 0 sin ax sin 2 sin 7 x

(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim (iv) lim (v) lim (vi) lim
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 sin bx  0   0  x 0 tan x
 a
Answers: i  7 (ii) (iii) iv  0  v 7  vi  1
180 b
QUESTION 6: evaluate the following limits.
1  cos  1  cos 2 x 1  cos x 1  cos p 1  cos 
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim (iv) lim (v) lim
 0 sin  x 0 x2 x 0 sin 2 x  0 1  cos q  0 
sin x
(vi) lim
x    x

1 p2
Answers:  i  0 ii  2 (iii) (iv)  v 0  vi  1
2 q2
QUESTION 7: Some special questions.
sec x  cos x tan   sin 

(i)lim (ii)lim
x 0 x  0 sin 3
1
Answers: (i) 0 (ii)
2
QUESTION 8: Limit of some important functions.
Prove that.
a x 1 ex 1
n
 1 1
(a) lim 1    e (b) lim 1  x  x  e (c) lim  log e a (d) lim  log e e
n 
 n x 0 x 0 x x 0 x
QUESTION 9: express each limit in term of e.
2n n n n
 1  1  1  1  4
n
(i) lim 1   (ii) lim 1   2 (iii) lim 1   (iv) lim 1   (v) lim 1  
n 
 n n 
 n n 
 n n 
 3n  n 
 n
x 2n
 x   3
(vi) lim   (vii) lim 1  
x  1  x
  n 
 n
1 1
2 1 1
Answers: (i)e (ii)e 2
(iii) (iv)e 3
(v)e 4 (vi) (vii)e 6
e e
QUESTION 10: express each limits in term of e.
1 1 1
(ii)lim 1  2 x 2  x 2
2
(i)lim 1  3x  x (iii)lim 1  2h  h (iv)lim 1  2h  h
x 0 x 0 h0 h0
Answers: (i)e 6 (ii)e 2 (iii)e 2 (iv)e 2
QUESTION 11: some special question.

1 1
e x 1 e x 1
(a) lim 1
,x0 (b) lim 1
, x0
x 0 x 0
e 1
x
e 1
x
Answers: a  1  b 1
QUESTION 12: method for evaluating the limits at infinity.
6 5 1
(i) lim 0 (ii) lim 0 (iii) lim 0
x  x 3 x  x x  5 x
 5 x 4 10 x 2 1   4 x 4 5 x 3 
(i) lim 
x  3 x 3 10 x 2 50
 (ii) lim  5
x  3 x 2 x 2 1
0
   

2  3x 3 2  3x 3
(i) lim  (ii) lim 
x 
3  4x 2 2 x 
3  4x 2 2
1.4 Continuous and Discontinuous Functions
1.4.1 One –Sided Limits
In the defining lim f ( x ) , we restricted x to an open interval containing c i.e. we study the
x c
behave of f ( x) on the both sides of c however, in some cases it is necessary investigate

one –side limits i.e. the left hand and right hand limits.
(a) The Left Hand Limit
lim f ( x)  L is read as limit of f ( x) is equal to L as x approaches c from the left
x c
i.e. for all sufficiently close to c but less than c , the value of f ( x) can made as
close as we please to L.
(b) The Right Hand Limit
lim f ( x)  M is read as limit of f ( x) is equal to M as x approaches c from the left
x c
i.e. for all sufficiently close to c but greater than c , the value of f ( x) can made as
close as we please to M .
Example 1: Determined the left hand limit and the right hand limit and also find the limit of
the function f ( x)  x  8 at c  2 .
Solution :
f ( x)  x  8 , c2
we know that
left hand limit ; right hand limit
L.H.L  lim f ( x) ; R.H.L  lim f ( x)
x c x c
 lim ( x  8) ;  lim ( x  8)
x2 x2
 2 8 ;  2 8
 6 ;  6
limit of a function f ( x)
lim f ( x)
x c
lim f ( x)  lim( x  8)
x 2 x 2
 2 8
6
1.4.2 Criteria for Existence of Limit of the Function
lim f ( x)  L  lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  L

x c x c x c

2 x  1 if 0  x  2

Example 1: Determined whether lim f ( x ) exist, when f ( x )  7  x if 2  x  4
x4
x if 4  x  6

Solution :
2 x  1 if 0  x  2

f ( x)  7  x if 2  x  4
x if 4  x  6

we know that limit exist mean
left hand limit  right hand limit
lim f ( x )  lim f ( x)
x c  x c
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) ; lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)

x c  x4 x c  x4
 lim (7  x) ;  lim ( x)
x 4 x 4
74 ; 4
=3
So, limits does not exist.
2 x  1 if 0  x  2

Example 2: Determined whether lim f ( x ) exist, when f ( x )  7  x if 2  x  4
x2
x if 4  x  6

Solution :
2 x  1 if 0  x  2

f ( x)  7  x if 2  x  4
x if 4  x  6

we know that limit exist mean
left hand limit  right hand limit
lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )
x c  x c
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) ; lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)

x c  x 2 x c x2
 lim (2 x  1) ;  lim (7  x)
x2 x2
 2(2)  1  5 ;  72 5
Hence, limits exist.
1.4.3 Continuity of a Function at a number or point
(a) Continuous Function
A function f is said to be continuous at number or a point “c “if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied.
(i) f (c) Defined.
(ii) lim f ( x ) Exist.
x c
(iii)
(iv) lim f ( x)  f (c)
x c
Here,
 lim f ( x ) is called limiting value.

x c
 f (c) is called functional value.
3x if x  2
 2
Example 1: Discuss the continuity of f ( x)   x  1 if  2  x  2 ,c  2
3 if x  2

Solution :
3x if x  2
 2
f ( x)   x  1 if  2  x  2 , c  2
3 if x  2

for continuity we know that
lim f ( x )  f (c )
x c
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)

R.H.S  f (c )
 f (2)
3
L.H.S  lim f ( x)
x c

x c x c
 lim f ( x ) ;  lim f ( x )
x2 x2
= lim ( x  1)2
; = lim (3)
x 2 x2
 (2)  1  3
2
; 3
Hence L.H.S  R.H.S
So, given function is continuous
(b) Discontinuous
If one or more of these three condition fail to hold at “ c ” then the function f ( x) is said to be
discontinuous at “ c ”.
3x if x  2
 2
Example 2: Discuss the continuity of f ( x)   x  1 if  2  x  2 , c  2
3 if x  2

Solution :
3x if x  2

f ( x)   x 2  1 if  2  x  2 , c  2
3 if x  2


for continuity of a function we know that

lim f ( x )  f (c )
x c
lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )

R.H.S  f (c)
 f (2)
 6
x c

x c x c
 lim f ( x) ;  lim f ( x )
x 2 x 2
= lim (3x) ; = lim ( x 2  1)

x 2 x 2
 3(-2) ;  (2) 2  1
 6 ; 3
Here L.H.S  R.H.S
So, given function is not continuous
 x 2 9
 if x  3
Example 3: Discuss the continuity of f ( x)   x  3 , c3
6 if x  3

8
Solution : 4, 7
6 3, 6
 x 9
2
 if x  3 2, 5
Y-AXIS
f ( x)   x  3 , c3 4
6 if x  3
0, 3
 2
for continuity of a function we know that 0
lim f ( x)  f ( c) 0 1 2 X-AXIS 3 4 5
x c

R.H.S  f ( c)
 f (3)
6
x c
x 2 9
 lim f ( x)  lim
x 3 x 3 x  3
( x  3)( x  3)
= lim = lim( x  3)
x 3 x3 x 3
 33  6
Hence L.H.S  R.H.S
So, given function is continuous
it is noted that there is no break in the graph.
 x  1 if x  3
Example 4: Discuss the continuity of f ( x )   , c3
2 x  1 if x  3
Solution :
 x  1 if x  3
f ( x)   , c3
2 x  1 if x  3
for continuity of a function we know that
lim f ( x )  f (c)
x c

R.H.S  f ( c)
 f (3)
7
x c

x c x 3
 lim f ( x) ;  lim f ( x)
x 3 x 3
= lim ( x  1) ; = lim (2 x  1)
x 3 x 3
 3 1  2 ;  2(3)  1  7
Here L.H.S  R.H.S
So, given function is not continuous we can
see that there is a break in the graph when x  3
mx if x  3
Example 5: Find the value of " m " so that given function f ( x)   , x  3 is
x
2
if x  3
continuous.
Solution :
we know that function is continuous mean
lim f ( x )  f (c )
x c
lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) ; lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)

x c x 3 x c  x 3
 lim (mx) ;  lim ( x 2 )

x 3 x 3
 3m ;  (3)2
9
because given function is continuous.
3m  9
m3

EXERCISE 1.4
QUESTION 1: Determined left hand limit and right hand limit and also find the limits of the
following function:
x 2 9
(i) f ( x )  2 x 2  x  5 , c 1 (ii) f ( x )  , c  3
x3
(iii) f ( x )  x  5 , c5
Answers:
(i) L.H.L  2 , R.H.L  2 (ii) L.H.L  0 , R.H.L  0 (iii) L.H.L  0, R.H.L  0
lim f ( x ) =  2 lim f ( x ) = 0 lim f ( x ) = 0
x 1 x 3 x 0
QUESTION 2: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) at x  c
3x  1 if x  1
2 x  5 if x  2 
(i) f ( x )   ,c  2 (ii) f ( x )  4 if x  1 , c 1
4 x  1 if x  2 2 x
 if x  1
3 x if x  2 3 x if x  2
 2  2
(iii) f ( x )   x 1 if  2  x  2 ,c  2 (iv) f ( x )   x 1 if  2  x  2 , c  2
3 if x  2 3 if x  2
 
 x 2 9
 if x  3  x  1 if x  3
(v) f ( x )   x  3 , c3 (vi) f ( x )   , c3
6 if x  3 2 x  1 if x  3
Answers: (i) continuous (ii) discontinuous (iii) continuous (iv)

discontinuous
(v) Continuous (vi) discontinuous
QUESTION 3: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) at x  c
x 2 1 x 2 9
(i) f ( x )  ,c 1 (ii) f ( x)  ,c  3
x 1 x3
Answers: (i) Discontinuous (ii) Discontinuous
QUESTION 4: Determined whether
2 x  1 if 0  x  2

(i) lim f ( x) Exist, when f ( x )  7  x if 2  x  4
x4
x if 4  x  6

2 x  1 if 0  x  2

(ii) lim f ( x) Exist, when f ( x )  7  x if 2  x  4
x2
x if 4  x  6

Answers: (i) does not exist (ii) exist
 x  2 if x  1
QUESTION 5: Find " c " so that lim f ( x) exist. And f ( x)   Answer: c  1
x -1
c  2 if x  1
QUESTION 6: find the value of " m " and " n " so that given function is continuous at x  3.
mx if x  3
 mx if x  3
(i) f ( x)  n if x  3 (ii) f ( x)   2
2 x  9 if x  3 x if x  3

Answers: (i) m  1, n  3 (ii) m  3
 2x  5  x  7
 ,x  2
QUESTION 7: Find the value of " k " , so that function f ( x )   x2 is
k ,x  2

2x  5  x  7 1
continuous at x  2. (Hint: Solve by Factorization of ) Answer: k 
x2 6
Portion 3:
1.5 Graphs of algebraic functions
If f ( x) is a real valued function of real a real numbers, then the graph of f ( x) in xy  plane
is defined to be the graph of the equation y  f ( x).

The graph of a function f ( x) is the set of points ( x, y ) y  f ( x) , x is in the domain of f ( x ) 
in
The Cartesian plane for which ( x, y) is an ordered pair of f ( x). the graph provides a visual
y y y y
x x x
O
x O O
1: a function 2: Not a function 3: Not a function 4: a function
technique for determining whether the set of points represents a function or not.
If a vertical line intersects a graph in one point, then it shows a function. We can see in figure
1 and 4. Which show the function. On the other hand, if a vertical line intersects a graph in
more than one point, then it does not show a function. We can see in figure 2 and 3. Which
does not show the function.
Method to draw the graph:
To draw the graph of y  f ( x) , we give arbitrary values of our choice to x and find the
corresponding values of y. in this way we get ordered pairs ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) etc.
these ordered pairs represent points of the graph in the Cartesian plane. We these points
and join them together to get the graph of the function.

We now learn the method to draw the graphs of the explicit function like y  f ( x) , where
f ( x)  a x , e x ,loga x and loge x.
1.5.1 Graph of the Exponential Function f ( x )  a x
Let us draw the graph of f ( x )  2 x , here a  2.
We prepare the following table for different values of x and f ( x ) near the origin.
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y  f ( x)  2x 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
Plotting the points ( x, y ) and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the figure, we get
the graph of f ( x )  2 x
From the graph of f ( x )  2 x , the characters of the graph f ( x )  a x are plotted as follows:
If a  1
(i) a x Increases ax x increases.

(ii) a x  1 when x  0
(iii) a x   as x  
15
13
y-axis
11
9
3, 8
7
5
2, 4
3
1, 2
1 0, 1
-3, 0.125 -2, 0.25 -1, 0.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x-axis
1.5.2 Graph of the Exponential Function f ( x )  e x
As the value of " e " is 2.718
Let us draw the graph of f ( x )  e x
We prepare the following table for different values of x and f ( x ) near the origin.
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y  f ( x)  e x 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
the graph of f ( x )  e
x
From the graph of f ( x )  e x , the characters of the graph f ( x )  e x are plotted as follows:
If e  1
(i) e x Increases as x increases.

(ii) e x  1 when x  0
(iii) e x   as x  
15
13
11
2, 7.38
7
3
1, 2.718
1 0, 1
-3, 0.05 -2, 0.135 -1, 0.36
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1.5.3 Graph of Common Logarithmic Function f ( x)  lg x
Here we know that x  10  y  lg x
Now for all real values of y ,10 y  0  x  0
This means lg x exist only when x  0
For graph of f ( x )  lg x, we find the values of lg x from the common logarithmic table for
several of x  0
Table of some of the corresponding values of x and f ( x)  lg x is as under.
x 0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10  
y  f ( x)  lg x   1 0 0.30 0.60 0.77 0.90 1  
the graph of f ( x)  lg x

Important note: f ( x)  lg x is not define at x  0
1.5.4 Graph of Natural Logarithmic Function f ( x)  ln x
The graph of f ( x)  ln x has the same property as that of the graph of f ( x)  ln x.
For graph of f ( x )  ln x, we find the values of ln x from the common logarithmic table for
several of x  0
Table of some of the corresponding values of x and f ( x)  lg x is as under.
x 0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10  
y  f ( x)  ln x   2.302 0 0.7 1.3 1.8 2.08 2.302  
the graph of
15
y-axis
13
11
9
7
5
3
6, 1.8 8, 2.08
1 4, 1.3 10, 1
2, 0.7
1, 0
-1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0.1, -2.302
-3
-5
x-axis
Important note: f ( x)  ln x is not define at x  0

1.5.5 Intervals:
Interval are the natural collection of subsets determined by the order relation on R and
define as follows.
A subset S of (real number) is called an interval if a, b  S and a  b then every real
number r satisfying a  r  b is also belong to S where a and b are called end point of the
interval
Value addition Note: the end point of the interval may and may not belong the interval.
1.5.6 Length of the intervals:

The distance between end point of the interval is called the length of the interval irrespective
of the fact weather the end points belong to the interval or not, Thus if a and b are the end
point of the interval then the length if the interval is define by b  a .
1.5.7 Types of the intervals:

Open intervals:
An interval defines as
(a, b)  a, b  x  : a  x  b is called an open interval.
Value addition note: the end point of the interval does not belong to the interval
Closed interval:
 a , b   x  : a  x  b is called a closed interval.
Value addition note: the end point of the interval always belongs to interval.
Half open (or half Closed intervals):

[a, b)  x  : a  x  b And (a, b]  x  : a  x  b is called a closed intervals.
Value addition note: Half open (or half Closed interval) must have only one end-point
Infinite open intervals:

(a, )  x  : x  a Or ( , a)  x  : x  a is called infinite open intervals.
Infinite closed intervals:

[a, )  x  : x  a Or ( , a ]  x  : x  a is called infinite closed intervals.
Value addition note:

1: The interval ( , )  is called both infinite open and infinite closed interval.
2: No point is an end point of the interval ( , ) 
Value addition remark:
1: if the endpoint of an open interval are same then the cross ponding open internal is the
empty set i.e. (a, a)  
2: if the endpoint of a closed interval are same then the cross ponding closed internal is the
singleton set i.e. [a, a]  a
1.5.8 Domain, Range, Symmetry and Sketch of Basic Functions

1: The identity Function:
The function f ( x)  x is called identity function. Y-axis
Graph 1
Domain: (, )
Range: (, )
X-axis
Sketch: O
2: The inverse Function:
1
The function f ( x)  is called inverse function.
x
Domain: x  0
Range: f ( x)  0 Graph 2
Sketch:
Y-axis
X-axis
O
3: The Squaring Function:
The function f ( x )  x 2 is called squaring function. Graph 3

Y-axis
Range: [0, )
Sketch:
X-axis
O
4: The Cubing Function:

Y-axis
The function f ( x )  x 3 is called cubing function. Graph 4
Range: (, ) X-axis

O
Sketch:
5: The Square root Function:
The function f ( x)  x is called square root function.
Domain: [0, )
Range: [0, )
Y-axis Graph 5
Sketch:
X-axis
O
6: The Absolute Value Function:
The function f ( x)  x is called absolute value function.

Range: [0, )
Y-axis Graph 6
Sketch:
X-axis
O
7: The Exponential Function:
The function f ( x )  e x is called exponential function. Graph 7
Y-axis
Range: (0, )
Sketch:
X-axis
O
Y-axis
8: The Natural Log Function:
The function f ( x)  ln x is called natural log function.
Domain: (0, )
X-axis
O
Range: (, )
Sketch:
Graph 8
Exercise 1.5
QUESTION 1: Find the domain and range of the function of define below.
The Polynomial functions:
Part no Domain Range
(i) : g ( x)  x (, ) (, )
(ii) : g ( x)  2 x  5 (, ) (, )
(iii):g ( x)  x 2 (, ) 0,  
(iv):g ( x)  x 2  1 (, ) 1,  
(v):g ( x)  x 3 (, ) (, )
QUESTION 2: The square root functions:
(i):g ( x)  x 0,   0,  
(ii):g ( x)  x  1 1,  0,  
(iii) : g ( x)  x 2  4 R  (2, 2) 0,  
(iv) : g ( x)  x 2  9 R  (3,3) 0,  
QUESTION 3: The absolute value functions:
(i) : g ( x)  x (, ) 0,  
(ii) : g ( x)  x  3 (, ) 0,  
QUESTION 4: Rational functions:

x  3x  2
2
R  1 R  1
(i) : g ( x) , x  1
x 1
x 2  16 R  4 R  8
(ii) : g ( x) ,x  4
x4
(iii) : g ( x)  2
x
, x  2, 2 R  2, 2 (, )
x 4
QUESTION 5:
Part no Domain range

6 x  7 , x  2 (, ) (, )
(i) : g ( x)  
4  3 x , 2  x
 x 1 ,x 3 (, ) (, 2)  [7, )
(ii) : g ( x)  
2 x  1 ,3  x
x ,0  x 1 [0,1]  (1, 2]  [0, 2] [0,1]
(iii) : g ( x)  
x 1 ,1  x  2

QUESTION 6: Exponential functions:

(i) g ( x)  e x
 ,    0,  
QUESTION 7: Logarithm functions:

(i) g ( x)  ln x  0,    ,  
1
QUESTION 8: without finding the inverse, state the domain and range of f ( x ).

(i) f ( x)  x  2 [0, ) [2, )
(ii) f ( x) 
1
, x  3 R  0 R  3
x3
(iii) f ( x) 
x 1
,x  4 R  1 R  4
x4
(iv) f ( x )  ( x  5) 2 , x  5 [0, ) [5, )

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Chapter 1: Functions, Limits and Graphs 1

Portion Functions,Limits Portion

Function and their types Graphs, Domain and Range

exercise 1.1 exercise 1.5

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

In (ii) a sphere of a given radius has only one volume.

1.1.2 Function definition

Swiss Mathematician Euler (1707-1783)

Invented a symbolic way to write the statement “ y is a function of x “as y  f ( x) , which is

 Where x and y both are variables

Example: Given that f ( x)  x 2  x

putting x  x 2  4 in (1) ,we get

1.1.4 Important and Basic types of the Functions

(i) Polynomial Function

 The domain and range of p( x) is the subset of the real numbers.

Examples: (1) 4x 3  x 2  5 x  1 (2) 2x 2  5 x  9

(i) Linear Function or Linear Polynomial

Examples: (1) f ( x)  2 x  3 (2) f ( x)  4x  5

Here in given examples are linear functions of one degree

(ii) Identity Function

Example: A function I : R  R define by I (3)  3  x  R is an identity function.

(iii) Constant Function

Example: A function C : R  R define by C ( x)  3 , x  R is a constant function.

(iv) Rational Function

1.1.5 Trigonometric Functions

We denote and define trigonometric function as follows.

NO. Functions Domain Range

(iii) y  tan x   (, )

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

1: sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1 2 : sec 2 x  tan 2 x  1 3 : csc2 x  cot 2 x  1

1: sin 2 x  cos2 x  1 2 : sec2 x  tan 2 x  1 3: csc2 x  cot 2 x  1

Sum and Difference of Sines and Cosines:

Product of Sines and Cosines:

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

Triple Angles Trigonometric Identity:

NO. Function Domain Range

(iii) y  tan 1 x (, )  

1.1.6 Exponential Function

(1) y  e x (2) y  e x ln x (3) y  e ax (4) y  2 x Etc. are the exponential functions of x.

1.1.7 Logarithmic Function

If x  a y then y  log a x where x, a  0 and a  0 then the function f ( x)  log a x is called

Common Logarithmic Function:

f ( x)  log10 x is usually expressed as f ( x)  log x

Natural Logarithmic Function:

 If a  10 then we have log10 x (written as lg x ) which is called the common logarithm

General log Properties Common Log Properties Natural Log Properties

Important Note: A Logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function.

1.1.8 Hyperbolic Functions

Hyperbolic sine function:

Hyperbolic Cosine Function:

(1) sech 2 x  tanh 2 x  1 (2) coth 2 x  csch 2 x  1 (3) cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1

1.1.9 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

(1) sinh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1) , x (2) cosh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1) ,  x  1

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

1.1.10 Explicit Function

If y is easily expressed in term of the independent variable x , then

Examples: (1) y  3x 2  x  5 (2) y  2x  7

1.1.11 Implicit Function

1.1.12 Parametric Functions

The functions of the form

Are called parametric functions.

The equations of the form