Module I - 5d. Chapter - 5 - Structure and Function of Macromolecules PDF

Chapter 5
The Structure and Function of

Macromolecules
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: The Molecules of Life
– Another level in the hierarchy of biological
organization is reached when small organic
molecules are joined together

• Macromolecules
– Are large molecules composed of smaller
molecules
– Are complex in their structures
Figure 5.1

Concept 5.1: Most macromolecules are
polymers, built from monomers
• Three of the classes of life’s organic
molecules are polymers
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids

• A polymer
– Is a long molecule consisting of many similar
building blocks called monomers

The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
• Monomers form larger molecules by
condensation reactions called dehydration
reactions
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water

H2O
molecule, forming a new bond
HO 1 2 3 4 H
Longer polymer
Figure 5.2A (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer

• Polymers can disassemble by
– Hydrolysis
HO 1 2 3 4 H
Hydrolysis adds a water

H2O
molecule, breaking a bond
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Figure 5.2B (b) Hydrolysis of a polymer

The Diversity of Polymers
• Each class of polymer
– Is formed from a specific set of monomers
1 2 3 H HO

• Although organisms share the same limited
number of monomer types, each organism is
unique based on the arrangement of monomers
into polymers
• An immense variety of polymers can be built from
a small set of monomers

• Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and
building material
• Carbohydrates
– Include both sugars and their polymers

Sugars
• Monosaccharides
– Are the simplest sugars
– Can be used for fuel
– Can be converted into other organic molecules
– Can be combined into polymers

• Examples of monosaccharides
Triose sugars Pentose sugars Hexose sugars
(C3H6O3) (C5H10O5) (C6H12O6)
H O H O H O H O
C C C C
H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH
Aldoses
H C OH H C OH HO C H HO C H
H H C OH H C OH HO C H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
Glyceraldehyde
H H C OH H C OH
Ribose H H
Glucose Galactose
H H H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
C O C O C O
Ketoses
H C OH H C OH HO C H
H H C OH H C OH
Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H C OH
H H C OH
Ribulose H
Figure 5.3 Fructose

• Monosaccharides
– May be linear
– Can form rings
H O
1C 6CH OH
2
6CH OH
2
2 CH2OH
H C OH 5C O H 5C O 6
H H H H H O
HO
3
C H
5 H
4C H 1C 4C H 1C H
4 4 1
OH H OH H OH
H C OH O HO 3 2 OH
OH 2C OH 3C 2C OH
H
5
C OH
3 C
H OH
6 H OH H OH
H C OH
Figure 5.4 (a) Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the linear and ring
structures greatly favors the formation of rings. To form the glucose ring,
carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen attached to carbon 5.

• Disaccharides
– Consist of two monosaccharides
– Are joined by a glycosidic linkage

• Examples of disaccharides
(a) Dehydration reaction
in the synthesis of
maltose. The bonding CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
of two glucose units O O O O
forms maltose. The H H H H H H 1–4 H H
H H H 1 glycosidic 4 H
glycosidic link joins
OH H OH H OH H linkage OH H
OHOH
the number 1 carbon OH HO
of one glucose to the HO HO O OH
number 4 carbon of
the second glucose. H OH H OH H OH H OH
Joining the glucose H2O
monomers in a Glucose Maltose
Glucose
different way would
result in a different
disaccharide.
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH
H O O H O H 1–2 O
H H H
H H 1 glycosidic 2
(b) Dehydration reaction OH H H HO OH H linkage H HO
OH HO
in the synthesis of HO CH2OH HO O CH2OH
sucrose. Sucrose is
a disaccharide formed H OH OH H H OH OH H
from glucose and fructose.
Notice that fructose,
H2O
though a hexose like Glucose Fructose Sucrose
glucose, forms a
five-sided ring.
Figure 5.5

Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides
– Are polymers of sugars
– Serve many roles in organisms

Storage Polysaccharides
• Starch
– Is a polymer consisting entirely of glucose
monomers

– Is the major storage form of glucose in plants
Chloroplast Starch
1 m
Amylose Amylopectin
Figure 5.6 (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide

Starch consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helical
amylose and the branched amylopectin
Each straight chain monomer is connected by the α-1,4-glycosidic

bond, while the branches are connected by α-1,6-glycosidic bond
• Glycogen
– Consists of glucose monomers
– Is the major storage form of glucose in animals
Mitochondria Giycogen
granules
0.5 m
Glycogen
Figure 5.6 (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

Structural Polysaccharides
• Cellulose
– Is a polymer of glucose
a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to

many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units
– Has different glycosidic linkages than starch
H O
CH2O C CH2O
H H
O H C OH H O OH
H H
H H
4
OH H HO C H 4 1
OH H
HO OH HO H
H C OH
H OH C H OH
H OH
 glucose H C OH  glucose
(a)  and  glucose ring structures
CH2O CH2O CH2O CH2O

H H H H
O O O O
1 4 1 4 1 4 1
OH OH O OH O OH O
HO O
OH OH OH OH
(b) Starch: 1– 4 linkage of  glucose monomers
CH2O CH2O
OH OH
H H
O O
O OH O OH
OH 1 4 O OH
HO OH
O O
CH2O CH2O
OH OH
H H
(c) Cellulose: 1– 4 linkage of  glucose monomers
Figure 5.7 A–C
– Is a major component of the tough walls that
enclose plant cells
About 80 cellulose
Cellulose microfibrils molecules associate
in a plant cell wall Microfibril to form a microfibril, the
Cell walls main architectural unit
of the plant cell wall.
0.5 m
Plant cells
CH2OH OH CH2OH OH
O O O O
OH OH OH OH
O O O O O
O CH OH OH CH2OH
H
2 Cellulose
CH2OH OH CH2OH OH molecules
O O O O
OH OH OH OH
Parallel cellulose molecules are O O O O O
O CH OH OH CH2OH
held together by hydrogen H
2
bonds between hydroxyl CH2OH OH CH2OH OH

O O O O
groups attached to carbon OH OH
O OH O O
OH O
atoms 3 and 6. O CH OH O A cellulose molecule
OH CH2OH
H
2
is an unbranched 
Figure 5.8  Glucose glucose polymer.
monomer
• Cellulose is difficult to digest
– Cows have microbes in their stomachs to
facilitate this process
Figure 5.9

• Chitin, another important structural
polysaccharide
– Is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
– Can be used as surgical thread
CH2O
H
H O OH
H
OH H
OH H
H NH
C O
CH3
(a) The structure of the (b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton (c) Chitin is used to make a
chitin monomer. of arthropods. This cicada strong and flexible surgical
is molting, shedding its old thread that decomposes after
exoskeleton and emerging the wound or incision heals.
Figure 5.10 A–C in adult form.

• Concept 5.3: Lipids are a diverse group of
hydrophobic molecules
• Lipids
– Are the one class of large biological molecules
that do not consist of polymers
– Share the common trait of being hydrophobic

Fats
• Fats
– Are constructed from two types of smaller
molecules, a single glycerol and usually three
fatty acids
H O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C OH C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
HO H H H H H H
H
H H H H H H H H
H C OH
Fatty acid
H C OH (palmitic acid)
H
Glycerol
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a fat
Ester linkage
H O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
Figure 5.11 (b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol)

• Fatty acids
– Vary in the length and number and locations of
double bonds they contain

• Saturated fatty acids
– Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
possible
– Have no double bonds
Stearic acid
Figure 5.12 (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid

• Unsaturated fatty acids
– Have one or more double bonds
Oleic acid
cis double bond

Figure 5.12 (b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid causes bending
Oil normally refers to a lipid with short or unsaturated fatty acid

chains that is liquid at room temperature
Phospholipids
• Phospholipids
– Have only two fatty acids
– Have a phosphate group instead of a third
fatty acid

• Phospholipid structure
– Consists of a hydrophilic “head” and
hydrophobic “tails”
CH2 +
N(CH )
3 3 Choline
CH2
O
O–
O P
Phosphate
O
CH2 CH CH2
Glycerol
O O
C O C O
Fatty acids
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic
tails
(c) Phospholipid
(a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model
Figure 5.13 symbol
• The structure of phospholipids
– Results in a bilayer arrangement found in cell
membranes
WATER
Hydrophilic
head
WATER
Hydrophobic
tail
Figure 5.14

Steroids
• Steroids
– Are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton
consisting of four fused rings

• One steroid, cholesterol
– Is found in cell membranes
– Is a precursor for some hormones
H3C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
Figure 5.15 HO

• Concept 5.4: Proteins have many structures,
resulting in a wide range of functions
– Proteins
• Have many roles inside the cell

An overview of protein functions

• Enzymes
– Are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst,
speeding up chemical reactions
1 Active site is available for 2 Substrate binds to
a molecule of substrate, the enzyme.
Substrate
reactant on which the enzyme acts. (sucrose)
Glucose
Enzyme
OH (sucrase)
H2O
Fructose
H O
4 Products are released. 3 Substrate is converted

Figure 5.16 to products.
Polypeptides
• Polypeptides
– Are polymers of amino acids
• A protein
– Consists of one or more polypeptides

Amino Acid Monomers
• Amino acids
– Are organic molecules possessing both
carboxyl and amino groups
– Differ in their properties due to differing side
chains, called R groups

• 20 different amino acids make up proteins
CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3 CH CH2

H CH3 CH3 CH2 H3C CH
O O O O O
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O– O– O–
H H H H H
Glycine (Gly) Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val) Leucine (Leu) Isoleucine (Ile)
Nonpolar
CH3
CH2
S
H2C CH2
NH O
CH2
H2N C C
CH2 O CH2 CH2 O–
O O H
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O–
H H H
Methionine (Met) Phenylalanine (Phe) Tryptophan (Trp) Proline (Pro)
Figure 5.17

OH NH2 O
NH2 O C
OH SH C CH2
Polar OH CH3
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 O CH2
O O O O O
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O– O– O– O–
H H H H H H
Cysteine Tyrosine Asparagine Glutamine
Serine (Ser) Threonine (Thr) (Gln)
(Cys) (Tyr) (Asn)
Acidic Basic
NH3+ NH2 NH+

–O O O– O
C C CH2 C NH2+
NH
Electrically CH2
CH2 O CH2 CH2 CH2
charged O
H3N+ C C CH2 CH2 CH2 H3N+ C C
O
O– CH2 O–
H3N+ C C O CH2 H
H
O–
H H3N+ C C CH2 O
O–
H H3N+ C C
O–
H
Aspartic acid Glutamic acid Lysine (Lys) Arginine (Arg) Histidine (His)
(Asp) (Glu)

Amino Acid Polymers
• Amino acids
– Are linked by peptide bonds
OH
Peptide
bond
OH SH
CH2 CH2 CH2
H H H
N
H C C N C C OH H N C C OH
H O H O H O DESMOSOMES
(a) H2O
OH
DESMOSOMES
DESMOSOMES Side
OH SH
Peptide chains
CH2 CH2 bond CH2
H H H
H N C C N C C N C C OH Backbone
H O H O H O
Amino end Carboxyl end

Figure 5.18 (b) (N-terminus) (C-terminus)

Determining the Amino Acid Sequence of a Polypeptide
• The amino acid sequences of polypeptides

– Were first determined using chemical means
– Can now be determined by automated
machines

Protein Conformation and Function
• A protein’s specific conformation
– Determines how it functions

3D Schematic Representations of Protein
• Two models of protein conformation
Groove
(a) A ribbon model
Groove
Figure 5.19 (b) A space-filling model

Four Levels of Protein Structure
• Primary structure
– Is the unique sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide HN Amino acid
+
3
Gly ProThr Gly
Thr
Gly
Amino LeuPro
Cys LysSeu
Glu
subunits
end Met
Val
Lys
Val
Leu
Asp
AlaVal Arg Gly
Ser
Pro
Ala
Glu Lle
Asp
Thr
Lys
Ser
Lys Trp Tyr
Leu Ala
Gly
lle
Ser
ProPhe
His Glu
His
Ala
Glu
Val
Ala Thr PheVal
Asn
lle
Thr
Asp Tyr Ala
Arg
Ser Arg Ala
Gly Pro
Leu
Leu
Ser
Pro
SerTyr
Tyr
Thr Ser
Thr
Ala
Val o
Val LysGlu c
Thr
AsnPro o–
Figure 5.20 Carboxyl end

• Secondary structure
– Is the folding or coiling of the polypeptide into a
repeating configuration
– Includes the  helix and the  pleated sheet
 pleated sheet
O H H O H H O H H O H H
R R R
Amino acid C C N C C N C C N C C N
C N C C N C C N C C N C C
subunits R R R R
H O H H OH H OH H O
R R R R
O C O O C O H
C H H H C
H C N HC H H
C N HC N N C NH C N C N HC N
H H C H O C H
C O C O O C
R R R
R H R H
C C
N H O C N H O C
N H
O C O C
N H
 helix
H C R H C H C R H C R
R
N H O C N H
O C
O C N H O C N H
C C
R H R H
Figure 5.20
• Tertiary structure
– Is the overall three-dimensional shape of a
polypeptide
– Results from interactions between amino acids
and R groups Hydrophobic
interactions and
CH van der Waals
CH22
CH
H3C CH3 interactions
O
Hyrdogen H H3C CH3 Polypeptide
bond O CH backbone
HO C
CH2 CH2 S S CH2
Disulfide bridge
O
CH2 NH3+ -O C CH2
Ionic bond

• Quaternary structure
– proteins consisting of two or more identical or
different polypeptide chains (subunits)
Polypeptide
chain
Collagen
 Chains
Iron
Heme
 Chains
Hemoglobin

The four levels of protein structure
Primary structure Secondary structure
Tertiary structure Quaternary structure

Sickle-Cell Disease: A Simple Change in
Primary Structure
• Sickle-cell disease
❑caused by the substitution of one amino acid (valine)
for the normal one (glutamic acid) at the position of the
sixth amino acid in the primary structure of hemoglobin

• Hemoglobin structure and sickle-cell disease

What Determines Protein Conformation?
• Protein conformation
– Depends on the physical and chemical
conditions of the protein’s environment

• Denaturation
– Is when a protein unravels and loses its native
conformation
Denaturation
Normal protein Denatured protein
Figure 5.22 Renaturation

The Protein-Folding Problem
• Most proteins
– Probably go through several intermediate
states on their way to a stable conformation

• Chaperonins
– Are protein molecules that assist in the proper
folding of other proteins
Correctly
folded
Polypeptide
protein
Cap
Hollow
cylinder
Chaperonin Steps of Chaperonin 2 The cap attaches, causing 3 The cap comes
(fully assembled) Action: the cylinder to change shape in off, and the properly
1 An unfolded poly- such a way that it creates a folded protein is
peptide enters the hydrophilic environment for the released.
Figure 5.23 cylinder from one end. folding of the polypeptide.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and X-ray
crystallography
– Is used to determine a protein’s three-dimensional
structure
X-ray
diffraction
pattern
Photographic film
Diffracted X-rays
X-ray X-ray
source beam
Crystal Nucleic acid Protein
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

(a) X-ray diffraction pattern (b) 3D computer model
Figure 5.24
• Concept 5.5: Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
• Genes
– Are the units of inheritance
– Program the amino acid sequence of
polypeptides
– Are made of nucleic acids

The Roles of Nucleic Acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids
– Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
– Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• DNA
– Stores information for the synthesis of specific
proteins

– Directs RNA synthesis
– Directs protein synthesis through RNA
DNA
1 Synthesis of
mRNA in the nucleus mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
mRNA
2 Movement of
mRNA into cytoplasm Ribosome
via nuclear pore
3 Synthesis
of protein
Amino
Figure 5.25 Polypeptide acids

Nucleic Acids exist as polymers called Nucleotides

Nucleotide Polymers
• Nucleotide polymers
– Are made up of nucleotides linked by the–OH
group on the 3´ carbon of one nucleotide and
the phosphate on the 5´ carbon on the next

• The sequence of bases along a nucleotide
polymer
– Is unique for each gene

The DNA Double Helix
• Cellular DNA molecules
– Have two polynucleotides that spiral around an
imaginary axis
– Form a double helix

• The DNA double helix
– Consists of two antiparallel nucleotide strands
5’ end 3’ end
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
Base pair (joined by
hydrogen bonding)
Old strands
Nucleotide
about to be
added to a
new strand
A 3’ end
5’ end
3’ end New
strands
Figure 5.27 5’ end 3’ end

• The nitrogenous bases in DNA
– Form hydrogen bonds in a complementary
fashion (A with T only, and C with G only)

DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution
• Molecular comparisons
– Help biologists sort out the evolutionary
connections among species

The Theme of Emergent Properties in the
Chemistry of Life: A Review
• Higher levels of organization

– Result in the emergence of new properties
• Organization
– Is the key to the chemistry of life

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Chapter 5

The Structure and Function of

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes a water

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Hydrolysis adds a water

Figure 5.2B (b) Hydrolysis of a polymer

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 5.6 (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Each straight chain monomer is connected by the α-1,4-glycosidic

Figure 5.6 (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to

(a)  and  glucose ring structures

CH2O CH2O CH2O CH2O

bonds between hydroxyl CH2OH OH CH2OH OH

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 5.11 (b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol)

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Figure 5.12 (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid

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cis double bond

Oil normally refers to a lipid with short or unsaturated fatty acid

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

4 Products are released. 3 Substrate is converted

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CH3 CH3 CH CH2

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NH3+ NH2 NH+

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Amino end Carboxyl end

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• The amino acid sequences of polypeptides

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(a) A ribbon model

Figure 5.19 (b) A space-filling model

Figure 5.20 Carboxyl end

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings