1

Chapter 5

BEAMS
 2

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS

INTRODUCTION
A beam is a structural member in which the major deformation is
bending.

The bending moment is primarily generated due to transverse

loads. This member carries the loads throughout its span and
transfers it to its ends with or without accompanying moment.

Beam is a combination of a compression member on one side of

neutral axis and a tension member on the other side, joined
together through a shear element.
 3

Following terms are used for various types of beams according to

their use:
Girder:
The primary beams that are frequently used at wide spacing
supporting the smaller beams and other structural components are
called girders.

Frequently, girders are made of built-up sections and carry heavier

loads over larger spans. These are supported directly on columns.
Secondary Beam:
These are relatively smaller beams resting on primary
beams/girders carrying load of lesser part of roof and having
smaller span lengths.
 4

Secondary
Beams

Joist

Column

Main Beam (Girder)

Typical Plan of a Building Showing Layout of Columns and Beams

 5

Joists: Joists are less important beams that are closely spaced and
are frequently having truss-type webs.

These are closely spaced smaller beams resting on secondary

beams in majority of the cases.

Purlins: These are roof beams spanning between trusses.

Roof sheathing is connected with purlins, which are in turn

connected to panel points of the truss, with no direct connection
between the roof and the truss top chord.

Uniformly distributed roof load is carried by the purlins and is

converted into point loads acting at panel points of the truss.
 6

Because of inclination of the load with the centroidal axes of the

section and application of load on top chord, these beams are
subjected to biaxial bending along with torsion.

Stringers: Longitudinal bridge beams spanning between floor

beams and placed parallel to roadway are called stringers.

Floor Beams: Floor beams are main girders of the bridge spanning
between trusses or plate girders and running perpendicular to the
roadway of the bridge.
 7

R.C. Slab Shear

Connectors
Truss or
Plate Girder
Stringer
Floor Beam
Typical Cross-Section of a Steel Bridge.

Typical shear connectors for beams

 8

Basic Design Equation - Flexure

 9

THE FLEXURE FORMULA

By denoting the elastic section modulus by S and the applied bending

moment by M, the bending stresses may be calculated using the
flexure formula as under:

Assume I section. Bending is about the major principal axis, x-

axis – the elastic bending stress is

My
fb 
Ix
 10

For maximum stress

My
fb 
Ix
Mc M M
f max   
Ix Ix / c S
 11

My
fb 
Ix
Mc M M
f max   
Ix Ix / c S

is valid as long as the loads are small enough that the material
remains within its linear elastic range.

For structural steel, this means that the stress fmax must not exceed Fy
and that the bending moment must not exceed

My  Fy Sx where My is the bending moment that brings

the beam to the point of yielding.
 12

A simply supported beam with a concentrated load at midspan is

shown at successive stages of loading.
 13

Once yielding begins, the distribution of stress over the X-section is no longer
linear.

Yielding will progress from the extreme fiber toward the neutral axis.

At the same time, the yielded region will extend longitudinally from the center of
the beam as the bending moment reaches My at more locations until the entire X-
section yields as shown in Figure (d).

Any further increase in the load will cause collapse,

A plastic hinge will form at the

center of the beam, and this hinge
Along with the actual hinges at the
ends of the beam constitute an
unstable mechanism.
14
 15

Example 5.2
 16

STABILITY OF BEAM SECTIONS

If a beam can be counted on to remain stable up to the fully plastic

condition, the nominal moment strength can be taken as the plastic
moment capacity;

Mn = Mp

Otherwise Mn will be less than Mp

Whether the beam can sustain a moment large enough to bring it to

the fully plastic condition also depends on whether the cross-
sectional integrity is maintained.
 17

STABILITY OF BEAM SECTIONS

Local Stability

If width over thickness ratio of the

compression flange is greater than a certain
limit, flange can buckle locally.

The phenomenon is called Flange Local

Buckling (FLB) and is shown in the Figure.

Flange Local Buckling

 18

Similarly, if depth over thickness ratio is greater for the web, it can locally buckle or
cripple under compression.

Web Local Buckling (WLB) is usually produced by the diagonal compression

existing in the web due to shear.

On the other hand, Web Crippling occurs due to local compression transferred by the
flange to the connecting portion of web.

Buckling is
diagonal
perpendicular to
the plane
Web Instability

(b) Web Crippling Due to

(a) Web Local Buckling
Concentrated Load
 19

LOCAL BUCKLING
IN BEAM

Diagonal Web
local Buckling
Flange Local
Buckling
 20

WEB CRIPPLING
 21

STABILITY OF BEAM SECTIONS

Overall stability

When a beam bends, the compression region (above the neutral

axis) is analogous to a column, and in a manner similar to a
column, it will buckle if the member is slender enough.

However, the compression portion of the cross section is

restrained by the tension portion, and the outward deflection
(flexural buckling) is accompanied by twisting (torsion).

This form of instability is called lateral-torsional buckling (LTB).

 22

LATERAL STABILITY
Due to lateral buckling of the compression zone, the section is twisted as a whole
due to the fact that tension zone remains stable and tries to retain its position.

This combined twisting and buckling of beam in a lateral direction is called Lateral
Torsional Buckling (LTB).

It depends upon the laterally unsupported length besides the loading and the
sectional dimensions.
 23

Overall buckling

Lateral bracing:
Prevents lateral translation, should be
applied as close to the compression flange

Torsional bracing
 24

CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES
 25

TYPES OF BEAM SECTIONS

Types According to Section Stability
Depending upon the stability, sectional shapes can be classified as
compact, non-compact and slender sections..
 26

Compact section

A compact section is the one that is capable of developing its full plastic moment
capacity before any local buckling occurs.

In order to qualify under this category, a member must meet the following
requirements (Table B4.1b of AISC Specification):

1. Web is continuously connected with the flange.

2. Flange local stability criterion is satisfied.
3. Web local buckling criterion is satisfied.
4. Lateral torsional buckling is absent.
27
 28

BENDING STRENGTH: Compact or non-compact

shapes
• A beam can fail by reaching Mp and becoming fully plastic, or it
can fail by

1. lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), either elastically or inelastically;

2. flange local buckling (FLB), elastically or inelastically;
3. web local buckling (WLB), elastically or inelastically.

If the maximum bending stress is less than the proportional limit

when buckling occurs, the failure is said to be elastic.
Otherwise, it is inelastic.
 29

BENDING STRENGTH OF COMPACT SHAPES

• Note: Sections used:

(1) hot-rolled I shapes bent about the strong axis and loaded in the plane of the weak axis, and
(2) channels bent about the strong axis and either loaded through the shear center or restrained
against twisting.
 30

Note:
• The web criterion is met by all standard I and C shapes listed in the Manual
for Fy ≤ 65 ksi.
• In most cases only the flange ratio needs to be checked.
• Built-up welded I shapes can have non-compact or slender webs.
• Most shapes will also satisfy the flange requirement and will therefore be
classified as compact.

• Note:
• The non-compact shapes are identified in the dimensions and properties table with a footnote
(footnote f).
• The compression members have different criteria than flexural members, so a shape could be
compact for flexure but slender for compression (footnote c).
 31

• If the beam is compact and has continuous lateral support, or if the

unbraced length is very short, the nominal moment strength, Mn is the full
plastic moment capacity of the shape, Mp.

• For a doubly-symmetric, compact I- or C-shaped section bent about its

major axis, AISC F2.1 gives the nominal strength as

• For members with inadequate lateral support, the moment resistance is

limited by the lateral-torsional buckling strength, either inelastic or
elastic.
32
33
34
 35

Moment strength of compact shapes and unbraced length, Lb

• The moment strength of compact shapes is a function of the unbraced length, Lb,
defined as the distance between points of lateral support, or bracing.

• The points of lateral support are indicated with an “×” in the following figure.
 36

Lb ≤ Lp , the beam is considered to have full lateral support, and Mn  Mp.

If Lp < Lb ≤ Lr , the strength is based on inelastic LTB.

If Lb > Lr , the strength is based on elastic LTB.

Mr = Limiting buckling moment

dividing elastic and inelastic buckling
 37

LATERAL BRACING
38
 39

Cross Bracing

(a) Unbraced System (b) Braced System

Cross Bracing
 40

AISC Specification: Elastic buckling stress Fcr

 41

J = torsional constant (in4)

Sx = section modulus about x-axis

Lb = unbraced length (in)

 42

Inelastic buckling stress Fcr

If the moment when lateral-torsional buckling occurs is greater than the moment
corresponding to first yield, the strength is based on inelastic behavior.

The moment corresponding to first yield is where the yield

stress has been reduced by 30% to account for the effect of residual stress.

The boundary between elastic and

inelastic behavior will be for an
unbraced length of Lr, which is the
value of Lb obtained from AISC
Equation F2-4 when Fcr is set equal
to 0.7Fy with Cb  1.0
43
44
 45

Mn = Mp = FyZx Mn Eq F2-2
Fcr = 0.7Fy Mr = 0.7FySx
Nominal Moment Strength (Mn)

Mp

My Mn = FcrSx
Fcr Eq F2-4

Mr

Mn = Mp
Inelastic
Behaviour
Elastic Behavior
Lp Lr

Laterally Unbraced Length (Lb)

46

2-4
47
48
49
50
 51

Moment gradient
52
53
 54

Value of Cb for several common cases

of loading and lateral support.

For unbraced cantilever beams, Cb = 1.0

 55

The effect of Cb on the nominal strength is illustrated in the Figure

Although the strength is directly proportional to Cb, this graph
clearly shows the importance of observing the upper limit of Mp,
regardless of which equation is used for Mn.
 56

BENDING STRENGTH OF NONCOMPACT SHAPES

• Most standard W, M, S, and C shapes are compact. A few are

noncompact because of the flange width-to-thickness ratio,
but none are slender.

• A noncompact beam may fail by lateral-torsional buckling,

flange local buckling, or web local buckling (for built-shapes
only). Any of these types of failure can be in either the elastic
range or the inelastic range.

• The strength corresponding to each of these three limit states

must be computed, and the smallest value will control.
57
 58

Summary
59
60
61
62
63
64
 65

Shear Strength
Beam shear strength is covered in Chapter G of the AISC Specification.
 66

Clearly, the web will completely yield long before the flanges begin to yield.
Yielding of the web represents one of the shear limit states. Taking the shear
yield stress as 60% of the tensile yield stress, the stress in the web at failure is

the nominal strength in shear provided that there is no shear buckling of

the web.

Web shear buckling

depends on h/tw
1) Elastic
2) Inelastic
 67

AISC Specification Requirements for Shear

Section G2.1 of the AISC Specification covers both beams with stiffened webs and
beams with unstiffened webs. The nominal shear strength is:
 68

The value of Cv depends on whether the limit state is:

1. web yielding,
2. web inelastic buckling,
3. or web elastic buckling.
69
 70

Note: AISC F13.2, “Proportioning Limits for I-Shaped Members,” states that h/tw in
unstiffened girders shall not exceed 260
 71

Shear is rarely a problem in rolled steel beams; the usual practice

is to design a beam for flexure and then to check it for shear.
 72

Check Ex 5.6 for shear

73
 74

The LRFD shear strength ϕvVn is

 75

Block Shear
 76

Deflection
In addition to being safe, a structure must be serviceable. A serviceable structure is
one that performs satisfactorily, not causing any discomfort or perceptions of bring
unsafe for the occupants or users of the structure.

For a beam, being serviceable usually means that the deformations, primarily the
vertical sag, or deflection, must be limited.

Deflection is a serviceability limit state, not one of strength, so deflections

should always be computed with service loads.
 77

AISC deflection criteria

• The AISC Specification furnishes little guidance other than
a statement in Chapter L, “Design for Serviceability,” that
deflections should not be excessive.

• There is, however, a more detailed discussion in the

Commentary to Chapter L. Appropriate limits for deflection
can usually be found from the governing building code,
expressed as a fraction of the span length L, such as
L/360.
 78

• Sometimes a numerical limit, such as 1 inch, is appropriate.

• The limits given in the International Building Code (ICC, 2009) are typical.

The limits shown in the above Table for deflection due to dead load plus live
load do not apply to steel beams, because the dead load deflection is usually
compensated for by some means, such as cambering
79
 80

DESIGN
1. Compute the required moment strength (i.e., the factored load moment Mu for LRFD). A
value may be assumed for the self weight and verified after a shape is selected, or the
weight may be ignored initially and checked after a shape has been selected. Because the
beam weight is usually a small part of the total load, the selected shape will usually be
satisfactory when the moment is recomputed.

2. Select a shape that satisfies this strength requirement.

a. Assume a shape, compute the available strength, and compare it with the required
strength. Revise if necessary. The trial shape can be easily selected in only a limited number of
situations (as in Example 5.10).
b. Use the beam design charts in Part 3 of the Manual. This method is preferred, and we
explain it following Example 5.10.

3. Check the shear strength.

4. Check the deflection.

81
82
83
84
 85

Beam Design Charts

Two sets of curves are available, one for W shapes with Fy 50 ksi and one for C and
MC shapes with Fy  36 ksi.

Each graph gives the flexural strength (Design strength) of a standard hot-rolled shape.
 86

All curves are for Cb  1.0. For other values of Cb , simply multiply the moment
from the chart by Cb . Maximum strength is represented by the horizontal line at the
left side of the graph.

For a compact shape, the strength corresponding to yielding (reaching the plastic
moment Mp).

For a noncompact shape, the horizontal line represents the flange local buckling
strength.

For continuous lateral support,

Lb can be taken as zero
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
 95

The End