DE/ME-2.

4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Chapter-3. Magnaflux methods
Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for
detecting surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such
as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the
part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization
occurs when the electric current is passed through the test object and a magnetic field is
formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed
through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic
lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be
either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic
flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as metals.

To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are applied to a part.
These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form what is known as an indication, which
is evaluated to determine its nature, cause, and course of action, if any.

Basic Principles

In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be

considered as a combination of two non-destructive
testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and
visual testing. Consider the case of a bar magnet. It
has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any
place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the
magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a
north pole and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

When a bar magnet is broken in the centre of its length, two complete bar magnets with
magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not
broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The
magnetic field exits the North Pole and renters at the
South Pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it
encounters the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support as much
magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to
leak out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage field.

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges of the
crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis
for magnetic particle inspection.

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage
field. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be
attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the
inspector can detect.

Basic Procedure

1. Component pre-cleaning
2. Introduction of magnetic field
3. Application of magnetic media
4. Interpretation of magnetic particle indications
Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects.

• Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.

• Precleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection methods.

Most contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability.

• Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on the specimen surface.

• Considered low cost compared to many other NDT methods.

• Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with battery powered
equipment?

• Easy to use and requires minimal amount of training.

• Indications can show relative size and shape of the discontinuity.

 • Post-cleaning generally not necessary.

Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection

• Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most stainless

steels.

• Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power
requirements.

• Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired inspection
sensitivity.

• Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum depth sensitivity is

approximately 0.6” (under ideal conditions).

• Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.

• Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important

• Only small sections or small parts can be examined at one time.

• Each part needs to be examined in two different directions.

Magnetic Particle Inspection Applications

Magnetic particle testing or inspection (MT or MPI testing) is used for quality control and
materials testing in all major industries. This includes Magnetic particle testing of castings,
forgings, plates, extruded components, weld joints, electrical and electronic component
manufacturing, production of steel, pressure vessels, ships, bridges, motor vehicles,
machinery and jet engines.

In service MPI testing for preventive maintenance is used for detecting impending failure of
rail road rolling stock axles, press columns, earth-moving equipment, mill rolls, mining
equipment and other machines and components. The flaws to be detected include cracks,
inclusions, pipe, laminations, bursts and flakes. They may be inherent in the raw materials,
may result from fabrication and heat treatment, or may occur in service from fatigue,
corrosion or other causes. In service MPI testing for preventive maintenance is used for
detecting impending failure of rail road rolling stock axles, press columns, earth-moving
equipment, mill rolls, mining equipment and other machines and components. The flaws to
be detected include cracks, inclusions, pipe, laminations, bursts and flakes.
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) has been widely used for decades and sees considerable
use in the aerospace industry, with 90% of steel parts being inspected with MPI at some point
in their life cycle. Typical aircraft inspections are landing gear, engine components,
attachment hardware, and doors.

Equipment

 A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-production inspection
machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is placed to magnetize it.
In between the head and tail stock is typically an induction coil, which is used to change
the orientation of the magnetic field by 90° from the head stock. Most of the equipment is
built for a specific application.
 Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in wire wrapping
applications.
 Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field between two poles.
Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations, and weld inspection. The
drawback of magnetic yokes is that they only induce a magnetic field between the poles,
so large-scale inspections using the device can be time-consuming. For proper inspection
the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for every inspection area to detect horizontal and
vertical discontinuities. Subsurface detection using a yoke is limited. These systems used
dry magnetic powders, wet powders, or aerosols.
Fluorescent Penetration inspection

Fluorescent penetrant inspection (FPI) is a type of dye penetrant inspection in which a

fluorescent dye is applied to the surface of a non-porous material in order to detect defects
that may compromise the integrity or quality of the part in question. Noted for its low cost
and simple process, FPI is used widely in a variety of industries.

Materials

There are many types of dye used in penetrant inspections. FPI operations use a dye much
more sensitive to smaller flaws than penetrants used in other DPI procedures. This is because
of the nature of the fluorescent penetrant that is applied. With its brilliant yellow glow caused
by its reaction with ultraviolet radiation, FPI dye sharply contrasts with the dark background.
A vivid reference to even minute flaws is easily observed by a skilled inspector.
Because of its sensitivity to such small defects, FPI is ideal for most metals which tend to
have small, tight pores and smooth surfaces. Defects can vary but are typically tiny cracks
caused by processes used to shape and form the metal. It is not unusual for a part to be
inspected several times before it is finished (an inspection often follows each significant
forming operation).

Selection of inspection type is, of course, largely based on the material in question. FPI is a
non-destructive inspection process which means that the part is not in any way damaged by
the test process. Thus, it is of great importance that a dye and process are selected that ensure
the part is not subjected to anything that may cause damage or staining.

Inspection Steps

Step 1: Initial cleaning

Before the penetrant can be applied to the surface of the material in question one must ensure
that the surface is free of any contamination such as paint, oil, dirt, or scale that may fill a
defect or falsely indicate a flaw. Chemical etching can be used to rid the surface of undesired
contaminants and ensure good penetration when the penetrant is applied. Sandblasting to
remove paint from a surface prior to the FPI process may mask (smear material over) cracks
making the penantrant not effective. Even if the part has already been through a previous FPI
operation it is imperative that it is cleaned again. Most penetrants are not compatible and
therefore will thwart any attempt to identify defects that are already penetrated by any other
penetrant. This process of cleaning is critical because if the surface of the part is not properly
prepared to receive the penetrant, defective product may be moved on for further processing.
This can cause lost time and money in reworking, overprocessing, or even scrapping a
finished part at final inspection.

Step 2: Penetrant application

The fluorescent penetrant is applied to the surface and allowed time to seep into flaws or
defects in the material. The process of waiting for the penetrant to seep into flaws is called
Dwell Time. Dwell time varies by material and the size of the indications that are intended to
be identified but is generally less than 30 minutes. It requires much less time to penetrate
larger flaws because the penetrant is able to soak in much faster. The opposite is true for
smaller flaws/defects.
Step 3: Excess penetrant removal

After the identified dwell time has passed, penetrant on the outer surface of the material is
then removed. This highly controlled process is necessary in order to ensure that the
penetrant is removed only from the surface of the material and not from inside any identified
flaws. Various chemicals can be used for such a process and vary by specific penetrant types.
Typically, the cleaner is applied to a lint-free cloth that is used to carefully clean the surface.

Step 4: Developer application

Having removed excess penetrant a contrasting developer may be applied to the surface. This
serves as a background against which flaws can more readily be detected. The developer also
causes penetrant that is still in any defects to surface and bleed. These two attributes allow
defects to be easily detected upon inspection. Dwell time is then allowed for the developer to
achieve desired results before inspection.

Step 5: Inspection

In the case of fluorescent inspection, the inspector will use ultraviolet radiation with an
intensity appropriate to the intent of the inspection operation. This must take place in a dark
room to ensure good contrast between the glow emitted by the penetrant in the defected areas
and the unlit surface of the material. The inspector carefully examines all surfaces in question
and records any concerns. Areas in question may be marked so that location of indications
can be identified easily without the use of the UV lighting. The inspection should occur at a
given point in time after the application of the developer. Too short a time and the flaws may
not be fully blotted, too long and the blotting may make proper interpretation difficult.

Step 6: Final cleaning

Upon successful inspection of the product, it is returned for a final cleaning before it is
shipped, moved on to another process, or deemed defective and reworked or scrapped. Note
that a flawed part may not go through the final cleaning process if it is considered not to be
cost effective.

Advantages of FPI

 Highly sensitive fluorescent penetrant is ideal for even the smallest imperfections
 Low cost and potentially high volume
 Suitable for inspection of non-magnetic materials and electrical insulators.
Disadvantages of FPI

 The method requires thorough cleaning of the inspected items. Inadequate cleaning may
prevent detection of discontinuities.
 Test materials can be damaged if compatibility is not ensured. The operator or his/her
supervisor should verify compatibility on the tested material, especially when considering
the testing of plastic components and ceramics. The method is unsuitable for testing
porous ceramics.
 Penetrant stains clothes and skin and must be treated with care
 The method is limited to surface defects
 Training is required for the inspector

Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize the
component. Remanent magnetic fields can:

 affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

 interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
 create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause
the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
 cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the
magnetic domains can be achieved most effectively by heating the material above its curie
temperature. The curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770oC or 1390oF. When steel is
heated above its curie temperature, it will become austenitic and loses its magnetic properties.
When it is cooled back down, it will go through a reverse transformation and will contain no
residual magnetic field. The material should also be placed with it long axis in an east-west
orientation to avoid any influence of the Earth's magnetic field.

It is often inconvenient to heat a material above its curie temperature to demagnetize it, so
another method that returns the material to a nearly unmagnetized state is commonly used.
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the dipoles
to a nearly random orientation throughout the material. This can be accomplished by pulling
a component out and away from a coil with AC passing through it. The same can also be
accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke with AC selected. Also, many stationary
magnetic particle inspection units come with a demagnetization feature that slowly reduces
the AC in a coil in which the component is placed.

A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux has been removed from a
component. Industry standards usually require that the magnetic flux be reduced to less than
3 gauss after completing a magnetic particle inspection.