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    Colonial Bilingualism and Hierarchies of Language and Power

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    kirti vithani
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    Colonial Bilingualism and Hierarchies of Language and Power Making of a Vernacular Sphere in Western India Veena Naregal This paper argues thar in 19th century south Asia ‘native’ initiatives to establish newspaper presses represented an important domain in defining modern lixerate communities, Dwelling om such initiatives ‘witnessed in the Bombay-Pune region, it highlights the way native intellectuals in the region negotiated the Implications of the colonial linguistic divide in their quest for a position of hegemonic influence ‘THIS peper is part of study on English ‘and the poles of language and the emergence of a public sphere in the Bombay-Pune region during the “pre- history” of the nationalist movement etween 1880 and 1880. The authors Iargerargumentiaboutihe inks betwen ceducaonl policy colonial tlingualism fan the steps of the colonial inl Bensia to advancing their hegemonic lain. The enty of Eaglish and pit ‘trough te project of colonial education ‘eefined the ature of iterate and iterary Communes nsouth Asia. Gvenitsplace Sn the colonial projec, leary, there was ile space within edacatonplieyforan cover and unequivocal enunciation of he {dea of universal aocess to itraey Nevertheless, the colon petiod saw = efnte siti the principles of utr fnd intellectal exchange on the sub Continent, opening up theoretical Posslises fo a Isicised disinbuon of Knowledge and bringing about a new relation between the “hig” language hd the vernacular realm. These changes, especialy the making of the colonial bilingual relaionbetween English andthe fative veraculae, had crucial Bearing fn de place ofthe new inteligentsia ad heir aspiration to assune a postion of hegemonic influence. “Tis pape aims io present un argument about the muking of a colnial-medera ‘vemacular phere in westera India and is changing estimate widin the discourse of rmatve imellectuals as they “progressed” Towards enunciting an expliiyoaton- alii position by the 1870, I wil focus ‘onthe way inwhich the vemacularsphere became cental to he question of dis Seminationandtotheasserionof dominant lua nd political identses in colomal ‘west India. Many studies of colonial Culture india have focused exclusively ‘themabingota high era veracolay ‘ule. However, this paper differs in ‘raps fom soch analyses in arguing that “nave” iniatives to establish & newspaper press represented an import 36 domain in defining modern literate ‘communities in Lith century rou Asi, ‘Arguing hat colonial elect fie ‘wed to explore their ‘miding’ postion Within the emerging social stucture ‘hroughinisativestocstablshanewspaper sress, [dell onthe pattern ofthe ely ative pes nitives from the 1430s the 1870s to highlight how native Imeleewals i the Hormbuy- Pane region ‘egosiated the implications ofthe clan Tingustiiv ig nates quest for apostion fof hegemonic influence. In doing vo. it ‘so seks fo rake some general quesucas shoul the meanings of iisauonot culture and publicity inthe colonial context. "This paper is divided io thee pats ‘The ital section makes some cbeer- vations about why language forms 9 Pattiewlarly appropriate sphere for Analysing the construction of mocerity ‘in coloml India Ie als clarifies the use of certain ey tems ike “aication of Tearing’ 'pubicsphere’and‘clonal Dlingualis’ in the paper. The second section makes arapidsetchof the efforts ‘ofthe colonial intligenisiso deal with the éivide between the English and vernacular (Marathi) spheres as they Attempted ‘0 disseminate the new scouts. Such effors aotwitistanding jwasclear hatte Englishand vernacular audiences werenotasindeed they arenot, Sjmmecrcally iterate Therewereevident political asymmetiesbetweenthe English and vemacular spheres, and through an analysis of the pattem of naive press Initiatives before 1870. This section demonstrates not only tat from the 18305 ‘onsrards native intlecaal were clealy sursure of the veloped from the ‘onset of Bish but also tha ‘important aspect of the calculations in “antculating # representative. avonalisic discourse “Atempls fram the 1860s onwards to sestheticise vernacalar discourse by Creating “high literary forms were undoubtedly important i enhancing the Imtelligentsa's hegemonic claims, but these developments also coincied with tcl! shits in thee self peeepnon ad thelr ideological onentation Therefore. the las section consider the ideological ftentcion of the "mature vemacslir Incligncia atthe point when Marath wasthoughtiohvesuecesstullyacqused 2 high esthetic prose adiom. It cites txamples from the wntings of Vishnu Shas Chplunkar ntheiporanciterary jamal of the 1870s, Mbullmels. Te oper shows how, despite discontinuities nd the bierarcical differences berween the English and veraculr spheres there were few evident signs of howity 0 EngishortheEaglish-educaedelie wits ‘Be vemacilardicoute ofthe [84 ond 1890s. Rather, the comsolidauon of the ‘ernacvlar sphere was slrtegieslly asteveddhraughavinuentantvtowerease Aiscoure 1 Dilinguatism and Public Sphere Analyses of colonial discourse have nelped fosus attention on how the induction of new concep languages throughcolomlismaleredbath the ‘deep sructures' and the “surface forms of dscursiveproductoninmanynon-eester societies, Malem normative catego: Introduced via colonial encounters ‘defined and dsplced eisung cura and cognitive hierarchies, besides everating new indigenised forms of ‘egading and representing the socal and fatural worlds In South Asia, these proceseswerefaiiaesthroughtheenty ff English andthe use of pin as par of ‘he oficial pedupopientiavetoeducate ‘natives’ inthe ways of modernity and west culture. newtubly, these complex cognitive shifts were contingent upon Struggles between elite and: non-aite _roups, whose disparate levels of cultral fed finguiste capital infuenced their Postons inthe new political hierarchy. ‘Some valuable resent work by political scientists (Ravig} 1992] has brought ont Economic and Polical Weekly December 4, 1999 the connection betwee inia’s politcal ‘modernity andthelingsisticre-iseripion ‘of the natve world under colonials, Revenbeless tenure of heredetinison ‘and th suboriation of the vemacuae realm within te colonial public sphere and its politcal implications ned fo be ‘Svelt upon more fll. and tis pape is 2 step in that tection, Educational poliey documents were alwaysinEnglsh butgiverhecomplenty ‘8 ambitions the project of colonial ‘tucatoncouldnotgeaketherinaunitary Sovce orn single language. From the ‘ficial pint of view Engi seemed the most convenient sholoe for the dit ‘Ertion of colonia dete bat hese ‘iscoures could hardly be asured of Wide each unessthey were aio extended through the vernaculrs. eansaion ane ‘ecition wen hand in hand as part of te projet of colonial essemination ‘But iti import to poe hat these cffors 10 state + elation Serveen ngs and the concurrently esabished sanded frsof the vere gener) ‘morethan merely linguist changes: they Introduced crucial hierarchic dnd ‘Geological alisions between the newly ‘ested andthe itr the “Engh rowing’ and he "vernacular speaking ‘scons of eon soe Th Ind nd leewhere, the subordination of native languages to the new colonial “high Ianguagesvmieditely placed those who sere familiar with bo languages in 2 position of intellecasl and. political ‘nivanae,tuscreauing peti ied, lingual nguistie woes. the pail [import of modem cscoures was mean ‘nytng atl stwas pol encugh in hose Srorks for naive iicietsls to hrow English or the oter imperial languages. ‘Thay had be blew wien the vere clr as wel “The invodscton of Baglsh ashe new “high language was meant to bave an abiding, irevorablimpactatmany levels ‘The “native veraculars” were 1 bet shaped under its influence. The bilingual ‘educational policy also marked atempts ty thecolniladmiisationtoderareate stents of conse between the new ite snd society Wwough which patzrns of ‘ecess and marginaity would also be Aetermined.*Furer, pata more than inst anew communicative techaoogy. Tt brought in principles of publicity andthe ‘Hea of general access Inevitably, these wre subject othe rule of colori sifeence, Neverneless, the romial possibility ofa lacs literate fer radically aliered the means and ‘odes of social contestation. 1 use the term iia’ to denote the comitions ‘witha modem pottealseucttes which ‘etrmine dat the distbuton of kaow ledge and power are premised, not on Seas of exclsivigy But eather on porns of genera eveolation. There i room here only to note that sich impulses towards the lncizaton of eure and knowledge ‘ae necesarly and intimately relied to Shits in linguist practices and that they ‘ply the vemacolarsation of dominant ‘eolopes. Te seope forthe colonial tate tocastielastheapency fr sich changes ‘was subject to obvious financial abd poltcallimis, which aecesaniy affected fhe spread and influence of liberal Aiscourses tough the regional vena clas, Uf the emergence of large-scale ‘emacularreadicg publics had formed & cri pr of te aking of moderity inthe wes, the rule of colonial diference lowed ile room for ther replication ‘trough British educations natives in 10 century Ind. AS swell now the Aeploymen of iteraldealogy wih the ‘olomilcontee fundamen precluded ny camestaplicionofmakerpraciles tothe expanon of the native economy ‘With the Sante concitons for the ‘emergence of what Benedic: Anderson sm [Anderson the burden of recreating the effects ofthe extended, im Personal, communicative networks tha ‘veloped alongside the growth of the ‘matkel inthe west ad thas 19 be Borne bythe project of eduction tneenlony.> Paradoiclly colonialedvation, desi 48-4 grand bureaucratic scheme, was ‘expected to ary out evel “surogae™ funcuoes, cluding the binging aboot of the effects of linguistic standerdistion tnd the growth of verscular reading pubis, processes that hadbeen produced {nh wertascorollanes tothe emerpenee Of lagescale markets and cenualised polities Given that colosial policy could punciate ideas of general acess mainly oblique indirect ways, on ofthe joe ‘ways it managed 1 do this was trough As Conceptual aad technical abies to redefine the stricto of li hangesinsheregicn especialy thenatre ‘of vernacular discourse What set English Span (rom other Tengusges that had Previously enered the subcontinent was the nature of he relatonof autho that English was able oassome vie-vs the regional tongues. TMs was, of cours, sled ots poiieal stats, especially as the new stale was capable of trogating ‘ouseiamonopalisi povertolegibmate altura production in a way tal pe Beonomic end Political Weehly December 4, 199 colonial regimes could not possibly cewiage "The postion of English with espect to te local linguages was more tha ust fapeton ofitspaiical auton: issis epended on is claims fo be the vehicle ofthesuhontasvedscounesof modernity ‘wthinthe colonial station, English wat able to assme this postion of command rma on account ofthe evaiabiity of int, which gave the western imperial Imagination the techaical means to conceive of, and institut, relation of ‘ependencebetween English andthe oes) languages. This was ercial 10 the con- siruton of colonia iscrs, abt ent ‘avai of feasity to the ambition of producingspoentaly uniform common- Sense within native Society through the ‘gency of treclaton from Eagle and Sandardsed educational programme extending through the subcontinent. “Thus the making of colonial ideology oregrounded tne reresettion oF atho- ‘iy and hlrarchy through language in an Impresdenedway.Thedicursivedorain represented hy Englishconstiedhe apex ‘of the colonial pubic sphere, a Tact that ‘was leary underined by the suctare of Command within the native edvetion fccieties and reflected in the differen fatem budgetary alocationstoEngtish and vernacular inition, respectively Setupin he thee presidencies Wah hese rocessesoflingulstcnornaisstionberig ‘channeled through the education project, Which effectively repusted access t a ‘pporunides of advancement unuer the ‘ew regine, knowledge of thee ne Ferae sls virally defised he Tine ‘tween inclusion and excasion inthe ‘emerpingarenaofeolniak mogempublic fiulation. The bilingual relation was {hos constitutive of coli Society in 2 fundamental. Tchus becomes necessary to analysethe waysin which be emerging ineligentsia regarded the bilingual relaton/ivide the Sraegis they used to contend with its poli consequences ws they aempted {© manoeuvee themselves in positon of hegemonic influence a Intellectuals, Dissemination, ‘New Audiences ‘The nature ofthe fngusic transfer and xchange implicit athe colonial more ‘seeds to be understood carefully On the ‘nehandhenatveangoages were placed ‘a elation of det sabordinaion vi {vis Engen. On theater, the currency ‘of colonial wanslation made i apes 3s ‘hough. inprncpl,theEnglshand vers 7 cul pbtcscouldbe endoted withsym- ‘mecieal expressive and cognitive repe- toes. As we Eno however. this was ot thecase Insuchasiuation, the areaation ‘fshegemonic poston, however ile, ‘was hound fo depend on combination ‘of kills in English and the vernacular ‘The asymmetry between the English and the vernacular spheres was fuer ‘compounded by the disproportionate elation between the respective sizes of ‘hse reading audiences andthe authonty that each enjoyed. Thus, despite the apperent homology that offical policy ought 1 establish between Engi and the vernacular seas, there remnned ab inhereatconradicton between themodr, ‘rivers norms upon which English souphtolepimateislsimsasalanguage (of a superior rationality and the ieum- scribed range of an English-knowin; ‘olomialaudience,Aknowledge ofl Introduced colonial intellectuals to 2 horton of enriched inelectua, cultural and polical choices. But also placed them severely at odds with d seat worl, linguistic worl. where {heinfluenceofthediscureesofmaderity wascleaty ied upwithaccessolinguisie Shils The lingualcharacter hacolonial powerhad assume ledtoacuncenation ‘fhe pvilege to define the naire of the Siseursive waffle between the weslere rmetopois nis penipheriesisihe mands ‘of a sina chases of inellectoals ox ‘sively endowed with the eri skills ‘of translation and medion, Argubly, the paradon between the illegitimacy of priloge and the ells concentration of the intellectual means to generate ‘normative discourses through channels of general cieulation generally consates = {rucial tension ‘within the politcal iscourses of modemity Import, this tension was displaced into the colonial context mainly as the. asymmetry charactensing the possibiis and mits of tranelation tween English and the regional verses. if, generally speaking, the position of modern inelligentsas hasbeen a function ‘oftheir potential tonegotite te desical possbliesofdssominationandrepresen {Btion within the word of erate pics, ‘wih language Being sch cri site in the eonsution of colonial stae-socity ‘lations, the relation between the English Sphere and the veracilar publics wat tery cruciat vo the efforts of the Inlgensiatogainahegemonic postion. ln making the shift from the moment of ‘ment Theil gen sefTors were now frmanily gears to questoning of he Tegiimacy of the colonial sate on the bessoftheirownclaimiorepresentnatve "The carly native pres ton had engage? Inacrtiqu of hecolomal administration, but as hts been suggested in the analysis Of Durpan, the eatyinligensa ere not preoccupied with self-conscious ‘esr to ferther tei cnn representative ‘aims. Given thie shift ithe slp xin ofthe iteligentsia after 1857, ‘yas noteworthy that al hese papers were publihed from the provincia! esptl of Bombay, even af they publicised her aims o be widely cieuted in Bombay Sd the Mosse "The panier of native press intaives fer 85Tunedtostraegialy crcunvent ‘he politcal consequences of colonial ‘hlingulisminthese ways Simshiniusly, native discourse showed signs of an increasing reluctance to discuss the ‘ilingual divide in x fordright matter This unwillingness was part of the ielligensia'sprowingself conciousness about its politcal postion ~ which, ut- furpsingly, was mertedty adiscemuble Sif from thee previous Willingness (9 Snalse candily the ireconilable pit Srithin the native literate community Teed, native weting fom the 185lr ‘onyards increasing tended to pos over these rupuures. Apparenly, growing awareness ofthe conditions under which ‘hey couldassimearepesenttve positon Ted ealonisl intellectual o disclaim the pola! significance of the linguistic ‘divide or even the herccicalasymnety between the educated and uneducated enomic and Political Weskiy December 4 199 sepnents.Ishallilusutethishifthrough 1b feferece to watings of Moreshwar Kant. a ineesting intelectual of he post 1887 period who deserves more terion than be fas theo feted, ‘Kant published te stparor his poem, Roja Shivaji, i 1852 with the expe. infemtonofconibuing th paty sore ‘of published erature n the vernacular, ‘bat significandy. prefaced it with an account in English hat analysed be sate ‘of veraculr wring [Kun 1852 1-5) Tn this preface he offered an extrenely pespiacious and detailed description of ‘hecultraland ingustiropures crested ‘rough colonial education se i mpi- cations for vernacular prodection. ‘especially the possiblities fer lncstion feu Inprescaing sera effors before he publ’ he foand bimslf com pile eet upon ke divisions isthe Ciera) taste of his sountrymen’. He ‘erly saw th these contemporary r= [lured spond widithepreous taiional divisions aloag lines 6 ‘Te inhshitantof Maras clang Brahming, sedis an ters may be Avid tree clases Fteence #0 these ster (1) The Shas and 0 ‘whom hey guide Thi clas ile (2) The edvcoed tats those who know English (3) The unedocated. especialy ‘Bote who are trent wo the Shan, ete esate ‘Theseboldl-ofleredschematcremarks Jed Kune to consider the psi of contact and conic! between the norms {nderyingpee-colrilandcarcetirary prsctices ndings, hemade Some very feling observations on she displacement ‘of the old norms though the entry of English and the implications of the new cura nomsand practise for vemcular wating Accusoma to ead agli, Hooghly Sense of wat English pocty Ia ommptert by ei edoation enter ino Se elings orEngish subs. But such ‘Sov thecase with Maru, though ibe thee verneulat Here they find rae iaterals, utcouth expressions and = Yersicaion wie, perhups, ees se rot ature, A shat Joes not nid’ pti ine be tolerable ll 10's consierably sued with Susksit ‘nods, for pre Marah rates upon Wis as Hive eae fate facenat Ibecdcsed oot find Marah lene, tthe fet of he Shas ooking own “pont Nothing is common vo these te ‘tases etcep that they do ao lbour at Maru andaluvae bla thy lok {ttm « Saket fan English pot of view Kone 852:4]emphassaded), ‘But the task of crcal analysis was seemingly not ieatical withthe tsk of ‘ivancing pola possbilies. ndwhat ouldbe emphasised wihinthefamework Of the former was nat neces Iissible within native dicoune at Soughtoforegroundisownrepresenative claims. Whiting abeut the srusgie Oat ‘Beinelgentcouldadopro mance ieway acme cutualandocial vies few yeas later, Kunte was, hs, leary Unwlingio scm ihedrapuve etc ‘ofcoloninedusation. His remarksinPan It ofhisEnglsheatse of 871~ Tae Reform (Question ~ presenta suiking const the peefuory esisy uf 1BS2 discosed hove “Ta interpleeseekstnassesstbe beni of Bren rule and also deliberate upon ‘waysio strengthen representative contact between the Bris rulers and native society 80 a5 (0 minimise te politcal Tables of Yoreign government ruling ‘overs dependency lnsuking smarty to he "Mandl essay mentioned above, Kunte acknowledged that the intel ‘entsi'sseength was theirabiiy claim 2 preter peoxmity fo the nave peopl ‘han the British government [Kant 181 1839), ‘Clearly, the prspect of consolidating steicown postion ocontesthelegiinacy of elon ule place ists or te el. Tgentie's valingness to publcse We “Thus, almost paredoxically, Man thmala's serve se steed fom 2 ‘Seep fraught position Indeed, there were many signs that uppercase tempts 1 ser ther dominance By articulating & representative Marat dentiry were nat backedby an underlying social consensus Even Nibandbmal Ra 1 adi 10 the ‘chs that prevailed a the 1878 anna meeting of the “cultivated” Pune Vakroiejk Sabha, « body intended o promote sis of publi-peaking within. the Marathi community Simian, twealsoleamfromothersourses, heffons (o hold she fst ever gathering of Marah ‘srs Marah Grama Sabin 1878 ‘wer, even bythe organisers’ own amis ‘op far from successful Chipunkar's ‘wn writings in Nibandhmale repeat tlluged to the sriour difficulties en countered in producing a regular supply ‘of standard ails to sstaina journal ike his which hat sought to rely on “orginal composition in the Vernacular. All this testes tothe vulnerability of such a tempts io articulate an elevated Ierary discourse in Marathi "Bat he confident tone and self-assured syle of Ciplunkars prse is incomplete Contato what one might expect o find ‘agains this background of intereal ‘comestation and diordsuounding the tempts to define a homogeneous vena ‘colrierry poblic This apprent paradox takes sense when seen suns the major Aisunction underlying. Nibondhmala's ‘altura poles namely, the coexistence within fs pages of an ambience of ‘progressive commmentto the ens of xginal composition in Marathi and Wemacular Hieary tase wih an aggre Ssively and-lowercase discourse, ‘The most vehement instance of thie Imolerance vas provoked by the pub- lication of Phule' Gulameir! andthe annul report ofthe Satyashodak Sam {or1872-73. Mbandimalareviewed them inva most inmoderate and abusive fashion? The occasion seemed to have ‘rowght out the most intempert side of ‘he paula brand ofthe ares, biter humour that it adopted wt rademark ‘The review simpy tured out to be 40 cexwsetoterate the base throst of Phe pales. Iniakingnani-low case positon publicly, the Mala was presumably feskng on behalf of readership and for thet “benefit, thus clearly boraying its own poisea interest and positon "The main provocation seemed 9 stem from the atempis of lower-aste com munities organise themselves petition ‘he colonial ste omtheirnghttoedecation and poblicacess. Cleary the uppercase intelligentsia sw thi as likely founder mine heir stempusto secure ahegemeonic postion vis. ai theeolonil sate andthe ative seta word, No surpisinaly. the establishment ofthe Satyashak Sams) im Pape in 1873 wae seen to pose an ‘immediate vest (0 the poston of the ‘vermis ineligensa, which ad tied to carve out for ise precariously balanced, “Secondary” space in between the ‘high? (Univerity-educated) stelle ‘tals and the "ediary muses ‘Chplunkar’s aggressive criticism was aimed at the whole range of Phale's activities, fom the publication of hisani- ‘rahmanical Brohmanache Kesab Phule 1869) and Gulameirs Phule 1873} and bis vcs published nthe missionary paper, Sanyadeepia Pune) othe organisational efforts of the Satyashodak Sain. The ‘isparaging comments about Gulamagir ‘were made under atin veneer of aexthe- tiism The annual repor is tice for not conforming to the norms of curent Tieary discourse and ridiculed for wha CChiplunkarconsideradte inaccuracies of itsTanastc'eoinagesandhistrcalinag- nation, and alo for is sparen grat ‘matical deficiencies” Bulthereview dot stop there Itwent lontoenicise in very coarslanguage, the empts of lower caste groupe 10 take ‘Mivantage ofthe education offeredin mis: onary schools These were seen at = ‘oneiiatry poston towards the colonial Administration and the missionaries, Which in Chiplnkar’s view amounted to Subversion of the uppercase intel gentsia's attempts 10 extend a homo- encouscharactertothevemaculr sphere (Wibendmata, Augost 1877, p14). PPhule's objections to the exclusivst and oppressive aspects of Brahmanisin were tal answered witha derisive chauvinism hat, a bes, prmisod witha patronising atogancehatthequestion ofbrahmanial Dvlege would be reviewed "gradually And ‘at the appropriate ime’ Chip [conomic and Poical Weekly December 4, 1999 unk’ shosit toe Saryasheak Soma seas couched in language which Was fat fom decorous, which made no pretence of respecting the norms of liber com Iunieative rationality For the sake of Trevi, thie poit i being substantiated oth cay 2 Single example; Une the preset conitions be considered) how wie and realy ouapeous ii fr fos Bee yoo 0 Shares back away at ahi and ‘eforcrmfn Dat ay te own ate coring the comenience of hose 9 power sry ati worth thinkng tot Fw booming inde present piel Stun (ests) to esblish abs mowlertoradesbuseamongstouncves In stark contnst ny suggestion of sich ‘contemptuous bravado Hs Rept oot of ‘ibandimaa’s temps to elaberate 2 ah-berary eieal diseourse ia Marah Init trary scour, the ours tone ‘tas unfallingly decomus and expansive he cordiahy a0 doubt acasioned by thehomogeneity of thesocial poston. the Interests of ite readership. Twat the Nibardimala’s practice to publish an annual review 10 which the edior ako fuvchis asersment of the journals work Ghnng the presoing months The te opedinsichpieces unvaryingly sowed modest and respectful atitade wo the ‘ealer, Often the journal would goto great Teng to explain its eifielin tits subeners I woul humbly ask oe their forbeuance on aecount of the numerous obeaces within the station of colon) roodertty which prevented jouer spring to be a standard, “original "tera" publication from sticking toi ‘egula schedule. Again usione example sal Rave do here se rly equa! our des ha he esses lor the sepa of ou journal Srenonehertan hosed tessed above (Our chit maton being Io serve out ‘esc inerets we askthem beat {ei the work kes someutat longer ‘They ought to remember a we nat 5 dot post the sl o rel out five rsx pages at 3 siting ike Same) Sons, nr are the pig presses here “cen enogh or took be produce twit a Few dysof te type beng set Seemingly, then our “malakaa’, as ‘Chiplunkar was often eefened 0 by bis ‘ontempoarieshadperfected thesstegy ‘Tadjting histone sdmanne fades, ‘ive the inelletal apd social domain esoughttonddess vide alta. ber tne of elevated deliberation as swbereserved exclusively foradicusson of hia literary matters amongst alike minded audienee. But, we have seen, Wis ke-ained, appeteny ctuvad hence wa pert eagle fre aquishing all norms of cuguete an tleroee in speaking of nei specially when they were seen (0 taogress upon the fore’ “gh! pegs Also sgnifianlydespethepecceived sed to conoliits 4srong elestve, Sntecolomalienity through the emacs Abandhata verso Bley dows Chiplunkars unatinting Smiaton fore Emp angus en iy erate Besides hin somevh - moderate an highly aestiedreve- rence for English aca i is famous ‘Somparsona Engl vida tote ik ofatgress{Chipunkar ND) Chinn's seings nee iberly annotated with “oan: fom ndreferncesttie works ‘tamu English sors and poets. On th counts, contrast ith Basha [Sista poston arena wemacslar icone, dscusedeatier’ spingsto tind, As we have Sen, Balhae pe. Sceopaton wih be erie courte of Engl arene terry onesenaed Iivengagonen wih oder ses (0 be far less aesthetic than isi fvience in he Yeracuar wei ‘Vishashart Chior ‘NBondimata plated thee fen- tal esay on gress png said secon of Engi iar hi {ey focusngespecilyonheemergence 1s leamed yet conmon-ndiood language inode prone ough he poblction of pods an ery! Erica jonas Uke he Specatr amber dnburgh Review and Wes mimer Review Vina a Ps nthraeallyopent elierary pon bites tat a arity with Eaghsh Slowedaccesstosven wlohe and ober ‘emacularntlscualsofdstinesbowed

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