Handout Introduction To IT

Introduction to computer sytem handouts
Chapter one
Overview of computer Science
o Introduction to Information and Communication Technology
Information Technology refers to the collection of tools and technologies that make it easy for
individuals, businesses and other organizations to use, create, manage and exchange information. Some
of the basic terms related to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) are:
 Data- are streams of raw facts representing events occurring in an organization or in the physical
environment before they have been organized and arranged in to a form that people understand or
use it.
 Information- is an organized collection of processed data which gives the complete sense.
 Knowledge- is the application of data and information to provide answer to the ‘how’ questions. It
represents a pattern that helps one to understand how things happen and to predict what will
happen next based on certain gathered data and information.
 Intelligent - can be considered as the ability to draw inferences from the available knowledge. It is
the ability by which we can take knowledge and synthesize new knowledge or information from
the previously held knowledge.
 Wisdom- It is the maturity of mind that directs its intelligence to desirable goals. It comes from
the ability to synthesize (combine) various streams of knowledge - that enables us to make
informed judgments about various ideas and propositions that may lie outside of our own direct
areas of expertise.
Generally, ICT is the use of computers and telecommunication facilities for the purpose of
gathering, storing and distributing information globally. Information system also a set of interrelated
components working together to collect, retrieve, process, store and disseminate information for the
purpose of facilitating planning, control, coordination, analysis and decision making in businesses &
other organization.
oDefinition of computer and computer science
In the beginning of the civilization, people used their fingers and pebbles for computing
purpose. In fact, the word ‘digitus’ in Latin actually means ‘finger’ and ‘calculus’ means ‘pebble’.
This gives a clue into the origin of early computing concepts. With the growth in civilization, the
computing need also grew. The need for a mechanism to perform lengthy calculations led to the
invention of first calculator and then to computers.
The tern ‘computer’ is derived from the word ‘compute’, which means to calculate. A
computer can be defined as a machine (composed of electronic and electric circuits), which can
perform arithmetic operations and logical decisions with defined pattern of instructions called
software.
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A computer can also defined as an electronic device which accepts an input, process the input
according the instruction provide and produce the desired output. Although, the application domain
of a computer depends totally on the human creativity and imagination, it covers a huge area of
applications including education, industries, government, medicine, scientific research, law, social
sciences, and even music and arts. Computers are widely seen as instruments for future progress and
as tools to achieve sustainability via improved access to information, and dematerialization via video
conferencing and E-mail. Computer Science also a science that studies about the hardware and
software component of a computer.
o CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Man developed computers so that he could perform intricate operations such as calculation and
data processing or simply for entertainment. Today, computers are everywhere – in our offices,
homes, appliances, automobiles – the list is endless. Much of the world runs on computers, and
computers have profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better. Let us discuss some of the
characteristics of a computer, which make them an essential part of every emerging technology and
such a desirable tool in human development.
 Speed: The computers process data at an extremely fast rate, that is, to the tune of million
instructions per second. In a few seconds, computers can perform such a huge task that a
normal human being may take days or even years to complete. The speed of a computer is
calculated in MHz (Megahertz), that is, one million instructions per second. At present, a
powerful computer can perform billions of operations in just on second.
 Accuracy: -Besides the efficiency, the computers are also very accurate. The level of accuracy
depends on the instructions and the type of machines being used. Since we know that the
computer is capable of doing only what it is instructed to do, faulty instructions for processing
the data automatically lead to faulty results. This is known as GIGO, that is, Garbage In
Garbage Out. Errors may occur in the results, but due to increased efficiency of error-detecting
techniques, they can be minimized. Thus, the probability of errors in a computer is negligible.
 Computers can performing millions of instructions without commuting any error, or they
done their activities without any error/mistake.
 Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer,
which is measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure. The
major reason behind the reliability of the computers is that, at hardware level, it does not
require any human intention between its processing operations. Moreover, computers have the
built-in diagnostic capabilities, which help in continuous monitoring of the system.
 It refers to a computer is a trustfulness (acceptance) machine.
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 Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and it can recall the required
information almost instantaneously. Anyone can store data in a computer for several years and
you will find it the same whenever you came back your data. Different computers have
different memory and storage capacity. The memory of the computer is relatively small and it
can hold only a certain amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on storage devices
such as CD-ROM and a hard disk. A single CD-ROM can store up the 700 MB of data while a
hard disk can have a capacity of around 80 GB (1 GB=1024 MB).
 Storage capacity of a computer is measured by bite, bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes
and terabytes.
 Bite: is the smallest measurement unit of data either 0 or 1 (off or on).
 Gigabytes and Terabytes: are the largest measurement units of data. A group of bites is called
byte.
 8 bites = 1 byte = 1 character ,1KB = 1024 byte , 1MB = 1024 KB , 1GB = 1024 MB , 1TB =
1024 GB
 Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks
simultaneously with equal ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to prepare a letter,
the other moment it can be used to play music and in between you can print a document as
well. All this work is possible by changing the program (sequence of instructions for
computers). In brief, we can say that a computer can perform various tasks by reducing the
task to a series of logical steps.
 Diligence: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and
lack of concentration. If four million calculations have to be performed, then the computer will
perform the last four-millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the first
calculation.
 Automatic: A computer can work without human involvement after starting the programming.
Computers have certain limitations, as a machine, a computer can only perform what it is
programmed to do, nothing more and nothing less. It can only operate on the user provided data,
that is, it can accept data, process it, and communicate the results to the user. In addition, a
computer needs well-defined instructions to perform any operation. Therefore, computers are
unable to give anywhere qualitative considerations are important. For instance, it can make plans
based on situations and information though it cannot foresee whether they will succeed or not.
Other limitations of a computer are:
 Interpretation of data and implementation of decision is left for human.
 Do not provide their own input, unless people provide it with the input.
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o CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
These days, computers are available in many sizes and types. You can have a computer that can
fit in the palm of your hand to those that can occupy the entire room; single user computers can be
used by hundreds of users simultaneously. Computers also differ based on their data processing
abilities. Hence, computers can be classified according to purpose, data handling, and functionality
 Classification of computers According to Purpose
Computers are designed for different purposes. They can be used either for general purposes or
for specific purposes.
General Purpose computers: a general-purpose compute, as the name suggests, is designed
to perform a range of tasks. These computers have the ability to store numerous programs.
These machines may be used for various applications, ranging from scientific as well as
business purpose applications. Even though such computers are versatile, they generally lack in
speed and efficiency. The computers that you use in your schools and homes are general-
purpose computers.
Specific Purpose Computers: these computers are designed to handle specific problems or to
perform a single specific task. A set of instruction for the specific task is built the machine.
Hence, they cannot be used for other applications unless their circuits are redesigned, that is,
they lacked versatility. However, being designed for specific tasks, they can provide the result
very quickly and efficiently. These computers are used for airline reservations, satellite
tracking, and air traffic control.
 Classification of computers based on Data-handling Technique
Different types of computers process the data in a different manner. According to the basic data
handling principle, computers can be classified into three categories: analog, digital, and hybrid.
Analog Computers:
A computing machine that works on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements
obtained are translated into desired data is known as analog computer. Modern analog computers
usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the
quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers. They measure
continuous physical magnitudes (such as temperature, pressure, and voltage), which are analogous to
the numbers under consideration. For example, the petrol pump may have an analog computer that
converts the flow of pumped petrol into two measurements-the quantity of petrol and the price for that
quantity. Analog computers are used for scientific and engineering purposes. One of the characteristics
of the computers is that they give approximate results since they deal with quantities that varies
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continuously. The main feature of analog computers is that they are very fast in operation as all the
calculations are done in ‘parallel mode’. It is very easy to get graphical results directly using analog
computers however; the accuracy of analog computers is less.
Digital Computers:
A computer that operates with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital
form is known as digital computer. Such computers process data (including text, sound, graphics, and
video) into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). In digital computes, analog quantities must be converted into
digital quantity before processing. In this case, the output will also be digital. If analog output is
desired, the digital output has to be converted in to analog quantity. The components, which are
performing these conversions, are the essential parts or peripherals of the digital computer. Digital
computers can give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. The accuracy of such computers
is limited only by the size of their registers and memory. The desktop PC at your home is a classic
example of digital computer.
Hybrid computers:
Hybrid computer incorporated the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting
feature of a digital compute. For computational purposes, these computers use the analog
components and for the storage of intermediate results, digital memories are used. In order to bind
the powers of analog and digital techniques, analog to digital and digital to analog, the hybrid
computers comprehensively use converters. Such computers are broadly used for scientific
applications, various fields of engineering and in industrial control processes.
 Classification According to Functionality
Based on physical size, performance and application areas, we can divide computers generally into
four major categories: micro, mini, mainframe, and super computers.
Micro Computers:
A microcomputer is a small, low cast digital computer, which usually consists of a microprocessor, a
storage unit, an input channel, and an output channel, all of which may be on one chip inserted into
one or several PC boards. The addition of a power supply and connecting cables, appropriate
peripherals (keyboard, monitor, printer, disk drives, et.) an operating system and the software
programs can provide a complete micro computer system. The microcomputer is generally the
smallest of the computer family. Originally, they were designed for individual users only, but
nowadays they have become powerful tools for many businesses that, when networked together, can
serve more than one user. Microcomputers include desktop, laptop and hand-held models such as
PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants.)
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 Desktop Computer: Desktop computer or PC (personal Computer) is the most common

microcomputer. It is principally intended for stand-alone use by an individual. These
microcomputers typically consist of a system unit, a display monitor, a keyboard, internal
hard disk storage, and other peripheral devices. The major criterion behind the importance of
the PCs is that they are not very expensive to purchase by the individuals or the small
businesses.
 Laptop Computers: a laptop is a portable computer that a user can carry it around. Since
the laptop computer resembles a notebook, they are also known as notebooks. Laptops are
small computers enclosing all the basic features of normal desktop computer. The biggest
advantage of this computer is that one can use this computer anywhere and at anytime.
Moreover, these computers do not need any external power supply, as a rechargeable battery
is completely self-supply as them. These computers are expensive as compared to desktop
computers.
 Hand-Held Computers: a hand-held, also called personal Digital Assistant (PDA), is a
computer that can conveniently be stored in a pocket (of sufficient size) and used while the
user is holding it. PDAs are essentially small portable computers and are slightly bigger than
the common calculators. Since, these computers can be easily fitted on the palmtop, they are
also known as palmtop computers.
In general, microcomputers are used for
 Word processing (automated, electronic typing and editing) to prepare letters, reports, memos
and other documents.
 Computerized worksheet analysis and modeling. This computerizes business planning,
budgeting, and analysis of business performance and assists decision-making activities.
 Graphics in the generation of charts and other graphic images. This visually enhances both the
analysis and presentation of information in reports and group presentations.
 Engineering activities. Computer-aided design and analysis can be performed by the use of
powerful microcomputers.
 Personal and home use. Entertainment, home management, personal finances, education, and
other activities can easily supported by the use of personal computers.
Mini computers:
A minicomputer is a small digital computer, which normally is able to process and store less
data than a mainframe but more than a microcomputer, while doing so less rapidly than a mainframe
but more rapidly than a microcomputer. They are about the size of a two-drawer filing cabinet.
Minicomputer (sometimes called a mid-range computer) is designed to meet the computing needs
for several people simultaneously in a small to medium size business environment. It is capable of
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supporting form 4 to about 200 simultaneous users. It serves as a centralized storehouse for a
cluster of workstations or as a network server. Mini computers are usually multi-user system so these
are used in interactive applications in industries, research organizations, colleges, and universities.
These are also used for real-time controls and engineering design work, High-performance
workstations with graphics I/O capability use minicomputer.
Mainframe Computers:
A mainframe is an ultra-high performance computer made for high-volume, processor-intensive
computing. It consists of a high-end computer processor, with related peripheral devices, capable of
supporting large volumes of data processing, high performance on-line transaction processing systems,
and extensive data storage and retrieval. Normally, it is able to process and store more data than a mini
computer and far more than a microcomputer. Mainframes are the second largest (in mainframe can
usually execute many programs simultaneously at a high speed, whereas super computers are designed
for single processes.
Mainframe allows its user to maintain large information storage at a centralized location and be
able to access and process this data from different computers located at different locations. They are
typically used by large businesses and for scientific purposes. In general Mainframe computers are:
 Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and
minis and usually have processors with faster instruction processing speeds.
 For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million instructions per second
(MIPS).
 A mainframe computer is generally found in a special computer room where environmental
factors such as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions are closely monitored.
 Because of the computer's cost and the value of the information stored there, the rooms in
which mainframes are located have security systems allowing only authorized personnel to
enter.
 Mainframe computers are designed to handle the information processing needs of
organizations with many employees and customers or with complex computational problems.
 To give some examples, mainframes can handle the processing of thousands of customer
inquiries, employee paychecks, student registrations, sales transactions, and inventory changes.
 They are also used as the center of computer networking. These computers are used by
organizations that have enormous and complex data processing assignments.
Super Computers:
Super computers are the special purpose machines, which has the highest processing speed at a
given time for solving scientific and engineering problems. It basically contains a number of CPUs that
operate in parallel to make it faster.
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A super computer can process a great deal of information and make extensive calculations very,
very quickly. They can resolve complex mathematical equations in a few hours, which would have
taken a scientist with paper and pencil a lifetime, or years, using a hand calculator. They are the fastest,
costliest and most powerful computers available today. Typically, super computers are used to solve
multi-variant mathematical problems of existent physical processes, such as aerodynamics, metrology,
and plasma physics. These are also required by the military strategists to simulate defense scenarios.
Cinematic specialists use them to produce sophisticated movie animations. Scientists build complex
models and simulate them in a super computer. The largest commercial uses of super computers are in
the entertainment/advertising industry.
o APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Why we use Computers?
For the last few decades, computer technology has revolutionized the businesses and other aspects
of human life all over the world. Practically, every company, large or small, is now directly or
indirectly dependent on computers for information processing. Computer systems also help in the
efficient operations of railway and airway reservation, hospital records, accounts, electronic banking,
and so on computers not only save paper work.
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use Computers.
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;
Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires these abilities. Some of
the areas where computers are being used are listed below.
Education: Computers have also revolutionized the whole process of education currently, the
classrooms, libraries, and museums are efficiently utilizing computers to make the education much
more interesting. Unlike recorded television shows, computer-aided education (CAE) and Computer
Based Training (CBT) packages are making learning much more interactive.
Medicine and Health Care: There has been an increasing use of computers in the field of medicine.
Now, doctors are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to monitoring patient’s status
during complex surgery. By suing automated imaging techniques, doctors are able to look inside a
person’s body and can study each organ in detail (such as CAT scans or MRI scans), which was not
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possible few years ago. There are several examples of special purpose computers that can operate
within the human body such as a cochlear implant, a special kind of hearing aid that makes it
possible for deaf people to hear.
Entertainment: Computers are finding greater use in entertainment industry. Computers are used to
control the images and sounds. The special effects, which mesmerize the audience, would not have
been possible without the computers. In addition, computerized animation and colorful graphics have
modernized the film industry.
Communication: E-Mail or Electronic Mail is one of the communication media in which computer
is used. Through e-mail the messages and reports are passed from one person to one or more persons
by the aid of computer and the telephone line. The advantage of this service is that while transferring
the messages it saves time, avoids wastage of paper, and so on. Moreover, the person who is
receiving the messages can read the messages whenever he is free and can save it, reply it, forward it
or delete it from the computer.
Commercial or business applications: Computers are needed to perform business operations that
require handling large amounts of data.
Several computer applications are available to assist business in working with large volumes of
data. Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
Scientific-engineering and research application
1. Computers are using for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work,
and analysis and control of physical system. Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory system
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
Weather and Environment : Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels
and wind flow and can used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming
environmental hazards.
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Transportation : Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly
under the control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the
computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as spark and fuel
control
Household Control: A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled.
For example: Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and televisions. This
computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken glass, unlawful entry without
a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police department.
Banking: In the field of banking and finance, computers are extensively used. People can use the
ATM (Automated Teller Machine) services 24 hours of the day in order to deposit and withdraw
cash. When the different branches of the bank are connected through the computer networks, then the
inter branch transaction such as cheque and draft can be done by the computers without any delay.
Historical Development of Computers
In ancient times, people used fingers to perform the calculations such as addition and
subtraction. Even today, simple calculations are done on fingers. Soon, mankind realized that it would
be easier to do calculation with pebbles as compared to fingers. Consequently, pebbles were used to
represent numbers, which led to the development of sand table.
Sand table: consists of three grooves in the sand with a maximum of 10 pebbles in each groove. To
increase the count by one, a pebble has to add in the right hand groove. When 10 pebbles were
collected in the right groove, they were removed and one pebble was added to the adjacent left groove.
Afterward, sand tables were modified to abacus.
Abacus: it emerged around 5000 years ago in Asia and in some parts of the world. It is still in use. The
word ‘abacus’ was derived from Arabic word ‘abaq’ which means ‘dust’. It was simply a portable sand
table.
 Invented by Chinese and Egyptians some 500 years back
 Assumed to be the first adding machine. It consisted of rows of beads in rectangular
frame
 Beads represent place holders and performs arithmetic operations
 It worked on the principle of place value notation
Fig -2.1 to represent 125 by abacus

Napier bones: designed by John Napier in 1614. It is the same as abacus, but Napier bones include
multiplication and it was the best known for the invention of logarithms.
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Pascal adding machine the first mechanical adding machine (automatic calculator) developed by
French mathematician known as Blaise Pascal in 1642. It can only add and subtract numbers. It had a
complex arrangement of wheels, gears and windows to display of numbers.
Later, the machine was improved by a Germany mathematician called Leibinz to perform two
additional operations such as multiplication and division and find square root.
In 1801, the French textile weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power loom with an
automatic car reader known as punch card machine. The idea of Jacquard to use punched cards was to
provide an effective means of communication with machines.
In 1822, the British Mathematician Charles Babbage invented the difference engine. The
difference engine was intended to solve differential equations as well. However, Babbage never quite
made a fully functional difference engine and in 1833, Babbage upgraded his machine and called it the
analytical machine. Analytical machine is considered to be the first general-purpose programmable
computer. Babbage never built an analytical engine, which was to have a memory unit or arithmetic
unit to perform computation.
Mark- I computer: It was essentially a serial collection of electromechanical calculator and had many
similarities to Babbage’s analytical machine. It was capable of performing addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and table reference. However, it was extremely slow, noise and bulky
(approximately 50 feet long, 8 feet high and weighed 5 tones).
ABC computer: designed by John Vincent Atansoft and Clifford Berry in 1939.It was the first
electronic computer which introduce the idea of binary arithmetic, regenerative memory, and logical
circuit.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator): designed by John Mauchly and Eckert
in 1946.It used vacuum tubes to store data and instruction internally, and it is accepted as the first
successful high speed electronic digital computer. The size of ENIAC’s numerical word was 10
decimal digits, and it could multiply two of these numbers at a rate of 300 per second, by finding the
value of each product from a multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was a big machine
that:-
 Use 18,000 vacuum tubes
 Required around 160kw of electricity.
 Weighed about 30 tons.
 It took about 140 square meters of space.
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer): the first electronic computer to use
the stored program concept introduced by John Von Neumann. It also had the capability of conditional
transfer of control, that is, the computer could stop any time and then resumed again.
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EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer): It was also based on John Von
Neumann’s stored program concept. The work began on EDSAC in 1946 at the Cambridge University.
In 1949, the first successful program was run on this machine. It could carry out only 650 instructions
per second. A program was fed in to machine via a sequence of holes punched in to a paper tape. But
still it used a vacuum tube (3000 vacuum tubes).
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Calculator):1951
 Stored program concept was introduced.
 First commercially available computer.
 UNIVAC was delivered to the bureau of the census in 1951 where it was used for tabulating
census data.
 Was the first computer used for business data processing
 Some UNIVAC had the size of a grand piano and much more compact than the ENIAC
 Used RAM of 1000 words.
In 1954 IBM installed the first commercial computer, IBM 650.
1. IBM’s dominance in the computer world began in 1960 due to introduction of its 1401 computer.
2. This was followed by 370 series of computers in late 1960s
A computer that used vacuum tubes has the following disadvantages.
1. Consumed so much electric power
2. Produce so much heat, which frequently damaged the circuitry of system.
3. Calculation results were not reliable.
Hence, in 1948 William Scockly invented the transistor.
Advantages of the transistor over vacuum tubes were:
 Computers consumed less electric power
 Produce less heat
 The processing speed of computers was improved.
But still transistors had limitations, and then in 1958, Jacks Kilbey invented the integrated
circuits (IC). The IC made the computer: - Very small
- Processing fast
- Store large amount of information
- Produced lesser heat
Later improve to Large Scale Integrated circuits (LSIC) and Very Large Scale Integrated circuits (VLSIC).
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. In computer terminology, the word ‘generation’ is described as a stage of
technological development or innovation. A major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices characterize each generation of computer. According to the kind of
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‘processor’ installed in a machine, there are five generations of computers, which are discussed in the
next few sections.
First Generation (1940-56): Vacuum Tubes
First generation computers used vacuum tubes as principle electronic components. These
computes used magnetic drums for storage. A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with
magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be stored. Input was based on punched
cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
First generation computers relied on binary-coded language (language of 0s and 1s) to perform
operations and were able to solve only one problem at time. Each machine was fed with different
binary codes and hence they were difficult to program. This resulted in lack of versatility and speed.
In addition, to run on different types of computers, instructions must be rewritten or recompiled.
Characteristics of first generation computers
 These computers were based on the vacuum tube technology.
 They were the fastest computing devices of their times (computation time was milliseconds).
 These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
 Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of heat.
Therefore, air conditioning was essential.
 These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
 They lacked in versatility and speed.
 They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
 These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures. Hence constant
maintenance was required.
 Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and use.
 Each individual component and to be assembled manually. Hence. Commercial appeal of
these computers was poor.
Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC
Second Generation (1956-63): Transistors
Second generation computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes, which were superior to
vacuum tubes. A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. It
usually had three leads and performed electrical functions such as voltage, current or power
amplification with low power requirements. Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of
computers was greatly reduced. Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and
more reliable than their predecessors. In second-generation computers, magnetic cores were used
as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. However, they still relied
on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
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One of the major developments of this generation includes the progress of machine language to
assembly language. Assembly language used mnemonics (abbreviations) for instructions rather than
numbers, for example, ADD for addition and MULT for multiplication. As a result, programming
became less cumbersome. Early high-level programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN
also came into existence in this period.
Characteristics of second-generation computers
 These machines were based on the transistor technology.
 They were smaller as compared to first generation computers.
 The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds from milliseconds.
 They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, required less frequent
maintenance.
 They had better portability and generated less amount of heat.
 Assembly language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became more time-
efficient and less cumbersome.
 Second generation computers still required air conditioning.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.
Examples: PDP-8, IBM1401
Third Generation (1964-Early 1970s): Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third generation computers. Also
called an IC, an integrated circuit consists of a single chip (usually silicon) with many components
such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it. Integrated circuits replaced several individually
wired transistors. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system. This allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. For the first time, computers became accessible to mass audience they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.
Characteristics of third generation computers
 These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.
 They were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
 They were easily portable and more reliable than the second generation.
 These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air conditioning
was still required.
 The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous computers.
 Since, failing of hardware occurred very rarely, its maintenance cost was very low.
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 Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.

 Manual assembling of individual components was not required, so it reduced the large
requirement of labor and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were required for the
manufacture of IC chips.
 Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
Examples: NCR 395, B6500
Fourth Generation (Early 1970s-Till Date): Microprocessors
The fourth generation is an extension of third generation technology. Although, the technology of
this generation was still based on the integrated circuit, these have been made readily available to us
because of the development of the microprocessor (circuits containing millions of transistors). A
microprocessor is built onto a single piece of silicon, known as chip. It is about 0.5 cm along one
side and no more than 0.25 cm thick.
The fourth generation computers led to an era of large-scale integration (LSI) and very large scale
integration (VLSI) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be constructed on
one small slice of silicon material whereas VLSI squeezed hundreds of thousands of components on
to a single chip. Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into the millions. This
way computers became smaller and cheaper than ever before.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. During this period, semiconductor
substituted magnetic core memories were substituted by semiconductor memories, which resulted in
faster random access main memories. Moreover, secondary memories such as hard disks became
economical, smaller, and bigger in capacity. The other significant development of this era was that
these computers could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development
of the Internet. This generation also saw the development of the GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces)
mouse and handheld devices. Despite many advantages, there is only one disadvantage of this
generation, that is, this generation required complex and sophisticated technology for the
manufacturing of CPU and the other components.
Characteristics of fourth generation computers
 Fourth generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.

 These computers are very small in size.
 Fourth generation computers are the cheapest among all the other generation.
 They are portable and very reliable.
 These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence they do not require air
conditioning. Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance required.
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 The production cost was very less. In addition, labour and cost involved at assembly
stage is also minimal.
 Graphical user interface and pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer
quickly.
 Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing.
Examples: Apple II, Altair8800, CRAY-1
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence
The fifth generation computers are still in the developments age. These computers will use
‘Super Large Scale Integrated’ chips, which will result in production of microprocessor having
millions of electronic components on a single chip. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that respond to natural language input, and will have the capability of learning
and self-organization. These computers will use intelligent programming (artificial intelligence
or AI) and knowledge-based problem solving techniques. The intelligent program will tell the
computer what to do and not how to do. The conventional data processing is based on processing
information whereas artificial intelligence deals with processing ideas and knowledge. Moreover, they
will be capable of performing multiple, simultaneous instructions using more than one micro-
processing chip. The input and output of these machines will be in the form of graphic images or
speeches. Such machines will be able to interpret natural Language processing).
The ongoing development and application of artificial intelligence has also enabled a field of
expert systems. It consists of a knowledge base and a set of rules for manipulating the knowledge.
With the advent of fifth generation computers, expert systems will become much more sophisticated
and popular. Japan and USA have undertaken projects to design and develop such computers.
Presently, they are used in the field of medicine, treatment planning, monitoring, and so on, on a very
small scale.
CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
3.1 Computer System
System is an organized relationship among functioning units or components. The purpose of
computer system is to solve a problem by processing data in to information. There are many types of
data, some of them are:
 Text data: consists of standard alphabets (A – Z, a – z), numbers (0-9), special characters (%, $, &, +,* etc)
 Graphic data: consists of stick pictures such as drawings, graphs, photographs etc.
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 Audio data: Include any music & voice.

 Video data: consists of motion pictures such as moving clip, pictures of a conference etc.
Generally computer systems have two components, i.e. hard ware and soft ware. Hard ware: is the
physical part of a computer that you can see and touch with your hand. Soft ware: is the internal
component of the computer that used to control, integrating, and managing the hard ware
components and to accomplish specific tasks.
3.1.1 Computer Hard ware:
Hard ware: is describing the physical parts that attached to the computer (i.e. All the internal
and external parts or devices connected to the computer like input and the output devices etc). It is the
part of the computer that you see and touch. It is composed of different units. These are:
 Input device
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Output device
 Storage unit.
The Central Processing
Unit
ALU Control Unit
Input unit Output unit

Registers
Primary Memory ROM
Secondary storage device
1. Input Unit:
An input device can be defined as an electromechanical device that allows the user to feed
information (data) in to the computer for analysis, storage, and to give commands to the computer.
Data and instruction are entered in to the computer’s main memory through an input device. Input
device captures information and translates it in to a form that can be processed and used by other parts
of the computer. After processing the input data, the computer provides the result with the help of
output devices.
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Input devices play a major role in the processing of any data via the computer system because the
output of the computer is always based on the given input. The most common used input devices are:
Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Digital camera etc.
 Key board: - is the most common data entry device, and has different shapes and size. The
keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows
 Functional key: assigned specific commands by the current application.
Example: F1 (help), F2 (setup)
 Alphanumeric keys(typing keys) – includes all letters and numbers
 Punctuation keys - comma, period, semicolon, etc.
 Special keys- caps lock, space bar, shift, enter etc.
 Control keys- these keys provide cursor and screen control. Example: arrow keys,
home, page down etc.
In detail the following are descriptions of the keyboard.
 Escape key - Generally used to abort some actions.
 Function keys: assigned specific commands by the current application that are vary from program to
program.
 Enter key - used to enter commands and to create blank lines in a document.
 Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting backward.
 Tab key - used to access tab stop.
 Caps lock key – used to produce upper case letters.
 Shift key - used to produce upper case letters and sometimes to invoke commands
 Control key & Alt key - commonly used in combination with other keys to enter
commands.
 Insert key - used to enter characters.
 Arrow keys - used to move the cursor around the display screen.
 Delete keys - used to delete characters.
 Number lock keys - used to activate the numeric keypad.
 Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.
 Mouse: is a small hand-held pointing device, which is rectangular-shaped with a rubber ball
embedded at its lower side and buttons on the top. The rubber ball used to move the cursor and
the button used to initiate to do some action, and it has two buttons, the right button and left
button.
 Right click – used to produce a ‘pop-up’ menu.
 Left click – carries out an action, such as starting an application.
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Types of mouse
 Mechanical - has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions.
Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction, the ball is rolling and move
the screen pointer accordingly.
 Opto-mechanical - same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect motion
of the ball.
 Optical: it doesn’t have mechanical moving part and uses a laser to detect the mouse’s
movement.
 Scanner: is a device that used to convert hard copy in to soft copy form. Used to scan or read
text and picture and converted them to computer usable form and save the scanned image as a
graphic file in the computer.
 Digital Camera: Stores images digitally rather than recording them on a film. Once a
picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a computer system and then manipulated with
an image editing software.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is referred as the brain of computer
system. It controls all internal and external devices, and performs arithmetic and logical operations.
The processor operates only on binary data that is composed of 1’s and 0’s corresponding to
electrical switches ON or OFF. It performs, supervises, and controls the arithmetic operations
(Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical functions (such as ‘is A greater than
B’?), primary storage, or main memory, provides the temporary locations inside the computer
where the data and instructions are stored while processed. The functions of the processor can be
summarizing as carrying out arithmetic and logical functions, controlling the use of main storage
(memory) to store data and instructions, controlling the sequence of operations and controlling all
the parts of the computer system.
The CPU consists of three main subsystems such as:
 Control unit
 Arithmetic and Logical unit
 Registers
These three sub systems work together to provide the operational capabilities of the computer. As
buses carry people from one place to another place, system bus also carries information from one
unit to another.
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System bus is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one unit to another
in computer system (CPU, memory, and I/O devices). It is further divided in to three logical units,
namely the data bus, address bus, and control bus.
Data Bus: it transfers the actual data between the processor, memory, and the I/O devices. It may
consist of from 32 to 100’s of separate lines, the number of lines being referred to as the width of the
data bus. Because each line can carry only one bit at a time, the number of lines determines how many
bits be able to be transferred at a time. The width of the data bus is key factor in determining overall
system performance.
Address Bus: It informs the CPU about the location of the data residing in the memory. For example, if
the processor wishes to read a word (8, 16, 32 bits) of data from memory, it put the address of the
desired word on the address lines.
Control Bus: It is responsible for making CPU, memory, and I/O devices work together as a functional
system, carrying signals that report the status (ready, not ready) of various units. It controls the signals
that transmit both command and timing information between system modules.
I. Control Unit
The control unit can be thought of as the heart of the CPU. It controls the I/O devices and transfer
of data to and from the primary storage. It reads and interprets instructions that retrieve from the main
memory. It controls the flow of instructions from memory to CPU or from ALU to registers. The
control unit repeats a set of four basic operations: fetching, decoding, executing, and storing.
Fetching: is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from memory.
Decoding: is the process of translating the instruction in to commands the computer can execute.
Executing: is the process of carrying out the commands.
Storing: is the process of writing the result to memory.
Generally, it performs all the control functions of the computer.
 It retrieves the instruction from memory.
 Translates those instructions into computer functions and sends signals to other computer
hardware units to carry out those functions.
 It is also responsible for determining the next instruction to be executed by the computer.
 In general it serves as the computer traffic cope.
II. Arithmetic Logical Unit
As the name suggests, the arithmetic logical unit carries out arithmetic and logical operations
on the data made available to it. For simple understanding, the ALU can be divided in to arithmetic
unit and logical unit.
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Arithmetic Unit: - contains the circuitry that is responsible for performing the actual computing
and carrying out the arithmetic calculations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
It can perform these operations at a very high speed.
Logical Unit: - The importance of the logical unit is the ability it provides to the CPU to make
logical operations based on the instructions provided to it. Logical unit uses statements such as AND,
OR, and NOT. This is useful when you have a set of instructions to execute only if certain conditions
are true.
III. Registers:
The registers are special purpose, high speed temporary memory unit. They hold varies types of
information such as data, instructions, addresses, and the intermediate results of calculations.
Essentially, they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on. Registers can be thought
of as CPU’s working memory. As the size of the registers increase, the computer processing activities
also increase. To execute an instruction, the control unit receives it from the main memory and places
in to the register.
 Registers are paths or conduits that connect the Arithmetic Logical Unit to the main memory.
 When an instruction loaded from main memory, it is placed first in the register to wait
instructions from the control unit.
 Data are also stored in registers prior to execution in the ALU.
3. Output devices(Units):
 Peripheral devices which used to convert machine readable information in to human readable form
 Display the processed data in hard copy form/soft copy form. Hard copy is the physical form of
output (paper form). But soft copy is the electronic version of an output, which usually resides in
computer memory or on disk. Soft copy is not tangible (cannot be touched).
 The most common used output devices are: Monitors, Printers, Plotters, Projectors, and Speakers.
 Monitor: This is called by different names like screen, VDU (Visual Display Unit), console
etc. It is the most frequently used soft copy output device. It used to display the processed data.
The monitors mainly classified into two categories: Monochrome – actually displays two
colors, one for background usually black, one for foreground normally white. Color - can
display from 16 to 1 million different colors. They are sometimes referred as RGB as they
accept three separate signals – Red, Green and Blue.
 Printer: prints information and data from the computer on to paper. Printers are divided in to
impact printers and non impact printers.
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- Impact printers: use some sort of physical contact with the paper
to produce an image. Eg. dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printers,
drum printers
- Non impact printers: forms characters and images without making
direct physical contact between printing mechanism and the paper.
E.g. ink-jet printer, laser jet printer.
 Plotters: is a pen based output device that is attached to a computer for making vector
graphics.
- It is used to draw high –resolution charts, graphs, maps, circuit
diagrams.
- They are mainly used for computer aided design (CAD) and
computer aided manufacturing (CAM) applications such as printing
out plans of houses or car parts.
- These are also used with programs like AUTO CAD (Computer
Assisted Drafting) to give graphic out puts.
 Projectors: are output devices, which are used to project information from a computer on to a
large screen. There are two types of projectors, LCD( Liquid crystal display) and DLP(digital
light processing)
 Speaker: is an output device, which is used to magnify sound. It produces sound when it is
connected to the sound system.
4. Storage device
It used to store data or program files and a computer has both primary (main) storage devices as
well as secondary storage devices.
Primary storage devices: are used to store data that are process and execute for immediately. An
example of primary storage device is a Memory. Memory is the electronic holding place for
instructions and data where the computer’s microprocessor can reach quickly. CPU requires memory to
handle the intermediately results and to store the final output.
The primary memory (storage device) also implemented by two types of memory technologies.
Random access memory (RAM) and Read only memory (ROM).
 Random Access Memory (RAM):- directly provides the required information to the processor.
RAM can be defined as a block of sequential memory locations, each of which has a unique
address determining the location and those locations contain a data element. It stores
programs and data that are in active use. It is volatile in nature, which means the
information stored in it remains as long as the power is switched ON. As soon as the power is
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switched OFF, the information contained in it vanishes (lost). In RAM we can write data on it
and read data from it. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the rest of the computer system
components. The CPU can utilize only those instructions and data that are stored in main
memory. RAM also divides further in to two.
o Dynamic Random Access Memory: It holds the data in dynamic (keeping on refreshing)
manner with the help of a refresh circuitry.
o Static Random Access Memory: Along with DRAM is essential for a system to run
optimally, because it is very fast as compared to DRAM. It retains the data as long as
power is provided to the memory chips. It does not need to be ‘refreshed’ periodically.
Features of RAM
- We can write data on it and read data from it.
- It is volatile in nature, means the information stored in it lost, if a power suddenly failure.
- It stores data and instruction temporarily.

 Read Only Memory (ROM):- This type of primary memory can only be read, not written.
In other words, CPU can only read from any location in the ROM but cannot write.
Features of ROM
 The contents of ROM are not losing even in case of a sudden power failure, making it
non-volatile in nature.
 It is also random access in nature.
 It reads only, but cannot write.
 It contains permanent recorded instruction.
There are additional kinds of non-volatile memory that used in some computer systems namely
 PROM,
 EPROM,
 EEPROM.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 It functions in the same way a regular ROM does, with a difference that these chips are custom-
made for the user by the manufacturer.
 The data can be recorded (using special type of software) on these chips once, and then it can’t
be changed.
EPROM (Erasable PROM)
 EPROM is beneficial over PROM in the manner that the data stored in an EPROM can be
erased with the help of a special device (using ultraviolet rays) and it can be programmed with
the help of PROM burners.
 The chip must be taken out of the system for the programming purpose.
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EEPROM (Electrically EPROM)

 It avoids the inconvenience of having to take the chips out of the computer to change data and
instructions.
 Instead, the changes can be electrically made under the software control.
 The data recorded on them can be easily updated.
 But these chips are more expensive than others.
Cache Memory: is a piece of very fast memory, made from high speed static RAM that reduces the
access time of the data. It is very expensive and generally incorporated in the processor, where
valuable data and program segments are kept. This enables the processor to access data quickly
whenever it is needed. The cache facilitates the system to catch up with the processors speed.
Secondary storage devices: are devices used to store data file and program files permanently.
They are designed as a backup to the main storage, and they store data on a long-term basis.Benefits of
secondary storage devices are:
- Non-volatile- it does not lose its content even when its power is turn off.
- Capacity – they can store large amount of data.
- Cost- it is less expensive than Primary storage device.
- Portability – they can be easily ported from one computer to another.
Several devices can be used as a secondary storage, but one selected for a particular application mainly
depends upon how the stored information needs to be accessed. Basically there are two methods of
accessing information.
 Sequential access
 Random access.
A Sequential access device is one in which the arrival at the location desired may be preceded
by sequencing through other locations. Example: magnetic tape
A Random access storage device is one in which any location in the device may be selected at
random, access to the information stored is direct, and appropriately equal access time is required for
each location. Example: Magnetic disk
Example:
 Floppy disk- is a direct access secondary device that used to store information. It is cheap,
small in size, portable and compact. It read and written by a floppy disk drive.
 Hard disk- a smooz metal plate coated on both sides with a thin film of magnetic material
and permanently fixed within a system unit. It has high storage capacity than floppy disk,
and it is a random access storage media.
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 Flash disk: is a secondary storage device used to read and write on it like floppy disk. It
has higher storage capacity, and more reliable than floppy, but it is more expensive.
Optical disks:
 Optical disk is a faster kind of mass storage.
 Consists of a rotating disk which is coated with a thin metal or other material that is highly
reflective.
 This type of storage involves the use of high-power laser beam to burn microscopic spots in a
hard disk’s surface coating.
 Data is represented by the presence (binary 1) and the absence (binary 0) of holes of storage
locations. The patterns of spots detected by the laser during the read operation are converted
into electrical signals used by the computer.
 One can store at most 17 GB of data (case of a DVD) on a single device.
 Storage density of optical disks is enormous, the storage cost is extremely low, and the access
time is relatively fast.
 The data recorded on optical media may not be damaged by stray magnetic fields and surface
problems like fingerprints, dust, and so on.
Most commonly used optical disks are:-
 CD-ROM/DVD-ROM
 CD-R/CD-RW
 DVD-R/DVD-RW
 CD-ROM/DVD-ROM: on this optical disk, once data is imprinted, the user cannot erase it,
change it or write on the disk. The user can only “read” the data. This type of optical disk is used
primarily for making huge amounts of prerecorded data, such as operating systems, government
statistics, Encyclopedias, medical reference books, dictionaries and legal libraries – immediately
available to the user.
 CD-R/CD-RW: The first one (CD) is that in which the data once written cannot be erased. It is
stored permanently over it. While the second type of the CD’s or the DVD’s are called as the
rewritable; where in the data that is once written can be erased completely and the same storage
device can be used again for storing the different data.
 DVD-R/DVD-RW: Stands for Digital Video Display. It holds huge amount of data as compared
with CDs. It has 4.7 GB up to 17 GB storage capacity. The first one (DVD-R) is that the data once
written cannot be erased. It is stored permanently over it. While the second type of the DVD’s ,
means the DVD-RW is called as the rewritable; where in the data that is once written can be
erased completely and the same storage device can be used again for storing the different data.
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3.1.2 Computer Soft ware: is the internal component of the computer that used to control,
integrating, and managing the hard ware components and to accomplish specific tasks.
There are two components of soft ware. These are
- System soft ware and
- Application soft ware.
A. System soft ware: is a soft ware that coordinates the activities of users, hard ware, data files and
other soft ware called application soft ware. System soft ware is also categorize in to three,
namely,
- Operating system
- Language translator
- Utility Program
Operating system: is a program or set of programs that manage the computer systems resource and
control its overall functioning. Operating system carried out the following activities
 It control the overall activities of a computer
 It direct all processing activities within a computer
 It decided where a program stored or retrieved
 Calling other system software when needed
 Schedule the jobs
 Handle communication between the components of the computer for instance application
software and user.
 Allocating storage facilities activating input/output devices. It means that it decided
where data should be stored.
 It process command from user entered through input device and interpret the commands
and cause the necessary action to be taken.
Types of Operating System
 Single User - Single Tasking O.S:- O.S of these types normally allows one user to run one
program at a time. Its execution speed will be very fast. Example: MS-DOS
 Single User - Multi Tasking O.S:- In this O.S, one user can run more than one program at
a time. Example: MS-Windows 98, 2000, XP, Vista etc.
 Multi user - multi tasking O.S:- In these type of operating system, more than one user can
utilize the resources available on a computer- like hardware and software to perform
many tasks at the same time. It is mostly used in the networked environment. Example:
LINUX, UNIX etc.
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Language translator: are programs or systems soft ware that translates application programs
written in a high-level language and assembly language in to machine language (the CPU can
understand). Language translators divided in to three main categories.
o Assembler: is a program that translates assembly language to machine language.
o Compiler: is a program that translates high-level language to machine language.
o Interpreter: A program that executes instructions written in a high-level language.
There are two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most
common is to compile the program; the other method is to pass the program
through an interpreter. An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an
intermediate form, which it then executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-
level instructions directly into machine language.
Computer Languages
A language is a systematic set of rules for communicating ideas. A programming language is a

language for communication between a person and a computer. The content of communication is
known as a program. Programs are set of instructions which enable the computer to perform a required
task.
Types of Languages: There are basically 3 types of programming languages, namely machine
language, assembly language and high level language.
 Machine Language: this is the language the computer directly understands. This is termed as
Low-Level Language. The instructions in machine language are in the form of strings (Group) of
binary numbers and are called machine instructions. This is not only tedious, but also makes
maintenance difficult.
 Assembly Language: to reduce the burden of the programmer, Mnemonic codes were developed.
This language is termed as Middle-Level Language. These describe the machine instructions with a
group of letters or symbols. For example, for additions we use ADD A B as instruction. Even
though using this is easier, these instructions must be translated again in machine language.
 High Level Language: coding in assembly language is still time consuming and it is a machine
dependent. Programs written in these might have to be re-written if a different maker of computer
is used. These problems led to the development of third generation languages (3GL) which are
usually called as High level languages, which used English-like structures in their instructions.
Advantages of High level language are –
 They are easier to learn and understand as they look like English language.
 They require less time to write and are easier to maintain.
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 Programs once written may be used with different machines (Computers) with little
modifications.
Utility Program: is a program used to support, enhance, expand, and secure existing programs
and data in the computer system. Most common functions of system utilities include:
o Back up: sometimes data files can get corrupt, or get accidentally deleted. In such a
case, data backups become very useful. A backup system utility is essential for those
organizations that want to keep their data intact.
o Data recovery: used to recover data. Since, disk drives or other hardware may fail,
these utilities are essential to recover data.
o Virus protection: Antivirus scans for the hard disk for any kind of virus.
o Disk management: includes defragmenting disks, data compression software, and
formatting disk tools.
B. Application software:
The most often seen software by a general user is the application software. It is used to accomplish
specific tasks rather than just managing a computer system. It is software specially designed to satisfy
a particular need. It does real tasks for user.
 Easy to use and understand
 Easily accessible from market
 Each designed for specific task
Application software may be used for a variety of reasons:-
o Word processors: a word processor is a software package which is mainly used to process text. It
has different facilities such as check grammar and spelling to apply different formatting to text
Example: Ms-word, word perfect and word star
o Spread sheet: a spread sheet is a big electronic paper divided into columns and rows which is
designed to enter data into the rows and columns of the spread sheet and make statistical analysis,
calculation and so on. Example: Ms Excel
o Database management system: a DBMS is software package used to store, manipulate and
manage large amount of data (records). Example: SQL & Ms Access
o Graphics soft ware: those are software used for drawing and painting picture, draw charts and
graphs to produce architectural and engineering design. Example: CAD & Draw perfect.
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CHAPTER THREE
Data Representation in Computers

Units of Data Representation(Bit, Byte, Word)
The entire circuitry of the computer is designed on the basis of binary system. The Binary
number system is a group of zeros and ones. It is obvious that computer’s net intelligence is absolutely
zero i.e. computer is not capable of understanding anything except zeros and ones. In computer every
instruction is interpreted and executed in the form of binary system. From the readability point of view
it is very difficult to understand the string of bits. It is also very difficult to write and understand the
instruction or program written in binary form. Therefore, the programs are generally written in high-
level language or Assembly language. Later on these programs are converted into machine language
with the help of appropriate translators such as Compiler, Assembler or Interpreter.
The basic unit of the memory is a Bit. A Bit is an abbreviation for a Binary digit and can be either a
0 or a 1. Group of continuous 4 bits is termed as Nibble and eight adjacent bits designed to store the
binary code of a single character (letter, decimal digit or other character) is referred as Byte. A word is
a fixed-sized group of bits that are handled together by the machine. The number of bits in a word (the
word size or word length) is an important characteristic of computer architecture.
A Word consists of 32 bits, which is equal to 4 bytes (this depends on the computer i.e., a word
may contain 8, 16, or 32 bits). Commonly used notation in modern computers is 32 bits. Double word
is 2 times a word. Frequently capacity of memory is represented in terms of K (Kilo) , which is
equivalent to 1024 words of 8 bits each ( 210 bytes ).
1 KILO = 1024 bytes (approx. 103 bytes) These are all the
1 MEGA = 103 K B approximate values
1 GIGA = 103 M B
B stands for Byte
1 TERA = 103 G B
1 PETA = 103 TERA B
Why Binary representation is used in computers?

A computer’s internal storage techniques are different from the way people represent
information in lives. Information inside a digital computer is stored as a collection of binary data (0’s
and 1’s). The logic that computer uses is Boolean logic which is a two valued logic and thus the two
states of a binary system can relate directly to two states in a logical system. It was easier to make
hardware which can distinguish between two values than multiple values. Other bases need more
circuitry as compared to binary and this reduced reliability. This binary system simplifies the design of the
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circuits, reduces the cost and improves the reliability. Every operation that can be done in decimal system can
also be done in binary.
Concept of Number Systems and Binary Arithmetic
 Number Systems
Every computer stores numbers, letters, and other special characters in a coded form. Before
going into the details of these codes, it is essential to have a basic understanding of the number system.
So the goal of this chapter is to familiarize you with the basic fundamentals of number system. A
number system defines a set of values used to represent quantity. Today the most common number
system in use is Arabic system. But, the number systems can be categorized in to two broad categories:
Positional number systems & Non-positional number systems.
Non-Positional number systems: - is a method of counting on fingers such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3,
IIII for 4 etc. It was very difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system, as it had no
symbol for zero.
Positional number systems: - the value of each digit in a number is defined not only by the symbol but
also by the symbol’s position. They have a base or radix. In positional number system there are only a
few symbols called digits, and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they
occupy in the number. The value of each digit in such a number is determined by three considerations.
The digit itself.
The position of the digit in the number, and
The base or radix of the number system(where base is determined as the total number of
digits available in the number system)
Base (radix): tells the number of symbols used in the system. Modern computers use the radix 2
because they recognize only two symbols, which are represented in digital circuits as 0s and 1s. The
base of a number system is indicated by a subscript (decimal number) and this will be followed by the
value of the number.
For example (7592) 10: is of base 10 number system.
(1010) 2: is of base 2 number system.
Note: For a computer, everything is a number whether it may be numbers, alphabets, punctuation
marks etc. Eventually, the number systems that can are generally used by the computers are:
 Decimal system
 Binary system
 Octal system
 Hexadecimal system
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Number system Radix value Set of Digits Example
Decimal r = 10 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) (25)10

Binary r=2 (0,1) (11001)2
Octal r=8 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) (31)8
Hexadecimal r = 16 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B,C,D,E,F) (1A)16
Decimal Number system


It is the primary number system used& derived from the Latin word ‘Decem’, which means ten.

Starting at the decimal point and moving to the left, each position is represented by the base
value raised to a power. 103 102 101 100

Moving to the right of the decimal is just like moving to the left except that we will need to
place a minus sign in front of each power. . 10-1 10-2 10-3

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is called the Decimal number system.
Decimal number system is a base 10 system which means there are 10 digits starting from 0
to 9 to represent any quantity. The position of each digit in a decimal number system is
represented as a power of the base (10).

Value of the digits depends on the position they hold.
Example:
4th 3rd 2nd 1st
103 102 101 100
1 0 2 4
Total Value: 4*100+2*101+0*102+1*103 = 1024

.
Binary Number System

Computers do not use the ten digits of the decimal system for counting and arithmetic.
Their CPU and Memory are made up of millions of tiny switches that can be either in the
ON or OFF states.

The number system with only two digits (0 & 1) is called Binary number system. The place
value of the binary number system is based on the number two. In the binary number
system with base 2, the weight of n th bit of the number from Right Hand Side (RHS) is n th
bit x 2n-1
Octal Number System
 It is a base 8 system. It uses powers of 8 to determine the digit of numbers position. So in
this system there are only eight symbols or digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. Each position in
octal number represents a power of the base 8. Since there are only 8 digits in the
octal number system, 3 bits are sufficient to represent any octal number in binary.
Hexadecimal Number System
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 Hexadecimal number system is a base 16 system with 16 digits namely

0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F; Where A represents decimal 10, B represents decimal
11 , C represents decimal 12, D represents decimal 13, E represents decimal 14 and F
represents decimal 15.
 Comparative Representation of Number Systems

Table 1: BinaryDecimalOctal Comparison
Decimal Octal Number

Binary Number Number
000 0 0 (0 x 80)
001 1 1 (1 x 80)
010 2 2 (2 x 80)
011 3 3 (3 x 80)
100 4 4 (4 x 80)
101 5 5 (5 x 80)
110 6 6 (6 x 80)
111 7 7 (7 x 80)
1000 8 10 (1 x 81 + 0 x 80)
1001 9 11 (1 x 81 + 1 x 80)
1010 10 12 (1 x 81 + 1 x 80)
Table 2: DecimalHexadecimalBinary Comparison
Decimal Hex Binary
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111
 Conversion between Number Systems

 Conversion of Decimal to Binary: Follow the following steps to convert decimals in to binary.
 Begin by dividing the decimal number by 2 (the base of binary number).
 Note the remainder separately as the right most digit of the binary equivalent.
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 Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is zero.

 Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in reverse order
(last remainder written first).
Example-1: Determine the binary equivalent of (36) 10
2 36 Remainder
Least Significant Bit (LSB)
2 18 0
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1 Most Significant Bit (MSB)
Taking the remainders in reverse order, we have 100100. Thus (36) 10 = (100100) 2.
Example 2: Find the Binary equivalent of (75.68)10 = (?)2

Solution:
Integer part conversion
Dividend  divisor = Quotient (Remainder)
75 2 = 37 1 LSD
37 2 = 18 1
18 2 =9 0 
9 2 =4 1  (1001011)2
4 2 =2 0
2 2 =1 0
1 2 =0 1 MSD
Fractional part conversion -
Process Product Decimal part Integer part
0.68 × 2 1.36 .36 1 MSD
0.36 × 2 0.72 .72 0
0.72 × 2 1.44 .44 1  (10101)2
0.44 × 2 0.88 .88 0
0.88 × 2 1.76 .76 1 LSD
Now the combined string of converted integer and fractional part will be
(75.68)10 = (1001011.10101)2
 Conversion of Binary to Decimal: In this case, each digit of the binary number is multiplied by its
weighted position and each of the weighted values is added together to get the decimal number.
Example: determine the decimal equivalent of (11010) 2
(11010) 2 = (1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 20)
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= (26) 10
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 Conversion of Binary fractions to Decimal: here we use the negative exponents, to denote the
negative powers of two. Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (0.01101) 2
(0.01101) 2 = (0 x 2-1) + (1 x 2-2) + (1 x 2-3) + (0 x 2-4) + (1 x 2-5)
= 0 + ¼ + 1/8 + 0 + 1/32
= 0 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0 + 0.03125
= (0.40625) 10
 Conversion of Decimal to Octal: Here the same procedure is adopted as in decimal to binary
conversion but the decimal number is divided by 8 (the base of the octal system).
Example: Determine the octal equivalent of (359) 10
8 359 Remainder
8 44 7
8 5 4
8 0 5 Most Significant Bit (MSB)
So, (359) 10 = (547)8
 Conversion of Decimal fraction to Octal fractions: The steps we have to follow in this case are:-
 Multiply the decimal fraction by 8 (the base of the octal system).
 If the whole number is generated, record the whole number, otherwise place 0.
 Repeat the above 1st and 2nd steps with the decimal fractions until it becomes.
 Finally, when no more multiplication can occur, write down the remainders in the
downward direction.
 In this whole conversion, the first carry produced is the MSB while the last carry is the LSB.
Example: Determine the octal equivalent of (0.3125) 10.
0.3125 x 8 = 2.5 2
0.5 x 8 =4.0 4
So, (0.3125) 10 = (0.24) 8
Note: In some circumstances of changing the decimal fraction to octal fractions the conversion may not
end. In such cases you have to take the approximate of 8 bits.
 Conversion of octal to Decimal: Here each digit of octal number is multiplied by its weighted
position, and each of the weighted values are added together to get the decimal number. Example:
Determine the decimal equivalent of (456)8.
(456) 8 = (4 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (6 x 80)
= 256 + 40 + 6
= (302) 10
 Conversion of Octal fractions to Decimal fractions: Steps followed here are:
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 Write the weight value of each bit of the octal fractional number.
 Multiply the weighted position with the respective bit of the octal fractional number.
 Add all the weighted values to get the decimal number.
Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (237.04) 8.
(237.04) 8 = (2 x 82) + (3 x 81) + (7 x 80) + (0 x 8-1) + (4 x 8-2)
= (2 x 64) + (3 x 8) + (7 x 1) + (0) + (4 x 1/64)
= 128 + 24 + 7 + 0 + 0.0625
= (159.0625) 10
 Conversion of Binary to Octal: steps that are followed here are:
 Break the binary number in to 3-bit sections starting from the LSB to the MSB.
 Convert the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
 For whole numbers, it may be necessary to add a zero as the MSB in order to complete a
grouping of three bits.
Example-1: Determine the octal equivalent of (010111) 2.
Binary number 010(MSB) 111(LSB)
Octal number 2 7
So, (010111) 2 = (27) 8
Example-2: Determine the octal equivalent of (0.1110110) 2
Binary No. 000 111 011 000
Octal No. 0 7 3 0
So, (0.1110110) 2 = (0.730) 8
 Conversion of Octal to Binary: The following steps are used here: -
 Convert the octal digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent.
 Combine the 3-bit sections by removing the spaces to get the binary.
Example: determine the binary equivalent of (231) 8
Octal number 2 3 1
Binary number 010 011 001
So, (231) 8 = (010011001) 2
 Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal: To convert a decimal number into its hexadecimal
equivalent, the same procedure is adopted as decimal to binary but the decimal number is divided
by 16 (the base of the hexadecimal number system).
Example: determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (5112) 10.
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16 5112 Remainder
16 319 8=8
16 19 15=F
16 1 3=3 Most Significant Bit (MSB)
16 0 1=1
So, (5112) 10 = (13F8) 16
 Conversion of Decimal fractions to Hexadecimal fractions: To perform this operation we follow the
following steps.
 Multiply the decimal fraction by 16 (the base of the hexadecimal system).
 If a whole number is generated, record the whole number otherwise place 0.
 Repeat steps 1 and 2 with decimal fraction until it becomes 0.
 Finally, when no more multiplication can occur, write down the remainders in the down ward direction.
Example: determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (0.625) 10
0.625 x 16 = 10.000 10
0.000 x 16 = 0.000 0
So, (0.625) 10 = (0.A0) 16
 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Decimal: In this case, each digit of the hexadecimal number is
multiplied by its weighted position and each weighted values are added together to get the decimal
number.
Example: determine the decimal equivalent of (B14) 16.
(B14) 16 = (B x 162) + (1 x 161) + (4 x 160)
= (11 x 256) + (16) + (4)
= 2836
Question: Determine the decimal equivalent of (8AFE2B) 16.
 Conversion of hexadecimal fractions to Decimal fractions: steps
 Write the weighted value of each bit of the hexadecimal fractional number.
 Multiply the weighted position with the respective bit of the hexadecimal fractional number.
 Add all the weighted values to get the decimal number.
Example: determine the decimal equivalent of (A.23) 16
(A.23) 16 = (A x 160) + (2 x 16-1) + (3 x 16-2)
=10 + 0.125 + 0.01171875
= 10.13671875
 Conversion of Binary to hexadecimal: Steps
 Break the binary number into 4-bit sections starting from the LSB to the MSB.
 Convert the 4-bit binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Example: determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (11001011) 2.
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Binary number 1100 1011

Decimal number 12 11
Hexadecimal number C (MSB) B (LSB)
So (11001011) 2 = (CB) 16
Question: Determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (101011110011011001) 2.
 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Binary: Steps that are followed here are the following
 Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
 Combine the 4-bit sections by removing the spaces to get the binary number.
Example: determine the binary equivalent of (5AF) 16.
Hexadecimal number 5 A F
Binary value 0101 1010 1111
So, (5AF) 16 = (010110101111) 2.
Question: Determine the binary equivalent of (2B.6C) 16.
 Arithmetic System
During school days, arithmetic was restricted only to decimal number system. However, in
computer, we require arithmetic on other number systems such as binary, octal and hexadecimal.
 Binary arithmetic: Everything that is stored in or manipulated by the computer is a number. The
computer understands the numbers 1 and 0. The basic arithmetic operations of the binary number
system are: Addition and subtraction.
o Binary Addition: Binary addition is carried out in the same way as the decimal addition is
performed. There are four outcomes or rules of the binary addition. These are shown below:
Input Output
X Y Sum (S) Carry (R)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Example: Add the binary numbers 1111 and 1010.
1 1 1 1
+ 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 Thus the binary sum is (11001) 2.
o Binary Subtraction: Subtraction is generally simple in comparison to addition since only two numbers are involved. In binary
subtraction the problem ‘borrow’ is similar to that in decimal. If the subtracted bit is equal to or smaller than the minuend bit, then
perform subtraction, otherwise borrow one from its left most neighbor. Binary subtraction follows four rules for the
operation.
Input Output
X Y Difference (D) Borrow (B)
0 0 0 0
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0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
Example: Find the binary difference of (1101-1011).
Binary Decimal
0 10
1 1 0 1 1 3
- 1 0 1 1 - 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 2
Thus the binary difference is (0010) 2.
 Octal Arithmetic: The essential arithmetic operations of the octal number system are addition and
subtraction.
o Octal Addition: Addition of the octal number is carried out in the same way as the decimal
addition is performed. The steps are given below:
 First, add the two digits of the unit column of the octal number in decimal.
 This process is repeated for each larger significant digit of the octal number.
 During the process of addition, if the sum is less than or equal to 7, then it can be
directly written as octal digit.
 If the sum is greater than 7, then subtract 8 from that particular digit and carry 1 to the next
digit position.
Example: Add the octal numbers 26 and 17.
1 (carry)
2 6
+ 1 7
4 13
- 8
4 5 Thus the octal sum is (45) 8.
o Octal Subtraction: In the octal subtraction, the method, which we have adopted, is similar to
that of binary subtraction method. The only difference lies in the carry part. During octal
subtraction instead of 1, we will borrow 8 and the rest of steps are similar to that of binary
subtraction.
Example: Subtract (667) 8 from (770) 8.
6 6 8 (Borrow)
7 7 0
- 6 6 7
1 0 1 Thus, the difference is (101) 8.
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 Hexadecimal Arithmetic: Hexadecimal number system is extensively used in the memories of the
computer system and in the computer instructions. The basic arithmetic operations that are to be
performed are listed below:
 Addition
 Subtraction
o Hexadecimal Addition: The addition operation performed with the hexadecimal numbers is
analogous to the decimal addition except with a few differences that are discussed in the
following steps:
 First add the unit column of the hexadecimal digits in decimal.
 This process is repeated for each larger significant digit of the hexadecimal number.
 During the process of addition, observe if the sum is 15 or less, then it can be directly
expressed as hexadecimal digit.
 If the sum is greater than 15, then subtract 16 from that particular digit and carry 1 to the
next digit position.
Example: Add the hexadecimal numbers (A27E9) 16 and (6FB43) 16.
1 1 1 1 1 1
A 2 7 E 9
+ 6 F B 4 3
1 17 18 19 18 12
-16 -16 -16 -16 -
1 1 23 2 12(=C) Thus the hexadecimal sum is (11232C) 16.
o Hexadecimal Subtraction: The hexadecimal subtraction is based on the same principles as of
binary subtraction. In this subtraction, 16 will be used as borrow instead of 1. The rest of steps
are similar to the binary subtraction.
Example: Subtract (75) 16 from (527) 16.
4 16+2=18 (Borrow)
5 2 7
- 7 5
4 11 2
4 B 2 (Hex form) Thus the hexadecimal difference is (4B2) 16.
Question: Subtract (1F65) 16 from (7E2CA) 16. ?
 Computer Codes
Computer handles different types of data namely numeric data, alphanumeric data, alphabetic data
etc. Computer system use a binary system for data representation; two digits 0 and 1, refer to the
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presence and absence of electric current or pulse of light. All data and programs that go into the
computer are represented in terms of these numbers.
Computer system encodes the data by means of binary or digital coding schemes to represent
letters, numbers and special characters. One of the early coding schemes is BCD. Some of the
commonly used schemes are EBCDIC, ASCII, and Unicode.
 BCD (Binary Coded Decimal): BCD is one of the early memory codes. In BCD each digit of a
decimal number is converted into its binary equivalent rather than converting the entire decimal
value into binary form and each decimal digit uses 4 bits for this conversion.
Example: 4210 is not equal to 1010102 in BCD
4210 is equal to 0100 00102 in BCD (Here 410 = 0100 and 210 = 0010)
910 = 1001 in BCD
110 = 0001 in BCD BCD Coding Scheme for All
1010 = 0001 0000 in BCD Numeric and Alphabetic Characters
1510 = 0001 0101 in BCD
Since 4 bits is insufficient to represent characters, 6 bits
representation was introduced in BCD coding. 6 bit is enough to
represent 10 decimal digits, 26 alphabetic letters and 28 other
special characters. Also using 6 bits we can represent 2 6 (=64)
different characters. 6 bit BCD code can be easily divided into 3
bit groups and each group can be represented by 1 octal digit.
Thus octal number system is used as a shortcut notation for
memory dump by computers that use BCD code for internal
representation characters.
 IBM and BCD: Some variation of BCD was used in most
early IBM computers, including the IBM 1620, IBM 1400
series and non-Decimal Architecture members of the IBM
700/7000 series. With the introduction of System/360, IBM
replaced BCD with 8-bit EBCDIC. BCD is still heavily used
in IBM processors and databases, such as IBM DB2 .
Example1: Write a BCD code for the word CASE
Solution:
C A S E
11 0011 11 0001 01 0010 11 0101
 The BCD code for CASE is 110011 110001 010010 EBCDIC Coding Scheme for All
110101
Numeric and Alphabetic Characters
 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code)
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Using 6 bits BCD can represent only 64 characters. To represent lowercase alphabets (26),
uppercase alphabets (26), decimal numbers (10) and special characters (28+) BCD coding is not
sufficient and was extended from 6 bit to 8 bit. And the new coding scheme is EBCDIC.
EBCDIC using 8 bits can represent 2 8 (=256) different characters. EBCDIC 8 bit coding can be
divided into 2 groups of 4 bits. Each group can be represented using 1 hexa-decimal digit. This scheme
is developed by IBM and hence mostly used in IBM model computer and mainframe.
This code can represent the following type of coded information. Printable, non printable, lowercase
letters such as a, b, c ...z, upper case letters such as A, B, C ...Z, numeric values 0, 1, 2 ...9, some
special characters such as + , –, $ etc.
Example- 1: Find the EBCDIC code for PEN

Solution: By using the EBCDIC table
P E N
1101 0111 1100 0101 1101 0101
 The EBCDIC code for PEN is 1101 0111 1100 0101 1101 0101
Example- 2: Find the EBCDIC code for MAISM

Solution: By using the EBCDIC table
M A I S M
1101 0100 1100 0001 1100 1001 1110 0010 1101 0100
D 4 C 1 C 9 E 2 D 4
 The EBCDIC code for MAISM is
1101 0100 1100 0001 1100 1001 1110 0010 1101 0100
 D4C1C9E2D4 in Hexa-decimal system
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange)
ASCII-7 Coding Scheme for All
Numeric and Alphabetic Characters
This binary scheme originally used 7 bits to form a
character and so known as ASCII- 7 coding scheme.
ASCII 7 can represent only 27 (=128) different characters.
(American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) Pronounced “ask-ee,” it is the built-in
binary code for representing characters in all computers
except IBM mainframes, which use the EBCDIC coding
system. ASCII is the binary code used in most of the
microcomputers.
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ASCII was originally developed for communications and uses only seven bits per
character(character and so known as ASCII- 7 coding scheme.), providing 128 combinations that
include upper and lower case alphabetic letters, the numeric digits and special symbols such as the $
and %. In this the first 32 characters are set aside for communications and printer control. ASCII
encoding scheme uses hexadecimal for its shortcut notation.
Example-1: Find the ASCII-7 code for ROYAL

Solution: By using ASCII-7 table:
R O Y A L
101 0010 100 1111 101 1001 100 0001 100 1100
 The ASCII-7 code for ROYAL is - 1010010 1001111 1011001 1000001 1001100
Example-2: Find the ASCII-7 code for NOSE

N O S E
100 1110 100 1111 101 0011 100 0101
 The ASCII-7 code for NOSE is - 1001110 1001111 1010011 1000101
 ASCII-8 ASCII-8 Coding Scheme for All

Numeric and Alphabetic
To provide more possible combinations with which to
Characters
form other characters and symbols. Extended ASCII or
ASCII-8 was introduced. ASCII-8 use 8 bits to form a
character and can represent 28 (=256) different characters.
Example-1: Find the ASCII-8 code for TOOL.

T O O L
1011 0100 1010 1111 1010 1111 1010 1100
 The ASCII-8 code for TOOL is

=10110100 10101111 10101111 10101100
Example- 2: Find the ASCII-8 code for RAJA
R A J A
1011 0010 1010 0001 1010 1010 1010 0001
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The ASCII-8 code for RAJA is

= 10110010 10100001 10101010 10100001
 UNI CODE
UNI code is an international standard that provides a single encoding for all the world’s languages.
By adding support for Unicode, applications can create process and display information in any
language. This ensures that information isn’t “lost” or misinterpreted because it’s not recognized by an
application. Unicode, binary coding scheme uses 2 byte for each character instead of 1 byte. Unicode
can handle 216 (=65,536) character combinations.
 ISCII Code
It is Indian Standard Code for Information Interchange code. It is 8-bit code, which is developed to
represent the Indian script alphabets. It also allows representing the English alphabets and other
symbols. This code uses BRAMHI script. It is mainly used for the traditional religious books.
 How to Represent Negative Numbers on Computers?
Using,
 Sign And Magnitude Method
 One’s Complement Method
 Two’s Complement Method
Sign and Magnitude Method
 Left most bit of the binary number is used to represent whether the number is positive (+) or
negative (-).
 Left most is the Most Significant Bit (MSB) and is known as sign bit in this method.
 If the sign bit is 1 the number is negative and if it is 0 the number is positive.
 Sign bit is the MSB, with magnitude being a binary number using the remaining bits.
Example: +5 = 0 101
-5 = 1 101
 One’s Complement Method

 All the 1 bits is changed to 0 and all the 0 bit is changed to 1 to get the complement of a
number.
 One’s Complement of the number is treated as the negative of that number.
Example: +5 = 0 101
-5 = 1 010
 Two’s Complement Method

 Two’s complement of a number is one’s complement of a number+ 1.
 Two’s complement of a number is treated as the negative representation of the number.
Example: +5 = 0 101
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-5 = 1 011
2’s complement of 5 = 1’s complement of 5 +1 = 1010 +1 = 1011
Note: Consider the representation of zero in all the above methods.

Sign and Magnitude One’s Complement Two’s Complement
Method Method Method
+0 0000 +0 0000 +0 0000
-0 1000 -0 1111 -0 1 0000
Zero has two different representations in sign and magnitude method and one’s complement method
which is not correct. But in 2’s complement method there is only one way representation for zero.
And so 2’s complement method is used in modern computing.
 Representation of Floating Point Numbers
 In representing integer in computers with binary numbers, binary point is fixed and the
operation is known as fixed point arithmetic.
 To represent numbers in such a way that binary point is variable and is automatically adjusted
in computation, floating point representation is used.
 Since the binary point is said to float (move) numbers are known as floating point numbers.
 Floating point representation is similar to scientific notation in decimal number system.
 Very small and very large numbers can be very easily represented using this system.
 A floating point number ‘a’ can be represented as
a = (sign) * m * be
Where, sign can be 0 for positive and 1 for negative.
m  significant or mantissa .This shows the digits that define the number’s magnitude.
e exponent or characteristic or scale to indicate the position of the binary point.
b base or radix of the numeration.
Example: 121.5 = 1.125 *102
101010.111= 1.01010 * 25
 Normalized and Demoralized Form in Binary Floating Point Number
 If the leading digit of mantissa is non zero then the number is said to be normalized.
 Mantissa less than one are said to be demoralized, because the normal form is the one in which
the mantissa is greater than or equal to one less than the base of numeration.
 When a number is normalized, its most bit significant bit is 1. In the IEEE Single and double
precision formats that bit is not stored in computer and so it is called the “hidden” bit or
“implicit” bit.
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 Formats used by all modern floating point computer hardware have been standardized as IEEE
754 standard .They are :
Maximum Minimum
Single Precision Positive 3.402823*10+38 2.802597*10-45
Negative -2.802597*10-45 -3.402823*10+38
Double Precision Positive 1.7976931348*10+308 4.94065645841*10-324
Negative -4.94065645841*10-324 -1.7976931348*10+308
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CHAPTER FOUR
Computer System Architecture
 Hierarchical structure of computer system architecture

Computer system architecture is the discipline that defines the conceptual structure and functional
behavior of a computer system. It is analogous to the architecture of a building, determining the overall
organization, the attributes of the component parts, and how these parts are combined.
A computer system consists of four
major components: storage, processor,
peripherals, and input/output
(communication). The storage system is
used to keep data and programs; the
processor is the unit that controls the
operation of the system and carries out
various computations; the peripheral devices
are used to communicate with the outside
world; and the input/output system allows
the previous components to communicate with one another.
Storage
The storage or memory of a computer system holds the data that the computer will process and
the instructions that indicate what processing is to be done. These types include registers, main
memory, and secondary or auxiliary storage. Registers are the fastest and most costly storage units
in a computer. Main memory holds the data to be processed and the instructions that specify what
processing is to be done. A major goal of the computer architect is to increase the effective speed and
size of a memory system without incurring a large cost penalty.
Processing
A computer's processor (processing unit) consists of a control unit, which directs the operation
of the system, and an arithmetic and logic unit, which performs computational operations. The design
of a processing unit involves selection of a register set, communication paths between these registers,
and a means of directing and controlling how these operate.
Peripherals and communication
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A typical computer system includes a variety of peripheral devices such as printers, keyboards,
and displays. These devices translate electronic signals into mechanical motion or light (or vice versa)
so as to communicate with people. There are two common approaches for connecting peripherals and
secondary storage devices to the rest of the computer: The channel and the bus. A channel is
essentially a wire or group of wires between a peripheral device and a memory device. A multiplexed
channel allows several devices to be connected to the same wire. A bus is a form of multiplexed
channel that can be shared by a large number of devices.
 Logic Elements and Boolean Algebra
 Logic gates and Boolean algebra
Electric switch which is used for turning “on” and “off” an electric light is a 2 state device. A general
discussion of such devices can be given by replacing the word “gate” to mean a device which permits
or stops the flow of not only electric current but any quantity that can go through the device.
Logic gate
 A logic gate is an electronic circuit on one or more input signals to produce standard output signal.
These logic gates are the building blocks of all the circuits in a
computer.
 I.C circuits such as micro-processors, RAMs, interface chips and
so…on are manufactured by putting hundreds and thousands of
simple logic gates on a silicon chip. This chip is again packaged to
provide pins for connecting the circuit to the rest of the system.
 Gates are digital (2 state) circuits because the input and output
signals are either low voltage (0) or high voltage (1).
Logic circuits
Computer circuits are built up using combinations of different types of logic gates to perform
the necessary operation. This combination of logic gates are termed as logic circuits. They are
termed logic circuits because they can be analyzed with Boolean expressions.
Most Important Logic Gates
a. AND GATE
 An AND gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 only if all input signals are
also 1.
 An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication.
 AND gate can have more than two inputs.
 The output of the AND gate with inputs A, B, and C is 1 only if A, B and C are 1.
 Two or more switches connected in series behave as an AND gate.
Truth table and the block diagram symbol for an AND gate:
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INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q= A.B
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
b. OR GATE
 An OR gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 if any of the input signals is 1.
 An OR gate is the physical realization of logical addition.
 OR gate can have more than two inputs.
 The output of the OR gate with inputs A, B, and C is a 1 if A or B or C is a 1.
 Two or more switches connected in parallel behave as an OR gate.
Truth table and the block diagram symbol for an OR gate:
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q= A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
c. NOT GATE
 NOT gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal which is the reverse of the input
signal.
 A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation.
 A NOT gate is also known as an inverter because it inverts the input.
 A NOT gate always has a single input.
 Connecting two NOT gates in series gives an output equal to the input.
Truth table and the block diagram symbol for an NOT gate:
INPUT OUTPUT
A Q= A
0 1
1 0
d. NOR GATE
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 A NOR gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 when all input signals are
0and it will be a 0 if any input represents a 1.
 A NOR gate is a complemented OR gate.
 The symbol  is used to represent NOR operation in Boolean expression. Thus
A B = (A+B)= A.B
 The NOR gate can then be seen to be an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.
Truth table and the block diagram symbol for a NOR gate:
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q= A.B
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
e. NAND GATE
 A NAND gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 if any one of the input is a 0
and will be a 0 when all input signals are 1.
 A NAND gate is a complemented AND gate.
 The symbol  is used to represent NAND operation in Boolean expression. Thus
A B = (A.B)= A+B
 The NAND gate can then be seen to be an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
Truth table and the block diagram symbol for a NAND gate:
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q= A+B
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
f. XOR GATE
 A NAND gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 if its input signals are
different
 The symbol  is used to represent XOR operation in Boolean expression. Thus
A B = A.B+ A.B
Truth table and the block diagram INPUT OUTPUT symbol for a XOR gate:
A B Q= AB
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1 Page 49 of 77
1 1 0
 Boolean Algebra
 Algebra that deals with binary number system.

 Useful in designing circuits used by the processors of computer system.
 Boolean algebra which simplified the representation and manipulation of propositional logic
was developed by the English Mathematician George Boole.
 A Boolean variable is a variable that is capable of taking only 2 states or values , that is either 1
or 0;
 The statements which can be determined to be true or false are called logical statements or
truth functions and the results true or false are called truth values.
 True (1) or (0) are called logical constants.
 Algebraic variables are combined using mathematical operators to form algebraic expressions
similarly logical statements are combined using logical operators to from compound statements or
logical functions.
 Boolean Operators (Logical Operators)
1. NOT Operator (Negation)
 Operates on a single variable. Therefore negation is a unary operator.

 Negation operation is also known as complementation.
 Symbols used are -, ~,.
Example: Complement of p--------P¯, ~P, P.
Truth Table
P P.
1 0
0 1
2. OR Operator (Disjunction, Logical OR, Logical Addition)
 Operation is termed as logical Addition and is represented using the symbol +

 This is a binary operator. P Q P+Q
 X+Y is read as X OR Y. 1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1 Page 50 of 77
0 0 0
Truth Table
3. AND Operator (Conjunction, Logical And, Logical Multiplication)
 Operation is termed as logical multiplication and is represented by the symbol “.”

 This is a binary operator.
 X.Y is reads as X and Y
P Q P.Q
Truth Table 1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
 Operator Precedence
1. The expression is read from left to right.
2. Expressions in brackets are evaluated first.
3. All NOT operations are performed next.
4. All AND operations are performed after that.
5. All OR operations are performed at the end.
 The Principle of Duality
In Boolean algebra there is a duality of expression between operators (+) and (.) and the digits
(1) and (0) .That is by interchanging ‘+’ with ‘.’ And 1 with 0, the dual of the Boolean expression is
obtained. This property is known as the Principle of Duality in Boolean algebra.
Example:
1+1=1 1+0=1 0+1=1 0+0=0
0.0=0 0.1=0 1.0=1 1.1=1
Properties of Boolean algebra
DUAL
Identities a+0=a a1=a
a+1=1 a 0=0
Commutative a+b=b+a a b=b a
Associative (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (a  b)  c = a  (b  c)
Distributive a + (b  c) = (a + b)  (a + c) a  (b + c) = (a  b) + (a  c)
Complement Laws a + a' = 1 a  a' = 0
Involution (a')' = a
Idempotent a+a=a a a=a
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Absorption a + (a  b) = a a  (a + b) = a
DeMorgan's (a + b)' = a'  b' (a  b)' = a' + b'
 Boolean Functions
A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, the two binary operators OR and
AND, the unary operator NOT, parentheses and equal sign. For given value of the variables, the value of the
function can be either 0 or 1.
For example consider the function W= X+Y'.Z. Here the variable W is a function of X,Y and Z. This is
written as W=f(X, Y, Z) and the right side of the equation is called expression. The symbols X,Y and Z are
referred to as literals of the function.
 A Boolean function can also be expressed in the form of truth table. The number of rows in the table will be
equal to 2n, where n is the number of literals used in the function.
Let us see the truth table for W= X+Y'.Z
X Y Z W
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
 Two functions of n binary variables are said to be equal if they have the same value for all possible
2n combinations of the n literals.
Let F1= x'.y'.z + x'.y.z + x.y'
F2 = x.y' + x'.z
Truth table for both the functions shows F1 = F2
X Y Z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
 Complement of a function
The complement of a function F is F´ and is obtained by interchanging 0’s for 1’s and 1’s for 0’s in the
truth table that defines the function. Algebraically the complement of a function may be derived
through De Morgan’s theorems whose generalized from are as follows:
(A1+A2+A3+…+An)´ = A1´ . A2 ´ .A3´. ………….. .An´
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(A1.A2.A3. ………….. .An)´ = A1´ + A2´ + A3´ + ………….. +An´

Let us see the complement of the function F1= x´.y.z´ + x´.y´.z
F´ = (x´ . y . z´ + x´.y´.z ) ´
= (x´ . y . z´)´ . (x´.y´.z ) ´
= (x´)´+y´+(z´)´ . (x´)´+(y´)´+z´
= (x+y´+z). (x+y+z´)
EXERCISE
I. Give the dual of the following Boolean expressions

1. A+B
2. A+B+C
3. A.B+A.B
4. (A+B)
5. A.(A+B)
6. A+A.B
Answer
1. A.B
2. A.B.C
3. A+B.A+B
4. (A.B)
5. A+(A.B)
6. A.(A+B)
II. Give the dual of the rule

1. A+A.B=A+B
2. X+X=X
3. X.(X+Y)=X.Y
4. (X.Y)=X+Y
Answer
1. A.A+B=A.B
2. X.X=X
3. X+(X.Y)=X+Y
4. (X+Y)=X.Y
III. Prepare a truth table for the following expressions.

1. A.B+A.B
2. A.B.C+B.C
3. A+B
4. A+B+B
IV. Prove the following rules using truth table.

1. A.B+A.B=A
2. A+A.B=A+B
3. A.(A+C)=A
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Implementation of Boolean algebra
 Construction of logic circuits
Converting Boolean expressions to logic circuits
Q 1: Construct a logic circuit for the Boolean expression A.B+C.
Q 2: Construct a logic circuit for the Boolean expression (A.B)  +C.D + (E.F)
Q 3: Construct a logic circuit for the Boolean expression (x+y).(x+z).(y+z)
Converting Logic circuits to Boolean expressions
Find the Boolean expression (logic equation) for the output of the logic circuit given below.
Q.1 :
Ans: D= A.(B+C)
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Q 2.
Ans: (A.B)  . (A+B)
Q 3.
Ans: (A+B).C.D + (A+B). C. D
 Universal NAND gate

 Any Boolean function can be completely realized using AND, OR and NOT gates.
 However the NAND gate is said to be universal gate because it is alone sufficient to implement any
Boolean function.
 Universal NOR gate
 NOR function is the dual of the NAND function.
 NOR gate is said to be universal gate because it is alone sufficient to implement any Boolean
function.
EXERCISE
I. What will be the output of the following logic circuits for the specified inputs?
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II. Construct logic circuit diagrams for the following Boolean expressions using AND/OR/NOT gates.
a) (A + B). (A+C) . (B+C)
b) A.B + (A.B). (B.C + B.C)
c) (A+B). (A+C). (A + B)
 Types of Circuits
All the instructions that direct a computer’s operation exist as a sequence of binary digits or bits (0s
and 1s). The logic gates can be arranged in groups that cause these binary numbers to act as adders,
subs-tractor, multipliers, dividers or logical comparators. Other group of gates can act as storage for the
instructions and these ‘groups’ are in hardware design terms flip-flops.
 Combinational and Sequential Circuits
A Comparison
Combinational Circuits Sequential Circuits
Combinational Circuit does not depend on the

previous and next state inputs. That is its Output The output of the sequential circuit depends
at any instant depends only on its (present) current upon the previous input and previous
inputs. It is independent of the previous output(state) of the circuit. This means, its output
OUTPUT states. And so there is no need of will depend on which state it is; which means
memory. basically, sequential circuits have memory.
 Combinational Circuits : Addition circuits: Half adder & Full adder
 A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called half adder.
 Half adder is limited, since it can add only two single bits. It cannot accept the carry generated.
Full adder solves the problem.
 A combinational circuit that performs the addition of three bits (two significant bits and previous
carry) is called a full adder.
 Design of Half Adder
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Circuit needs two input and two output variables. One output variable produce the Sum bit and the
other produce the carry bit. Let A and B be the input variables and S(Sum) and C(Carry) be the output
variables. Then the Truth Table for the half adder is:
Input Output
A B C S
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
From truth table it is clear, C=A.B and S= AB = A.B+ A.B
Logic circuit diagram:
Half adder circuit diagram
 Design of Full Adder
Full adder is the arithmetic sum of three input bits. Therefore circuit needs three inputs and 2 outputs.
Two of the input variables (A and B) represent the augend and the addend bits and the third input
variable (D) represents the carry from the previous lower significant position. One output variable (S)
produce the Sum bit and the other (C) produce the carry bit.
Truth table for Full adder:
Input Output
A B D C S
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
From truth table it is clear, C = A.B + A.D + B.D , S = A.B. D + A. B. D + A. B. D + A.B.D
Full adder circuit diagram
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A full adder can also be implemented with two half adders and one OR gate .
 Sequential Circuits
Unlike combinational logic circuit that change state depending on the actual signals being applied
to their inputs at that time, Sequential Logic Circuits have some form of inherent “Memory” built to
them and they are able to take into account their previous input state as well as those actually
present.
A sequential circuit is an interconnection of flip-flop and gates. The gates by themselves constitute
a combinational circuit; but when included with the flip-flops, the overall circuit is classified as a
sequential circuit.
What is a flip-flop?
The memory elements in a sequential circuit are called flip-flops. The flip-flop is a bitable
device. Flip-Flop exists in one of the two states (a logic level “1” or a logic level “0”) and in the
absence of input, remains in that state. A flip-flop circuit can be constructed from two NAND gates or
two NOR gates. Binary information can enter a flip-flop in a variety of ways and gives rise to different
types of flip-flops such as SR flip-flop, D flip-flop, J-K flip flop etc. The word sequential means that
things happen in a “sequence”, one after another and in “Sequential Logic circuits, the actual clock
signal determines when things will happen next.
The Block diagram of a Sequential Circuit Diagram
INPUT Combinational OUTPUT

Circuit
Memory
(Flip-Flops) Clock
Signal
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CHAPTER FIVE
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK
6.1. DATA COMMUNICATION
A Communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that facilitates intersystem
exchange of information between different devices. When we communicate, we are sharing information. This
sharing can be local (face to face communication) or it may be remote (communication over distance).
Data communication is the exchange of date between two devices via some form of wired or wireless
transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data
during the transfer process. To initiate data communication, the communicating
Devices should be a part of an existing communications system. For data communication to be effective, the
following three fundamental characteristics should be considered:
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the interned destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error free).
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.
6.1.1. Data Communication Components
There are five basic components in data communication system:

2. Message: it is the information that is to be communicated.
3. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
4. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message
5. Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message from sender to
receiver.
6. Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. Both the sender
and receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data. Without the protocol, the sender and
receiver cannot communicate with each other; just as a person speaking English cannot be understood
by a person speaks only Hindi.
Sender ------------------- Receiver

--- Fig: data communication component
Message Medium
6.1.2. Data Transmission Mode

Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are three
types of transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full–duplex.
Simplex, transmission is unidirectional. The information flows in one direction across the circuit, with no
capability to support response in the other direction. Only one of the communicating devices transmits
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information, the other can only receive it. Television transmission can be considered as an example of simplex
mode of transmission where the satellite only transmits the data to the television, vice versa is not possible.
Sender Receiver
Fig: Simplex
Half-duplex, in half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit information, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending the other can only receive at that point of time. In half-duplex
transmission mode, the entire capacity of the transmission medium is taken over by the device, which is
transmitting at that moment. The most common example of half-duplex transmission is the wireless handsets
(generally used by military personnel) where one user talks at a time and another listens.
Sender Receiver
Fig: Half - duplex
Full-duplex: Full-duplex transmission mode, also known as the duplex mode, allows both communicating
devices to transmit and receive data simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road
with traffic flowing in both directions. A common example of full-duplex transmitting mode is the telephone
network, where two people communicate over a telephone line; both can talk as well as listen at the same time.
Sender Receiver
Fig: Full - duplex
6.1.3 Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical media through which communication signals (data and information
are transmitted. Transmission media can be divided in to two broad categories: guided media and unguided
media.
A. Guided media
Guided transmission media use a cabling system that guide the data signals along a specific path. The data
signals are bound by the cabling system. Cabling refers to transmission medium that consists of cables. There
are four basic types of guided media. These are
 Open wire
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
Open wire:
Traditionally used to describe the electrical wire system or power transmission wire strung along power pole.
No shielding or protection from noise interface. It suffers from lose of energy problem and it can be easily
tapped.
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Twisted Pair:
 In this kind of cabling, pairs of wires are twisted together which are surrounded by an insulating
material and an outer layer called Jacket.
 Each pair consists of a wire, used for receiving data signal, and for transmission data signal.
 The wires are twisted in order to reduce noise (unwanted signal) and interface for external sources.
 Used in short distance communication (<=100 meters).
Forms of Twisted Pair: There are two forms of Twisted Pair. These are
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair, and
2. Shielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
 It is the most common type of telecommunication medium in use today.
 It is most suited for both data and voice transmission, and hence is commonly use in telephone
system.
 Have a maximum transmission speed of up to 9600 bps.
Fig: UTP
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
 Has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that covers each pair of insulated conductor.
 The metal foil is used to prevent infiltration of electromagnetic noise.
 Helps to eliminate cross talk.
Fig: STP
Coaxial cable:
 Has a single central conductor, which is made up of solid wire (usually copper). This conductor
is surrounded by an insulator.
 It is very robust and is commonly used in cable TV network.
 As compared to twisted pair, it offers higher band width.
 Transmitting data at a rate of 10mbps.
Types of Coaxial cable:
 Thin net: - it goes up to 185m
- Its speed is 10mbps
 Thick net: - it covers a distance of 500m, its speed is 10mbps, commonly used in cable TV
network
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Copper
core
Insulation Metal connector
Braided outer conductor
Protective plastic
covering
Fig: Coaxial cable
Optical fiber:
 Both twisted pair and coaxial cable transmit data in the form of current, but optical fiber carry
information in the form of visible light.
 Has three parts, i.e. Core, cladding , and jacket
Fig: Optical fiber
Advantages of Optical fiber

 Since transmission is light based rather than electricity, it is immune to noise interface.
 Transmission distance is greater than other guided media, because of less signal attenuation.
 It is more secure because cable cannot be tapped.
 They are smaller and lighter than copper wire and are free from corrosion as well.
Disadvantages of Optical fiber
 It is expensive
 They are more fragile.
C. Unguided media
Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through air. They are not bounded to a fixed channel
to follow. One of the common unguided media is radio frequency propagation. Microwave and Satellite
6.2. COMPUTER NETWORK
Consider a situation in which many employees in an organization need to work with the same data. A copy of
the data can be loaded on each computer so that the employees can access the data individually. However, a
more efficient method is to load the data on one computer and provide the other computers access to the data
from this computer remotely. This option saves disk space on the computers and provides a central location for
storing and managing the data that multiple users need to access.
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This need to share data and resources led to the development of networking. A network is a group of connected
computers that allows people to share information. In a network, multiple users can access the same information
and connect to the same resource. For example, instead of linking each computer to its own printer, all
computers can be linked to a common printer for shared access by multiple users.
6.2.1 Types of Networks
Networks may be classified based on a number of parameters:

Span of Control
Geographical Span
According to Span of Control
Based on span of control computer networks can be classified into two major groups:
 Centralized Network
 Distributed Network
Centralized Network
Centralized network has one main CPU that processes all information requests and handles
communication. The main CPU in a centralized network is usually a mainframe or minicomputer
capable of handling the processing workload of many people simultaneously. People interface with the
host computer by using terminals and other input and output devices.
A terminal is a hardware device consisting of a keyboard and monitor. There are two types of
terminals:
 Dumb Terminals
 Intelligent Terminals
Terminals that have no storage or processing capabilities are called dumb terminals. Because dumb
terminals do not have any processing capabilities, they must be connected to a host computer that can
perform any processing functions necessary.
Intelligent terminals, on the other hand, do have limited storage and processing capabilities.
Distributed Network
Distributed network is a collection of workstations connected to each other, along with various
shared storage and input and output devices (for example, scanners and printers). In a distributed
network each workstation can handle some, if not all, of its own processing. Workstations in a
distributed network also maintain local information and software.
Distributed Network can be either

 Client/Server, or
 Peer-to-Peer
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A Client/Server network is a distributed network in which many workstations (called Clients) are
connected to a central host computer (called the Server). The clients are the workstations in a
Client/Server network that maintain local software and information and do as much of the processing
as possible.
A Peer-to-Peer network is a distributed network in which many
Fig: Client/server network
Peer-to-Peer
In a peer-to-peer network, workstations are connected to each other and do not rely on a server for
global software and data, data processing tasks, or communication within the network. Basically, a
peer-to-peer network consists of many workstations connected together that can share resources and
communicate with each other. Each workstation can be a client at one time and a server at another
time.
Client and Server
Fig: Peer- to- peer
 According to Geographical Span
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Local Area network (LAN)

A LAN, or local Area Network, is a computer network that spans only a small geographical area
(usually within a square mile or less), such as an office, home or building.
Metropolitan Area network (MAN)
A MAN , or Metropolitan Area network, is a network of computers spread over a “Metropolitan” area
such as a city and its suburbs, As the name suggests, this sort of network is usually reserved fox metropolitan
areas where the city bridges its local area networks with a series of backbones, making one large network for the
entire city. It may be a single network such as a cable television network or it may be a means of connecting a
number of LANs, Note that, MAN may be operated by one organization ( a corporate with several offices in one
city), or be shared resources used by several organization in the same city.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN, or Wide Area Network, is a system of interconnecting many computers over a large
geographical area such as cities, states, countries or even the whole world. These kinds of networks use
telephone lines, satellite links, and other long-rang communications technologies to connect. Such networks are
designed to serve an area of hundreds or thousands of miles such as public and private packet switching
networks and national telephone networks.
MAN
LAN LAN LAN
WAN
Fig: Type of network according geographical span
6.2.2. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically. A topology can be
considered as the network’s shape. It is thee geometric representation of the relationship of all the links. There
are five basic topologies: Bus, Ring, Star, and Mesh.
Bus Topology
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Bus topology uses a common bus or backbone (a single cable) to connect all devices with terminators at both
ends. The backbone acts as a shared communication medium and each node (file server,
Workstations, and peripherals) is attached to it with an interface connector. Whenever a message is to be
transmitted on the network, it is passed back and forth along the cable, past the stations (computers) and
between the two terminators, from one end of the network to the other. As the message passes each station, the
station checks the message’s destination address. If the address in the message matches the station’s address, the
station receives the message. If the addresses do not match, the bus carries the message to the next station, and
so on. Figure 12.33 illustrates how devices such as file serve workstations, and printers are connected to the
linear cable or the backbone.
Advantages of Bus Topology

 Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.
 This topology requires least amount of cabling to connect the computers and therefore, less expensive
than other cabling arrangement.
 It is easy to extend a bus since two cables can be joined into longer cable with a connector.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a failure ion the backbone
 Heavy traffic can slow down a bus because computers on such networks do not coordinate with each
other to reserve time to transmit.
Ring Topology
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In ring topology, computers are placed on a circle of cable without any terminated ends since there are
no unconnected ends. Every node has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel
through a ring in the same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) until it reaches its destination. Each node
in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a node receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along the wire.
Advantage of Ring Topology
 Ring topology is easy to install and reconfigure.
 Every computer is given equal access to the ring. Hence, no single computer can monopolize the
network.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
 Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited.
Fig: Ring topology
Star Topology
In star topology, devices are not directly linked to each other but they are connected via a centralized
network component known as hub or concentrator. The hub acts as a central controller and if a node wants to
send data to another node, it boosts up the message and sends the message to the intended node. This topology
commonly uses twisted pair cable, however, coaxial cable or fiber optic cable can also be used.
Advantages of Star Topology
- Star topology is easy to install and wire.
- The network is not disrupted even if a node fails or is removed from the network.
- Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier in star topology.

Disadvantages of Star Topology
- It requires a longer length of cable.
- If the hub fails, nodes attached to it are disabled.
- The cost of the hub makes the network expensive as compared to bus and ring topology.
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Mesh Topology
In the mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other node. Messages sent
on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. A fully connected mesh
network has n(n-1)/2 physical links to link n devices. For example, if an organization has 5 nodes and wants to
implement a mesh topology, 5(5-1)/2, that is, 10 links are requires. In addition, to accommodate that many links,
every device on the network must have n-1 communication (input/output) ports.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

 The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion.
 If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire system.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 The amount of required cabling is very large.
 As every node is connected to the other, installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.
 The amount of hardware required in this type of topology can make it expensive to implement.
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6.3 Introduction to the Internets

With the growth in popularity and networking of computers, intercommunication between different
computers became easier, which led to the phenomenon called Internet. For a majority of people, who are
unaware of computer technology, Internet depicts some enigmatic computer gizmo, which has something to do
with games, music, and generally entertainment. However, Internet is a much broader concept than mere
entertainment and recreational activities. It is revolutionizing and enhancing the ways of human interaction and
communication.
The word Internet is derived from two words: Interconnection and Networks. Also referred to as ‘ the Net’,
Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks, that is, a network of networks, which allows the
participants ( users) to share information on those linked computers. In consist of thousands of separately
administered networks of various sizes and types. Each of these networks comprises tens of thousands of
computers. Moreover, the total number of users of the Internet is known to be in millions. This high level of
connectively encourages an unparalleled degree of communication, resource sharing, and information access. It
is probably the most powerful and important technological advancement since the introduction of the desktop
computer.
Basic Internet Terms
Now let us familiarize ourselves with some basic Internet terms.
Web page: The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages which contain information and links to resources
throughout the Internet. A web page is an electronic document written in a computer language called HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language) These web pages are linked together through a system of connections (called
hypertext links, hyperlinks or links), Which enable the user to jump from one web page to another by clicking
on a link. On the Web, the user navigates through these pages of information in accordance of his/her interests.
Web Site: A web site is a set of related (linked through hypertext links) web pages, published by an organization
or individual. Normally a web site contains a home page along with other additional web pages. Each web site is
owned and updated by an individual, company or organization. It is an area on the web, which is accessed by its
own address (known as URL or the Uniform Resource Locator). Note that, the quality, detail, and style of web
sites vary enormously, depending on how it is designed.
Home page: when you browse the World Wide Web, you will often see the term ‘home page”. A home page is
the starting point or a doorway to the web site. Like the table of contents of a book, the home page usually
provides an overview of what could be found at the web site. If there is not much information, the home page
may be the only page of the web site. However, usually you will find at least a few other pages.
Note: Home page is also known as the index or index page.
Browser: A browser (short for web browser) is a computer program that accesses web pages and displays them
on the computer screen. It is the basic software that is needed to find, retrieve, view, and send information over
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the Internet. In fact, to access the World Wide Web, the user requires a web browser. The most popular browsers
are Microsoft internet Explorer and Netscape navigator. Browsers are of two types:
 Graphical browsers: allow retrieval of text, images, audio, and video. Navigation is accomplished by
pointing and clicking with a mouse on highlighted words and graphics. Both Netscape navigator and
Internet Explorer are graphical browsers.
 Text browsers: provide access to the Web in text-only mode. Navigation is accomplished by
highlighting emphasized words on the screen with the arrow up and down keys, and then pressing the
Enter key to follow the link. Lynx is an example of text-based browser.
Uniform resource locator (URL): Each web page has a unique address, called a Uniform Resource Locator
(URL) that identifies its location on the Internet. Web browsers utilize the URL to retrieve a file from the
computer on which it resides. Usually, the format of an URL consists of four parts: protocol, server (or
domain), path, and filename. Here is an example, http://www.xyz.com/tutor/start/main.htm. The structure of
this URL
 Protocol: http
 Host computer name: www
 Domain name: xyz
 Domain type: com
 Path: tutor/Start/
 File name: main.htm
The first part of the address, the part before the colon, is the access method. Apart from http, you could also find
other protocols such as ftp (file transfer protocol), mailto (mail server, used for accessing E-mail server) and
telnet (for accessing remote computers). The protocol is separated by colons and slashes. After the slashes, the
host computer’s name is displayed, that is, an indicator such as www, which stands for World Wide Web. Next
comes the name of the computer where the information is located. Note that it is not necessary that all the
addresses contain www. Although most Internet addresses include a www, a web page can reside on the part of
the Internet that is not found on the World Wide Web.
After the domain name, the domain type is displayed such as com. A domain type is a unique and case
sensitive human-readable name for a host on the Internet. A domain type represents the type of organization or
country to which the host belongs.
In addition, dozens of domain types have been assigned to identify and locate files stored on host computers in
countries around the world. These are referred to as two-letter Internet country codes, and have been
standardized by the International Standards Organization (ISO). For example, uk for the United Kingdom, de for
Germany, au for Australia, and in for India. The last part of a URL consists of the path and the file name. Path
name specifies the hierarchic location of the said file on the computer. For instance, in
http://www.xyz.com/tutor/start/main.htm, the file main.htm is located in start, which is a subdirectory of tutor.
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Hypertext: Hypertext refers to the text that connects to other documents. These texts are known as hypertext
link, hyperlink, hotlink or simply links. A hyperlink is used to “jump” to another part of the same page or to load
a different web page. Hypertext is a method of instant cross-referencing. It is used for organizing information
and to link related documents together using words and graphics (also known as image maps). Usually hypertext
links appear in a different color (typically in blue and underlined) from the rest of the text. When the cursor is
moved over a text link or over a graphic link it will change from an arrow to a hand. The hypertext words often
provide a hint about the connected page. When the user returns to a page with a link he/she had already visited,
the hypertext words will often be in a different color (usually magenta), indicating that the link is already been
used. However, the user can certainly use that link again.
Internet service provider (ISP): An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that provides the
required software, which is used to connect to the Internet. For a monthly fee, the ISP provides the user a
software package, username, password, and access phone number(s). Equipped with a modem, the user can then
log on to the Internet and browse the Web. In our country Ethiopia the only and famous ISP is ETC.
Web server: A server is a computer equipped with server software, which provides a specific kind of service to
client software running on other computers. The term can refer to a particular piece of software, for example, a
web server, or to the machine on which the software is running. A web server is a computer that answers
requests from user’s computers. It serves images and static content, such as web pages, to fill client’s (browser)
requests. Web servers can run on any hardware platform and operating system and store documents in HTML.
Download and upload: Download refers to the activity of moving or copying a document, program or other
data from the Internet or other interconnected computer to one’s own computer. It is the process of ‘pulling’
information from one computer onto another, For example, while accessing a web site, the HTML code and
graphics must be downloaded from a remote server onto the user’s computer, before viewing the web site. When
the user downloads a file, he/she is actually copying a particular file from the web and placing it on his/her hard
drive. Upload is just the opposite of download. In case the user moves or copies a document, program or other
data from his/her computer to the Internet. It refers to the act of moving data from one computer to another,
usually to a server or remote computer. For example, a software company may upload a demonstration of its
new software onto the web so that users can then download the software onto their individual computers.
Online and offline: The term online is commonly referred to as ‘connected to the World wide web via
Internet’. When you connect to the Internet, you are online or live. Being online is also used to refer to materials
stored on a computer or to a device like a printer that is ready to accept commands from a computer. Hence, any
activity undertaken while the computer is connected to another computer or network is said to be online. Offline
is just the opposite of being online. It refers to the actions performed when the user is not connected, via
telecommunications, to another computer or a network like the Internet. Hence, offline means that the user is no
longer connected to a remote computer. If a printer or other peripheral is not ready to receive data from the
computer, it is also considered offline.
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Getting Connected to Internet

Now that you are aware of the basic Internet terms, let us shift our focus on how to connect to the Internet. The
basic requirements for getting online are:
 A TCP/IP enabled computer with a web browser
 An account with an ISP
 A telephone line plugged to a suitable socket
 A modem to connect the computer to the telephone line
Internet Applications
The Internet has grown from a small project to today’s biggest network of computers. Due to the
colossal growth, the Internet has become the biggest domain of information. Nowadays, an Internet user has
access to a wide variety of services such as electronic mail, file transfer, vast information resources, interest
group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping
opportunities, and much more. Some of the important services provided by the Interest are briefed below.
World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web (abbreviated as the Web or WWW) is one of the most popular
services available on Internet. It is a subset of the internet and it presents text, images, animation, video, sound,
and other multimedia in a single interface. This greatly enhances the experience of the Internet surfer. Although
the World Wide Web is often referred to as the Internet, they are actually two different concepts. The internet is
the decentralized global network of computers that transfer information and the wiring that makes all this
possible where as the Web is a collection of documents or web sites, that users can access using the Internet and
a web browser. Almost every protocol type available on the Internet is accessible on the Web. This includes E-
mail, FTP, Telnet, and Usenet News. Since the WWW is a subset of the Internet, it stands to reason that the Web
could not exist without the Internet. However, the Internet would still be the Internet without the web.
Electronic mail (E-mail): Electronic mail, or E-mail, is a fast, easy, and inexpensive way to communicate with
other Internet users around the world. It is one of the basic and earliest services of the internet and the most used
application on the Internet too. E-mail overcomes most of the problems and delays of getting a physical
document from one person to another. Rather, is has the dual advantage of not only being faster but cheaper to
use as well. Each user of E-mail has a mailbox address to which messages are sent and the mailbox can be
accessed from anywhere and anytime. It does not matter what type of connectivity the user is having, he will
always be able to use this service. One can receive and send E-mails from all systems where it is a Windows PC
or a UNIX machine. Not only can this E-mail also be used to send documents, images, audio, video, etc. as an
attachment along with the mail.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC): IRC or Internet Relay Chart is a service on the Internet that allows people to
communicate in real time and carry on conversations via the computer with one or more people. It provides the
user with the facility to engage in simultaneous (synchronous) online ‘conversations’ with other users from
anywhere in the world. Unlike other forms of group communication on the Internet, chat is instant
communication. However, both parties must be connected to the Internet and that too at the same time, running
the right software and actively participating in order to chat.
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Video Conferencing: Video conferencing uses the same technology as IRC, but also provides sound and video
pictures. It enables direct face-to face communication across networks. A video conferencing system has two or
more parties in different locations, which have the ability to communicate using a combination of video, audio,
and data. A videoconference can be person to person (referred to as ‘multipoint’) and the video conferencing
terminals are often referred to as ‘endpoints’.
Commerce through internet: Today business is taking place through electronic telecommunication media.
Nowadays various organizations offer the facility of shopping online. This type of business model is known as
Electronic commerce of E-Commerce. E-commerce refers to buying and selling goods and services online. It
integrated communication, data management and security capabilities, which allow organizations to exchange of
information needed to conduct business including Electronic Data Interchange ( EDI) and Electronic funds
Transfer (EFT) EDI is the computer – to – computer exchange of routine business transactions including
payments, information exchange, and purchase order requests. EFT is a technology that allows the transfer of
funds from the bank account of the person or organization to that of another.
CHAPTER SIX
COMPUTER SECURITY
 Introduction to computer security
Computer security refers to the protection of computer systems from malicious/intentional or
accidental attacks towards physical/virtual environment. In other words; Computer security is a branch
of computer technology known as information security as applied to computers and networks.
The objective of computer security includes the protection of information/data, and the system
itself from theft, corruption, or natural disaster-while allowing the information and property to remain
accessible and productive to its intended users.
In computing environment, unauthorized people intentionally try to access the protected or
access restricted files, however in another case things may happen accidentally due to lack of
knowledge.
 Computer System Security
The security of computer hardware and its components is necessary for the overall protection of
data. Even if the computer is not plugged into a network, a person can open its cabinet and gain access
to the hard disk, which can later be used on some other computer for data theft. If a standalone system
(system that is not part of a network) contains some important or classified information, it should be
kept under constant protection.
 Information and Data Security
It is important to avoid data and information loss in case of hard disk crashes by taking
regularly keep backups of all the data and in case of a disk crash, restore the information from the
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backup media onto the new disk. As the technical constraints are always there, it is better to take
regular backups, in order to avoid any loss of information.
 Backup
Computer backup is the storing copies of your files on a medium other than your hard disk.
The reason that we make computer backups is to protect against the event that something happens to
damage our files so they are no longer usable. If we have backups of our files, then we can restore
these files to our computer through our backups.
What is involved in Computer Backup?
Computer backups can be made in very different formats. The traditional method of backing
up computer files was used with the floppy disk. However, floppy disks are becoming increasingly
obsolete since it can hold only 1.4 MB of data. CD-Rs are CD-ROMs that you can actually write onto,
and hold up to 700-800 MB of storage. You can also use CD-RWs, which can be written onto more
than once, unlike a CD-R, DVD burners are also becoming increasingly common, and a typical DVD-
R can hold up to 4.7 GB s. Another new technology which is becoming common for computer backup
is the key drive. These are removable drives which are very small, the size of a key chain. You can also
make backups of your files online. Online backup involves putting your computer files onto an online
server, which you can access from any computer that is connected to the internet (i.e. referred to as
cloud computer).You can also use flash disks, external hard disks for backup purposes.
Other options in the remote backup sector are dedicated servers in your home / office to make
backups of your files. While this isn't really an option for most home users, businesses often find this
to be the most practical as they usually tend to backup several hundred gigabytes of data every night.
As you can see, the options for computer users to make backup copies of their data have dramatically
increased in the past ten years. Today users can choose from CDs, to DVDs, or even external hard
drives. Online services and backup servers are also on the list of computer backup solutions.
 Computer system security threats
A computer system can be exposed to risk of security threats. These security threats can be of
different types. The following are the major threats which can disrupt security in a computer system.
• Viruses
• Worms
• Trojan Horse
Viruses, worms and Trojan Horses are all malicious programs that can cause damage to your computer,
but there are differences among the three, and knowing those differences would help you to protect
your computer from damages.
What is a Virus?
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A virus is a self-replicating (reproduce, duplicate) program that spreads by inserting copies of

itself into programs or documents that already exist on a computer. The name comes from an analogy
with biological viruses. These cannot reproduce by themselves but make use of the functions of
infected cells to spread. Similarly, a computer virus makes use of the executable code in legitimate
(legal, valid) programs to carry out its purposes.
A virus may be designed to be destructive to a system or just for a fun. In either case, the virus
may rapidly spread until the system is overwhelmed. Almost all viruses are attached to an executable
file, which means that the virus may exist on your computer but it won’t infect your computer unless
you run or open the malicious program. The Virus can spread, mostly unknowingly to other systems
when infected programs are copied to another machine or sending by e-mails.
What is a Worm?
A worm is similar to a virus by design and is considered to be a sub-class of a virus. Worms
spread from computer to computer, but unlike a virus, it has the capability to travel without any human
action. A worm differs from a virus in that it contains all the code it needs to carry out its purposes and
does not depend on using other programs. A worm takes advantage of file or information transport
features on your system, which is what allows it to travel unaided. The biggest danger with a worm is
its capability to replicate itself on your system, so rather than your computer sending out a single
worm, it could send out hundreds or thousands of copies of itself, creating a huge devastating
(destructive, disturbing) effect.
One example would be for a worm to send a copy of itself to everyone listed in your e-mail
address book. Then, the worm replicates and sends itself out to everyone listed in each of the
receiver's address book, and the manifest continues on down the line. Due to the copying nature of a
worm and its capability to travel across networks the end result in most cases is that the worm
consumes too much system memory (or network bandwidth), causing Web servers, network servers
and individual computers to stop responding. In recent worm attacks such as Blaster Worm, which has
been designed to tunnel into your system and allow malicious users to control your computer remotely.
What is a Trojan horse?
The Trojan horse at first glance will appear to be useful software but will actually do damages
once installed or run on your computer. Those on the receiving end of a Trojan Horse are usually
tricked into opening them because they appear to be receiving legitimate software or files from a
legitimate (legal) source. When a Trojan is activated on your computer, the results can vary. Some
Trojans are designed to be more irritating than malicious (like changing your desktop, adding silly
active desktop icons) or they can cause serious damages by deleting files and destroying information
on your system.
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Trojans are also known to create a backdoor on your computer that gives malicious users access
to your system, possibly allowing confidential or personal information to be compromised. Unlike
viruses and worms, Trojans do not reproduce by infecting other files nor do they self-replicate.
What are Blended Threats?
A blended threat is a more sophisticated attack that bundles some of the worst aspects of
viruses, worms, Trojan horses and malicious code into one single threat. Blended threats can use
server and Internet vulnerabilities to initiate, then transmit and also spread an attack. Characteristics of
blended threats are that they cause harm to the infected system or network and they propagates using
multiple methods. The attack can come from multiple points, and basically it can cause damages
within several areas of your network at one time. Blended threats are considered to be the worst risk to
security since the beginning of viruses, as most blended threats also require no human intervention to
propagate.
What is Antivirus Software?
After our system becomes the victim of the threats, we need to have curing tools. One of these
tools is employing anti-virus software. Antivirus software is a computer program that detects,
prevents, and takes action to de-activate or remove malicious software programs, such as viruses and
worms. You can protect your computer against viruses by using antivirus software, such as Microsoft
Security Essentials. To prevent the most current viruses, you must update your antivirus software
regularly. You can set up most types of antivirus software to update automatically.
How to block Viruses, Worms and Trojan Horses
The first step in protecting your computer from any malicious action is to ensure that your
operating system (OS) is up-to-date. This is essential if you are running a Microsoft Windows OS.
Secondly, you need to have anti-virus software installed on your system and ensure that you
download updates frequently to make your software active against the latest new viruses, worms, and
Trojan horses.
Additionally, you want to make sure your anti-virus program has the capability to scan e-mail
and files as they are downloaded from the Internet and you also need to run full disk scans periodically.
Making use of a firewall is always advisable especially for a networked environment.
A firewall is a system that prevents unauthorized use and access to your computer. A firewall
can be either hardware or software. Unfortunately, when battling viruses, worms and Trojans, a
hardware firewall may be less effective than a software firewall, as it could possibly ignore embedded
worms in outgoing e-mails and see this as regular network traffic.
For individual home users, the most popular firewall choice is a software firewall. A good
software firewall will protect your computer from outside attempts to control or gain access your
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computer, and usually provides additional protection against the most common Trojan programs or e-
mail worms.
The disadvantage of a software firewall is that they will only protect the computer they are
installed on, not a network. It is important to remember that, a firewall own itself is not going to free
you from computer virus problems, but when it is used in conjunction with regular operating system
updates and a good anti-virus scanning software, it will add some extra security and protection for your
computer or network.
Encryption
Encryption is a process in which plaintext (original message) is converted into an un-readable
(cipher) text so that it nobody can read, providing privacy.
Decryption is the process of extracting the original information from the encrypted data. The
receiver of the encrypted text uses a "key" to decrypt the message, returning it to its original plain text
form. Until the advent of the Internet, encryption was rarely used by the public, but was largely a
military tool. Today, with online marketing, banking, healthcare and other services, even the average
householder is aware of encryption.
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Introduction to computer sytem handouts

o Introduction to Information and Communication Technology

oDefinition of computer and computer science

 Desktop Computer: Desktop computer or PC (personal Computer) is the most common

Why we use Computers?

Fig -2.1 to represent 125 by abacus

 Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.

 Fourth generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.

 Audio data: Include any music & voice.

ALU Control Unit

Input unit Output unit

Primary Memory ROM

Secondary storage device

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

- It stores data and instruction temporarily.

EEPROM (Electrically EPROM)

A language is a systematic set of rules for communicating ideas. A programming language is a

Data Representation in Computers

Why Binary representation is used in computers?

Number system Radix value Set of Digits Example

Decimal r = 10 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) (25)10

Decimal Number system

Total Value: 4*100+2*101+0*102+1*103 = 1024

 Hexadecimal number system is a base 16 system with 16 digits namely

 Comparative Representation of Number Systems

Decimal Octal Number

 Conversion between Number Systems

 Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is zero.

Example ­2: Find the Binary equivalent of (75.68)10 = (?)2

 Conversion of Octal fractions to Decimal fractions: Steps followed here are:

Binary number 1100 1011

Example­1: Write a BCD code for the word CASE

Example- 1: Find the EBCDIC code for PEN

Example- 2: Find the EBCDIC code for MAISM

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Example-1: Find the ASCII-7 code for ROYAL

Example-2: Find the ASCII-7 code for NOSE

 ASCII-8 ASCII-8 Coding Scheme for All

Example-1: Find the ASCII-8 code for TOOL.

 The ASCII-8 code for TOOL is

The ASCII-8 code for RAJA is

 One’s Complement Method

 Two’s Complement Method

Note: Consider the representation of zero in all the above methods.

-0 1000 -0 1111 -0 1 0000

 Normalized and Demoralized Form in Binary Floating Point Number

 Hierarchical structure of computer system architecture

Peripherals and communication

Truth table and the block diagram symbol for an OR gate:

 Algebra that deals with binary number system.

 Boolean Operators (Logical Operators)

1. NOT Operator (Negation)

 Operates on a single variable. Therefore negation is a unary operator.

2. OR Operator (Disjunction, Logical OR, Logical Addition)

 Operation is termed as logical Addition and is represented using the symbol +

3. AND Operator (Conjunction, Logical And, Logical Multiplication)

 Operation is termed as logical multiplication and is represented by the symbol “.”

Properties of Boolean algebra

(A1.A2.A3. ………….. .An)´ = A1´ + A2´ + A3´ + ………….. +An´

I. Give the dual of the following Boolean expressions

II. Give the dual of the rule

III. Prepare a truth table for the following expressions.

IV. Prove the following rules using truth table.

Total Value: 4100+2101+0102+1103 = 1024

Example 2: Find the Binary equivalent of (75.68)10 = (?)2

Example1: Write a BCD code for the word CASE