Study of liquid flow through horizontally mounted

Flowmeters
Shem Savio Afonso
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Alliance College of Engineering and Design
Bangalore, India
shemafonso@gmail.com

Abstract
Flowmeters are devices used to measure volume flow rate, and study of this Volume flow rate is important
in water supply departments and industries. In this paper, we discuss the flow analysis of a liquid through 3
flowmeters namely

1)Venturi-meter

2)Orifice-meter

3)Nozzle-meter

The flow analysis is done with the apparatus available in Alliance College of Engineering and Design Fluid
Mechanics lab. The liquid used is water. The experiment conducted focuses on finding the theoretical and
experimental flow rate, and the coefficient of discharge which gives the efficiency of flowmeter for water.
From the experiment, we can find the relation between coefficient of discharge and Reynolds number and
hence with the relation of coefficient of discharge with laminar and turbulent flow. From this analysis, it can
be concluded that Venturi-meter is the most efficient flowmeter.

Introduction:
Volume flow rate is defined as rate at which volume of a fluid passes a point per unit time. It has SI
unit of m3/s. devices which measure volume flow rate are called Flowmeters. Flowmeters are open
system devices- it has 2 open ends. It is application of Bernoulli’s principle(Discussed in Theory).
Flowmeter obeys the basic conservation laws (Discussed in Theory).

Theory
1)Conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed can be converted from one
form to other.
2)Conservation of mass: it states that the rate of inflow of mass in system is equal to the rate of
outflow of mass. The rate at which mass of liquid enters the flowmeter must leave at the same rate.
3)Bernoulli’s theorem: It is conservation of energy theorem applied to fluids and it states the sum
of kinetic energy, potential energy and pressure energy of a fluid remains constant throughout the
flow.
 𝑃 𝑣2
+ 2𝑔 + 𝑧 = 𝑐 (J/Kg)
𝜌𝑔

P=pressure of fluid
Ρ=Density of fluid
v=Velocity of fluid
z=Elevation from datum
g=acceleration due to gravity

Flowmeters
Venturi-meter: It is basically a convergent divergent nozzle. The convergent cone has a 15-20
converging angle. The cross-sectional area decreases to a minimum area called the throat. This
region has the maximum velocity and minimum pressure. The outlet divergent angle is bout 5-7
degree. The cross-sectional area slowly increases to the pipe dimeter.

Figure 1: Sketch of a Venturimeter(source: http: //thermopedia.com/content/5662/1267VMFig1.gif)

 Figure 2: Venturi-meter (Source: https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-
DM_o0Pdf0bM/V217k_zyxOI/AAAAAAAAHGk/f0Xxf2bMaDEGnX1ZXiVyoTkOBIZO4QOZQCLcB/s160
0/ventu.jpg)
Orifice-meter: As the name says it is a plate with a hole embedded in a cylindrical tube. There is
sudden decrease in cross-sectional area. Due to which the point of convergence in an orifice meter
is slightly downstream which leads to high losses. The fluid has max velocity and min pressure at
the hole.

Figure 3: Sketch of Orifice-meter(Source: https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-

j7tq_WFaAc0/WczP8eph7oI/AAAAAAAAAAs/SsJOZ6vKimEmmhnuJymz1AsDTHMEgPJtQCLcBGAs/s1
600/orifice...jpg)

Nozzle-meter: This meter consists of a convergent nozzle as shown in picture. The nozzle is place
inside a cylindrical tube of pipe.it is cheaper and simpler than venturi-meter. The losses in Nozzle-
meter is between orifice and venturi-meter.
 Figure 4: Sketch of Nozzle-meter(Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjD6JTJyvPkAhUl7nMBHbpR
A44QjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usbr.gov%2Ftsc%2Ftechreferences%2Fmands%2F
wmm%2Fchap14_03.html&psig=AOvVaw3fbcn6NBjfsHbrlN9h9qBF&ust=1569762341365846)

U-Tube Manometer
Vertical or inclined tubes containing liquid and used to measure pressure is called Manometers.
One of the most common manometer is U-tube Manometer as shown in figure 4.

It is governed by the equation

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Where P1 and P2 are pressures in two columns, ρ is density of liquid in columns, g is local
acceleration due to gravity and h is difference in height of liquid in both the columns.
U-tube Manometer is used to measure pressure difference between 2 points.
The U-tube Manometer is attached to the flowmeter as shown below
 Figure 5: Sketch of a U-tube Manometer(Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjj_PORy_PkAhWlH7cAHa8H
DTYQjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiamart.com%2Fproddetail%2Fu-tube-
manometer-calibration-
5898560362.html&psig=AOvVaw2vwczAAX1SDrtRjvIONGsW&ust=1569762480570540)

Figure 6: Sketch of a U-tube Manometer attached to Venturi-meter(Source:

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwitgL_5zPP
kAhXEbX0KHRb1DIkQjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=%2Furl%3Fsa%3Di%26source%3Dimages%26cd%3D%26ve
d%3D%26url%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fmath-physics-
problems.wikia.org%252Fwiki%252FThe_Venturimeter%26psig%3DAOvVaw0ZcUV1qvojbBv-
 UkueViIi%26ust%3D1569762976945013&psig=AOvVaw0ZcUV1qvojbBv-
UkueViIi&ust=1569762976945013)

Experimental setup
The experimental setup is as shown below figure.

Figure 7: Sketch of experimental setup

When the experiment is conducted for one flowmeter the valves connecting other 2 flowmeter to
the manometer are closed down. The experimental flow rate is measure using collecting tank.

Formulas used
From Bernoulli’s theorem

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 (1)
𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔
Where P1, v1, z1 are pressure, velocity and elevation of fluid at inlet section and P2, v2, z2 is
pressure, velocity and elevation of fluid at throat.
The density of water is constant so ρ1=ρ2=ρH2O
The flow meter is kept horizontally so z1=z2
Therefore, the above equation becomes
 𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑣22 −𝑣12
= (2)
𝜌𝐻2𝑂 2

From conservation of mass

𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡
= , 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝐴𝑣 (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Where A is area of cross section, density of water is constant, therefore equation (3) becomes
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝑑22
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 (4)
𝑑12

Substituting above equation in (2) in (4) we get

2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )
𝑣2 = √ (5)
𝜌𝐻2𝑂 (1−𝛽 4 )

From manometer we get

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑔𝜌𝐻𝑔 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

Substitute above equation in equation (5) we get

2 ∗ 12.6𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑣2 = √ (6)
(1 − 𝛽 4 )

Therefore, volume flow rate is

2 ∗ 12.6𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
̇ = 𝐴2 √
𝑉𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 (7)
(1 − 𝛽 4 )

𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ∗ 𝑙
̇ =
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝 (8)
𝑡

̇
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐶𝑑 = (9)
𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

Reynolds number

4ρH2O∗ V̇exp
Re = (10)
πd2 μH2O
Observation and Tabular column
1)Venturi-meter
Observation: Theoretical flow rate
1. diameter of pipe d1= 25*10-3 m
2. diameter of throat d2= 12.5*10-3 m
3. Area of throat A2=1.227*10-4 m2
4. β=d2/d1=0.5
5. g=9.81 m/s2

Tabular column: Theoretical flowrate- Calculated using equation (7)

Theoretical flow rate

Rotameter h1 h2 Δh 𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
Run No.
reading (LPM) (mm Hg) (mm Hg) (mm Hg) X 10-4 (m3/s)
1 20 13 22 35 3.72
2 22 16 25 41 4.029
3 24 16 24 40 3.98
4 26 17 27 44 4.17
5 28 23 34 57 4.75
6 30 27 40 67 5.15
7 32 30 44 74 5.41
8 34 35 51 86 5.59
9 36 40 57 97 6.1973
10 38 46 65 111 6.63

Observation: Experimental Flowrate

1)Area of collecting tank= 0.1 m2
Tabular column: Experimental flowrate- Calculated using equation (8)
Experimental Flowrate

Rotameter ̇
Raise in water level Time 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
Run no. reading
(cm) (s) X10-4 (m3/s)
(LPM)
1 20 10 38.14 2.26
2 22 10 37.11 2.69
3 24 10 26.58 3.76
4 26 10 23.19 4.31
 5 28 10 22.00 4.55
6 30 10 21.03 4.75
7 32 10 20.19 4.95
8 34 10 19.26 5.19
9 36 10 19.03 5.25
10 38 10 18.00 5.55
2)Orifice-meter

Observation: Theoretical flow rate

1. Diameter of pipe d1= 25 mm
2. Diameter of throat d2= 12.5 mm
3. Area of throat A2=1.227*10-4 m2
4. β=d2/d1=0.5
5. g=9.81 m/s2
Tabular column: Theoretical flowrate- Calculated using equation (7)
Theoretical flow rate

Rotameter
h1 h2 Δh 𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
Run No. reading
(mm Hg) (mm Hg) (mm Hg) X 10-4 (m3/s)
(LPM)
1 20 30 22 50 4.4
2 22 40 20 67 5.15
3 24 51 27 86 5.84
4 26 61 35 101 6.3
5 28 68 40 111 6.63
6 30 80 45 134 7.28
7 32 92 63 155 7.83
8 34 99 67 166 8.11

Observation: Experimental Flowrate

1. Area of collecting tank= 0.1 m2
Tabular column: Experimental flowrate- Calculated using equation (8)
Experimental Flowrate
 Rotameter Raise in water ̇
Time 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
Run no. reading level
(s) X10-4 (m3/s)
(LPM) (cm)
1 20 10 31 3.23
2 22 10 27.54 3.63
3 24 10 26.80 3.73
4 26 10 24.14 4.14
5 28 10 22.96 4.36
6 30 10 22.01 4.45
7 32 10 21.07 4.75
8 34 10 20.73 4.82

3)Nozzle-meter
Observation: Theoretical flow rate

1. diameter of pipe d1= 20*10-3 m

2. diameter of throat d2= 10*10-3 m
3. Area of throat A2=7.854*10-3 m2
4. β=d2/d1=0.5
5. g=9.81 m/s2
Tabular column: Theoretical flowrate- Calculated using equation (7)
Theoretical flow rate

Rotameter h1 h2 Δh 𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
Run No.
reading (LPM) (mm Hg) (mm Hg) (mm Hg) X 10-4 (m3/s)
1 20 42 75 99 4.012
2 22 45 65 116 4.229
3 24 52 73 125 4.508
4 26 61 86 147 4.889
5 28 68 94 162 5.132
6 30 77 106 183 5.454
7 32 87 119 206 5.787
8 34 96 130 226 6.061
Observation: Experimental Flowrate
1. Area of collecting tank= 0.1 m2

Tabular column: Experimental flowrate- Calculated using equation (8)

Experimental Flowrate

Rotameter Raise in water ̇

Time 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
Run no. reading level
(s) X10-4 (m3/s)
(LPM) (cm)
1 20 10 29.92 3.34
2 22 10 27.42 3.65
3 24 10 25.77 3.88
4 26 10 24.27 4.037
5 28 10 22.76 4.394
6 30 10 21.41 4.671
7 32 10 20.05 4.986
8 34 10 19.05 5.249

Results
Cd (Coefficient of discharge) and Re (Reynolds number) is calculated using equation (9) and (10)
respectively.

1)Venturi-meter
Rotameter reading 𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 ̇
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
Run no. Cd Re
(LPM) X10-4 (m3/s) X10-4 (m3/s)
1 20 3.72 2.26 0.7 29867.64
2 22 4.029 2.69 0.67 30615.23
3 24 3.98 3.76 0.94 42793.04
4 26 4.17 4.31 1.03 49102.208
5 28 4.75 4.55 0.957 51784.13
 6 30 5.15 4.75 0.922 54060.36
7 32 5.41 4.95 0.914 56336.58
8 34 5.59 5.19 0.928 59068.05
9 36 6.1973 5.25 0.847 59750.92
10 38 6.63 5.55 0.837 63165.26
Discussion: The error occurred at readings 1,2,4 may be due to human error or instrumental error
(U-tube manometer not calibrated properly)

2)Orifice-meter
Rotameter reading ̇
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
Run no. Cd Re
(LPM) X10 (m3/s)
-4 X10-4 (m3/s)
1 20 3.23 4.4 .73 36761.04
2 22 3.63 5.15 .7 41313.49
3 24 3.73 5.84 .64 42541.6
4 26 4.14 6.3 .65 47117.86
5 28 4.36 6.63 .65 49621.78
6 30 4.45 7.28 .62 51670.32
7 32 4.75 7.83 .61 54060.36
8 34 4.82 8.11 .59 54857.04
Discussion: The error occurred at readings 1,2 may be due to human error or instrumental error (U-
tube manometer not calibrated properly)

3)Nozzle-meter
Rotameter reading 𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 ̇
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
Run no. Cd Re
(LPM) X10-4 (m3/s) X10-4 (m3/s)
1 20 4.012 3.34 .83 47516.21
2 22 4.229 3.65 .86 51926.39
3 24 4.508 3.88 .86 55198.47
4 26 4.889 4.037 .83 57432.01
5 28 5.132 4.394 .86 62510.84
6 30 5.454 4.671 .86 66451.56
7 32 5.787 4.986 .86 70961.33
8 34 6.061 5.249 .86 74674.42
Graph:
1)Venturi-meter
Vexp V/S Vtheo
7

6
Vexp (*10^-4 m3/s)

1 slope=Cd= 0.9677

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Vtheo(*10^-4 m3/s)

Cd V/s Re
1.2

0.8
Cd

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Re

Delta h V/s Vexp and Vtheo

120

100
Delta h(*10^-3m)

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Vexp(blue), Vtheo(orange) (*10^-4 m3/s)

2)Orifice-meter
 Vexp V/S Vtheo
6

5
Vexp(*10^-4 m3/s)

2
Slope=Cd= 0.6347
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Vtheo(*10^-4 m3/s)

Cd V/S Re
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Cd

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
Re

Delta h V/s Vexp and Vtheo

180
160
140
Delta h(*10^-3m)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Vexp(blue), Vtheo(yellow) (*10^-4 m3/s)

3)Nozzle-meter
 Vexp V/S Vtheo
6

5
Vexp (*10^-4 m3/s)

2 Slope=Cd = 0.8545

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Vtheo (*10^-4 m3/s)

Cd V/s Re
0.865
0.86
0.855
0.85
Cd

0.845
0.84
0.835
0.83
0.825
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
Re

Delta h V/s Vexp and Vtheo

250

200
Delta h(*10^-3m)

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Vexp(blue), Vtheo(green) (*10^-4 m3/s)
Conclusion:
1)Venturi-meter
a) Cd value-
-The average value of Cd for Venturi-meter is 0.9
- From Vexp V/S Vtheo graph we can conclude that experimental flowrate varies linearly with
theoretical flowrate. The slope of this graph gives us the value of Cd= 0.9677
̇ = 0.9𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 . From this we can conclude that theoretical value and
- Cd=0.9 implies that 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
experimental value of flowrates are almost equal. Due to this there are less losses in venturi-meter.
The losses are less due to gradual increase and decrease in area of cross section of venturi-meter.
b) Re (Reynolds number) value
-the Reynolds numbers obtained in this experiment are more than 4,000 due to which the flow is
turbulent. As flow rate increases Reynolds number also increases and the flow becomes more
turbulent.
c) From conclusion b) and Cd V/S Re graph we can conclude that Cd remains constant with increase
in Reynolds number in turbulent flow.

2)Orifice-meter
a) Cd value-
-The average value of Cd for Orifice-meter is 0.6
- From Vexp V/S Vtheo graph we can conclude that experimental flowrate varies linearly with
theoretical flowrate. The slope of this graph gives us the value of Cd= 0.6347
̇ = 0.6𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 . From this we can conclude that there is significant
- Cd=0.6 implies that 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
difference between theoretical value and experimental value of flowrates. Due to this there are
more losses in Orifice-meter. The losses are less due to sudden increase and decrease in area of
cross section of Orifice-meter.
b) Re (Reynolds number) value
-the Reynolds numbers obtained in this experiment are more than 4,000 due to which the flow is
turbulent. As flow rate increases Reynolds number also increases and the flow becomes more
turbulent.
c) From conclusion b) and Cd V/S Re graph we can conclude that Cd remains constant with increase
in Reynolds number in turbulent flow.
3) Nozzle-meter
a) Cd value-
-The average value of Cd for Nozzle -meter is 0.85
- From Vexp V/S Vtheo graph we can conclude that experimental flowrate varies linearly with
theoretical flowrate. The slope of this graph gives us the value of Cd= 0.855
̇ = 0.85𝑉̇𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 . From this we can conclude that the efficiency of Nozzle-
- Cd=0.85 implies that 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑝
meter is between Orifice and Venturi-meter. This is so because cross sectional area of Nozzle-meter
decreases gradually and then there is a sudden increase in cross sectional area.
b) Re (Reynolds number) value
-the Reynolds numbers obtained in this experiment are more than 4,000 due to which the flow is
turbulent. As flow rate increases Reynolds number also increases and the flow becomes more
turbulent.
c) From conclusion b) and Cd V/S Re graph we can conclude that Cd remains constant with increase
in Reynolds number in turbulent flow

Finally we can conclude that Venturi-meter is the most efficient flowmeter which gives very
accurate readings and is sophisticated to construct.

References
1. https://www.academia.edu/18747069/CHE241_-
_Lab_Report_Flowmeter_Measurement_Apparatus_FM101_2015_
2. Frank M. White, “Fluid Mechanics”, McGraw-Hill, New York.
3. https://aybu.edu.tr/muhendislik/makina/contents/files/mce%20403-
experiment%20of%20flow%20measurement%20methods.pdf
4. https://www.coursehero.com/file/30339534/Lab-Report-Flowmeter-Measurement/