RUEL RAMILE CADAPAN

Master of Arts in Science Education

EXAMINATION IN ADVANCED ECOLOGY

1. Differentiate the sexual and asexual reproduction. Give examples.(10 points)

Sexual and asexual reproduction are two mechanisms that produce offsprings of the living organisms.
During sexual reproduction, two types of gametes, known as male and female gametes, are formed inside
the male and female reproductive organs, respectively. Diploid germs cells produce haploid gametes by the
cell division process called meiosis. During asexual reproduction, diploid somatic cells are divided by mitosis,
in order to produce new diploid daughter cells. The main difference between sexual and asexual reproduction
is that sexual reproduction utilizes meiosis in the cell division and fusion of haploid gametes in order to
produce the diploid zygote whereas asexual reproduction utilizes mitosis as their cell division mechanism,
maintaining a uniform ploidy throughout all cell generations.

Summary of the Differences Between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Type of Organisms
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is found in almost all the animals, plants and other life forms
including fungi, bacteria, and protists.
Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction is found in lower animals and plants, fungi, protozoans, and
bacteria.

Number of Parents
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is a biparental process.
Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction is a uniparental process.

Formation of Gametes
Sexual Reproduction: Male and female gametes are formed during sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: Gametes are not formed during asexual reproduction.

Reproductive Units
Sexual Reproduction: Germ cells act as reproductive units during sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: Somatic cells act as reproductive units during asexual reproduction.

Fertilization
Sexual Reproduction: Fertilization of male and female gametes occurs in order to obtain the zygote.
Asexual Reproduction: No fertilization occurs during asexual reproduction.

Type
Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis, syngamy, and conjugation are involved in the sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: Budding, vegetative reproduction, fragmentation and spore production are the types
of asexual reproduction.

Genetic Variation
Sexual Reproduction: Chromosomal crossing over lets the genetic recombination to occur, introducing
genetic variations to the offspring.
Asexual Reproduction: Daughter cells are genetically identical to their parents due to the involvement of
mitosis during the cell division.

Reproductive Organs
Sexual Reproduction: Prominent male and female reproductive organs are required for sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: Reproductive organs are not required for asexual reproduction.

2. Give the 5 largest/biggest desert of the earth and their locations. (5 points)

Antarctica - 14,000,000 sq km

Antarctica is the largest desert in the world, covering 14,000,000 square kilometers. It is located in
the extremity of the southern hemisphere and contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica receives about
200 ml of annual precipitation. 98% of Antarctica is covered in by ice. Antarctica has no permanent residents.

Arctic Desert - 13,985,000 sq km

The Arctic Desert is the second largest desert in the world. This polar desert covers an area of
13,985,000 square kilometers. The desert is located in the North Pole and partly occupies parts of territories
claimed by Canada, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and Alaska. The Arctic Desert receives
precipitation of less than 50 cm per annum in the form of snow. The Arctic experiences cold winters and cool
summers with temperatures of −40 degrees Celsius in winter and 15 degrees Celsius in the summer.

Sahara Desert - 9,000,000 sq km

The Sahara Desert occupies 9,000,000 square kilometers. It is the third largest desert in the world.
The Sahara Desert is also the world’s largest hot desert. The desert occupies most of North Africa. It is bound
by the Red Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Sahel to the south and the Mediterranean to
the North. The average hot temperature of the Sahara exceeds 38 to 40 degrees Celsius during the hottest
months. Most parts of the Sahara receive less than 20 mm of rainfall with its central and eastern part having
no precipitation at all.

Australian Desert - 2,700,000 sq km

The Australian Desert is the fourth largest desert in the world. These subtropical deserts occupy
2,700,000 square kilometers which translates to about approximately 18% of the Australian mainland. The
deserts are situated in the interior lowlands and western plateaus of the country. The Australian Deserts
receive more than 100 mm of rainfall per annum. They include the Great Victoria Desert, Great Sandy Desert,
Tanami Desert, Simpson Desert, and many other deserts.

Arabian Desert - 2,330,000 sq km

The Arabian Desert is the fifth largest desert in the world. The desert is located in western Asia and covers
an area of about 2,330,000 square kilometers. This subtropical desert occupies most of the Arabian
Peninsula. The climate of the Arabian Desert is characterized by very high heat with seasonal night freezes.
The major parts of the desert receive annual precipitation of around 100 mm per year.

3. Give example of food chain and food web. (10 points)

Food web consists of many food chains while food chain only follows just one path as animals find food.
eg: A hawk eats a snake, which has eaten a frog, which has eaten a grasshopper, which has eaten grass.

A food web shows the many different paths plants and animals are connected.
eg: A hawk might also eat a mouse, a squirrel, a frog or some other animal. The snake may eat a beetle, a
caterpillar, or some other animal. And so on for all the other animals in the food chain.
A food web is several food chains connected together.

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4. Give the importance of grassland. (5 points)

Grasslands are globally important because they are a natural Carbon Sink and natural carbon sinks are
an important part of a natural process called Carbon Cycle.

In the carbon cycle, earth both emits and re-captures and stores large quantities of Carbon Dioxide, also
known as CO2, from the earth’s atmosphere thereby keeping the global temperature more or less in balance.”

Grasslands provide important services and roles including as water catchments, biodiversity reserves,
for cultural and recreational needs, and potentially a carbon sink to alleviate greenhouse gas emissions.
Inevitably, such functions may conflict with management for production of livestock products. Much of the
increasing global demand for meat and milk, particularly from developing countries, will have to be supplied
from grassland ecosystems, and this will provide difficult challenges. Increased production of meat and milk
generally requires increased intake of metabolizable energy, and thus increased voluntary intake and/or
digestibility of diets selected by grazing animals. These will require more widespread and effective application
of improved management.
 5. What are the disadvantages of global warming? (10 points)

Climate change consequences are plotted against increases in global mean temperature (°C) after 1990.
Each column corresponds to a specific RFC and represents additional outcomes associated with increasing
global mean temperature. The color scheme represents progressively increasing levels of risk and should
not be interpreted as representing ‘‘dangerous anthropogenic interference,’’ which is a value judgment. The
historical period 1900 to 2000 warmed by 0.6 °C and led to some impacts. It should be noted that this figure
addresses only how risks change as global mean temperature increases, not how risks might change at
different rates of warming. Furthermore, it does not address when impacts might be realized, nor does it
account for the effects of different development pathways on vulnerability.

 Risk to Unique and Threatened Systems addresses the potential for increased damage to or
irreversible loss of unique and threatened systems, such as coral reefs, tropical glaciers, endangered
species, unique ecosystems, biodiversity hotspots, small island states, and indigenous communities.

 Risk of Extreme Weather Events tracks increases in extreme events with substantial consequences for
societies and natural systems. Examples include increase in the frequency, intensity, or consequences
of heat waves, floods, droughts, wildfires, or tropical cyclones.

 Distribution of Impacts concerns disparities of impacts. Some regions, countries, and populations face
greater harm from climate change, whereas other regions, countries, or populations would be much less
harmed—and some may benefit; the magnitude of harm can also vary within regions and across sectors
and populations.

 Aggregate Damages covers comprehensive measures of impacts. Impacts distributed across the globe
can be aggregated into a single metric, such as monetary damages, lives affected, or lives lost.
Aggregation techniques vary in their treatment of equity of outcomes, as well as treatment of impacts that
are not easily quantified.

 Risks of Large-Scale Discontinuities represents the likelihood that certain phenomena (sometimes
called tipping points) would occur, any of which may be accompanied by very large impacts. These
phenomena include the deglaciation (partial or complete) of the West Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets
and major changes in some components of the Earth’s climate system, such as a substantial reduction
or collapse of the North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation.

6. Give the importance of wetlands. (10 points)

Wetlands prevent flooding by holding water much like a sponge. By doing so, wetlands help keep river
levels normal and filter and purify the surface water. Wetlands accept water during storms and whenever
water levels are high. When water levels are low, wetlands slowly release water.

A wetland also release vegetative matter into rivers, which helps feed fish in the rivers. Wetlands help to
counter balance the human effect on rivers by rejuvenating them and surrounding ecosystems. Many animals
that live in other habitats use wetlands for migration or reproduction. For example, herons nest in large old
trees, but need shallow areas in order to wade for fish and aquatic life. Amphibians often forage in upland
areas but return to the water to mate and reproduce.

While wetlands are truly unique, they must not be thought of as isolated and independent habitat. To the
contrary, wetlands are vital to the health of all other biomes and to wildlife and humans everywhere. Unlike
most other habitats, wetlands directly improve other ecosystems. Because of its many cleansing benefits,
wetlands have been compared to kidneys. The analogy is good one. Wetlands and kidneys both help control
water flow and cleanse the system.

7. Describe tundra, the organisms and the plants. (5 points)

Plants and animals living in the Tundra must be able to adapt to extreme cold, brisk winds, very short
growing seasons and the rather harsh conditions found in this Biome. They have to have special adaptations
to allow them to live in extreme conditions and low temperatures. Most animal and plant life in this biome
have insulation in the way of hair, fuzz, fur or feathers. (The Tundra can also be found in the Alpine regions
at high altitudes on mountains where trees don’t grow).

Plant in the Tundra Biome

Plants in the Tundra have adapted in a variety of ways. They grow close together, low to the ground and they
remain small. Many plants in the biome have a wax type of fuzzy, hairy coating on them which helps to shield
them from the cold and the wind. This coating also helps them to retain heat and moisture and it protects the
plant seeds to allow for reproduction. Plants found here will typically have small leaves which helps the plants
to retain moisture. Only the top layer of soil thaws out in the Tundra, below that is the permafrost, therefore
the plants have very shallow root systems. Plants like lichens and moss can survive on bare rock with a bit
of moisture. Most of the plants in the Tundra Biome are perennials and don’t die off in the winter, they have
long life cycles to help with the short growing season.

Examples of Plants found in the Tundra: Tundra means treeless, therefore most of the plants in the tundra
are low growing plants. Arctic Moss, Arctic Willow, Caribou Moss, Labrador Tea, Arctic Poppy, Cotton Grass,
Lichens and Moss.

Animal in the Tundra Biome

Animals have many adaptations to survive in this harsh environment. Animals need shelter and insulation in
the Tundra. The animals here tend to have thicker and warmer feathers and fur. Many of them have larger
bodies and shorter arms, legs and tails which helps them retain their heat better and prevent heat loss. Many
of the birds of the tundra have two coats of feathers to help keep them warm. Many animals of the Tundra
have feet that are lined with fur to help keep them warm. Some of the animals of the Tundra (bears, marmot,
arctic squirrels) will hibernate for the winter and others will burrow (lemmings, ermine). Many of the insects
of the Tundra will spend their entire life buried in the soil, rocks or plants which acts as a shelter for them.

Examples of Animals found in the Tundra: Brown Bear, Polar Bear, Caribou, Moose, Wolverine, Lynx,
Arctic Foxes, Red Foxes, Musk Oxen, Ptarmigans, Ermine, Snowy Owl.
 8. Describe taiga, the organisms and the plants. (5 points)

Plants and animals living in the Taiga must be able to adapt to cold winters with snow, warm summers
and a relatively short growing seasons. There is some permafrost and layers of rock just below the surface
in some parts of the taiga making drainage difficult. The Taiga Biome receives limited precipitation but it has
many lakes and swamps that will attract birds. The soil is quite acidic and has few minerals. It is covered by
a deep layer of partially decomposed conifer needles.

Plant in the Taiga Biome

The Taiga, also referred to as the Boreal Forest has mostly evergreens / conifer trees which contain
needles. Needles will retain moisture and shed snow. The waxy coating on the tree needles prevents
evaporation. The darkness of the needles helps to attract more sun. Many of the branches on evergreen
trees droop down allowing the shedding of snow. The seeds, which allow for reproduction are found within
the protective cones of the evergreen trees. The roots of the confers will grow downwards which protects the
trees from the winds that can be harsh at times in the Taiga’s winters.

Examples of Plants found in the Taiga: Confers (Evergreen, Spruce, Fir and Pine) Blueberry
Bushes, Cowberry Bushes, Bilberry Bushes, Lichens, Mosses, some Maple, Elm, Willow, and Oak trees.

Animal in the Taiga Biome

Animals have many adaptations to survive the Taiga Biome. Many birds of the Taiga will migrate
south to avoid the cold winters. Other animals will burrow underground (rodents, shrews). The Snowshoe
Hare adapts by changing color according to the season as a type of camouflage (brownish in the summer
and white in the winter) to protect itself from predators. Many of the birds will feed upon the conifer seeds
and berries. Birds like the geese, water fowl, woodpecker and ducks will migrate south to avoid the long, cold
winter. Some of the animals of the Taiga will store extra layers of fat and fur to help keep them warm over
the cold winters. Many of the animals have developed large feet or hooves to help them move in the often
deep and abundant winter snow.

Examples of Animals found in the Taiga: Snowshoe Hare, Lynx, Wolves, Foxes, Elk, Deer,
Wolverine, Eagles, Falcons, Siberian Tigers, River Otter, Bobcat, insects including mosquitos and ants.

Thank you, Ma’am. Godbless 