Magsaysay National High School

Requirements for
Completion

Submitted By: Ruben Gelacio Jr.

Submitted to: Mr Raymond Caling

Date: January 13, 2020

 Big Bang Theory:
Evolution of Our Universe

How was our Universe created? How did it come to be the seemingly
infinite place we know of today? And what will become of it, ages from now?
These are the questions that have been puzzling philosophers and scholars
since the beginning the time, and led to some pretty wild and interesting
theories. Today, the consensus among scientists, astronomers and
cosmologists is that the Universe as we know it was created in a massive
explosion that not only created the majority of matter, but the physical laws
that govern our ever-expanding cosmos. This is known as The Big Bang
Theory.

For almost a century, the term has been bandied about by scholars and
non-scholars alike. This should come as no surprise, seeing as how it is the
most accepted theory of our origins. But what exactly does it mean? How
was our Universe conceived in a massive explosion, what proof is there of
this, and what does the theory say about the long-term projections for our
Universe?

The basics of the Big Bang theory are fairly simple. In short, the Big
Bang hypothesis states that all of the current and past matter in the
Universe came into existence at the same time, roughly 13.8 billion years
ago. At this time, all matter was compacted into a very small ball with
infinite density and intense heat called a Singularity. Suddenly, the
Singularity began expanding, and the universe as we know it began.
 Timeline of the Big Bang Theory

This all began roughly 13.8 billion years ago, and is thus considered to
be the age of the universe. Through the testing of theoretical principles,
experiments involving particle accelerators and high-energy states, and
astronomical studies that have observed the deep universe, scientists have
constructed a timeline of events that began with the Big Bang and has led to
the current state of cosmic evolution.

Singularity Epoch
Also known as the Planck Epoch (or Planck Era), this was the earliest
known period of the Universe. At this time, all matter was condensed on a
single point of infinite density and extreme heat. During this period, it is
believed that the quantum effects of gravity dominated physical interactions
and that no other physical forces were of equal strength to gravitation.

IFLATION Epoch
With the creation of the first fundamental forces of the universe, the
Inflation Epoch began, lasting from 10-32 seconds in Planck time to an
unknown point. Most cosmological models suggest that the Universe at this
point was filled homogeneously with a high-energy density, and that the
incredibly high temperatures and pressure gave rise to rapid expansion and
cooling.

Cooling Epoch
As the universe continued to decrease in density and temperature, the
energy of each particle began to decrease and phase transitions continued
until the fundamental forces of physics and elementary particles changed
into their present form. Since particle energies would have dropped to values
that can be obtained by particle physics experiments, this period onward is
subject to less speculation.

Structure Epoch
Over the course of the several billion years that followed, the slightly
denser regions of the almost uniformly distributed matter of the Universe
began to become gravitationally attracted to each other. They therefore
grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other
astronomical structures that we regularly observe today.

Today, cosmologists have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many

of the parameters of the Big Bang Theory model, not to mention the age of
the Universe itself. And it all began with the noted observation that massive
stellar objects, many light years distant, were slowly moving away from us.
And while we still are not sure how it will all end, we do know that on a
cosmological scale, that won’t be for a long, LONG time!
 Magsaysay National High School

Requirements for
Completion

Submitted By: Manuel Amurao

Submitted to: Mr Raymond Caling

Date: January 13, 2020

 The Big Bang and the Early Universe

The Big Bang is a theory that describes the beginnings of

our universe. It contends that the universe began with a
primordial explosion that occurred about 13 billion years ago.
The original core of the explosion was very small and
tremendously hot, composed entirely of high-energy
radiation. As the universe expanded and cooled over the first
three minutes, protons and neutrons were created out of that
energy. These formed the nuclei of hydrogen and its isotopes.
After a million years or so, the universe cooled enough to
permit electrons to bind with protons to form neutral
hydrogen atoms, along with traces of helium and other light
elements. Unlike free electrons, bound electrons in atoms
can interact with radiation only at a few particular
wavelengths. Thus, most of the original radiation created by
the Big Bang became decoupled (that is, disconnected) from
matter after the formation of hydrogen.

As the universe continued to expand over many billions

of years, all components of this radiation (called cosmic
background radiation) were stretched toward much longer
wavelengths and lower energies. Today, most of that original
radiation is concentrated in the microwave and millimeter
wave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In 1965, Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson found this microwave background
by accident while searching for sources of noise in satellite
communications. (Although Penzias and Wilson were the first
 to find the cosmic background radiation, it had been
predicted years earlier by Robert Dicke.) Their experimental
discovery provided direct evidence for the Big Bang theory,
establishing it as the scientifically accepted view of an
evolving universe.

The framework for the Big Bang theory is provided by

Einstein’s work in general relativity that united space and
time. In 1922, the Russian mathematician Alexander
Friedman corrected an oversight in Einstein’s calculations
and demonstrated that an expanding universe would
theoretically be possible. At about the same time, astronomer
Edwin Hubble in California was making observations of
distant galaxies that showed the universe to be expanding
uniformly away from us in all directions. Russian-American
physicist George Gamow and his colleagues predicted the
existence of the cosmic background radiation in the 1940s,
but that prediction languished in obscurity for many years
until Penzias and Wilson made their momentous discovery.

Recent observations by the Cosmic Background Explorer

(COBE) satellite and other instruments show that the intensity
of radiation is not uniform from all directions in space. By
studying data of this type, astronomers expect to learn how
the large-scale structure of our present universe—galactic
clusters separated by voids of empty space—could have
evolved out of the original fluctuations created by the Big
Bang.
 Star Facts:
The Basics of Star Names and Stellar Evolution
Stars are giant, luminous spheres of plasma. There are billions of them —
including our own sun — in the Milky Way Galaxy. And there are billions of
galaxies in the universe. So far, we have learned that hundreds also have
planets orbiting them.

History of observations
Since the dawn of recorded civilization, stars played a key role in
religion and proved vital to navigation. Astronomy, the study of the heavens,
may be the most ancient of the sciences. The invention of the telescope and
the discovery of the laws of motion and gravity in the 17th century prompted
the realization that stars were just like the sun, all obeying the same laws of
physics. In the 19th century, photography and spectroscopy — the study of
the wavelengths of light that objects emit — made it possible to investigate
the compositions and motions of stars from afar, leading to the development
of astrophysics.

In 1937, the first radio telescope was built, enabling astronomers to

detect otherwise invisible radiation from stars. The first gamma-ray
telescope launched in 1961, pioneering the study of star explosions
(supernovae). Also in the 1960s, astronomers commenced infrared
observations using balloon-borne telescopes, gathering information about
stars and other objects based on their heat emissions; the first infrared
telescope (the Infrared Astronomical Satellite) launched in 1983.

Star naming
Ancient cultures saw patterns in the heavens that resembled people,
animals or common objects — constellations that came to represent figures
 from myth, such as Orion the Hunter, a hero in Greek mythology.
Astronomers now often use constellations in the naming of stars. The
International Astronomical Union, the world authority for assigning names to
celestial objects, officially recognizes 88 constellations. Usually, the
brightest star in a constellation has "alpha," the first letter of the Greek
alphabet, as part of its scientific name. The second brightest star in a
constellation is typically designated "beta," the third brightest "gamma," and
so on until all the Greek letters are used, after which numerical designations
follow.

A number of stars have possessed names since antiquity —

Betelgeuse, for instance, means "the hand (or the armpit) of the giant" in
Arabic. It is the brightest star in Orion, and its scientific name is Alpha
Orionis. Also, different astronomers over the years have compiled star
catalogs that use unique numbering systems. The Henry Draper Catalog,
named after a pioneer in astrophotography, provides spectral classification
and rough positions for 272,150 stars and has been widely used of by the
astronomical community for over half a century. The catalog designates
Betelgeuse as HD 39801.

Star formation
A star develops from a giant, slowly rotating cloud that is made up
entirely or almost entirely of hydrogen and helium. Due to its own
gravitational pull, the cloud behind to collapse inward, and as it shrinks, it
spins more and more quickly, with the outer parts becoming a disk while the
innermost parts become a roughly spherical clump. According to NASA, this
collapsing material grows hotter and denser, forming a ball-shaped protostar.
When the heat and pressure in the protostar reaches about 1.8 million
degrees Fahrenheit (1 million degrees Celsius), atomic nuclei that normally
repel each other start fusing together, and the star ignites. Nuclear fusion
converts a small amount of the mass of these atoms into extraordinary
amounts of energy — for instance, 1 gram of mass converted entirely to
energy would be equal to an explosion of roughly 22,000 tons of TNT.
 STAR FORMATION
Star formation is the process by which dense regions
within molecular clouds in interstellar space, sometimes
referred to as "stellar nurseries" or "star-forming regions",
collapse and form stars. As a branch of astronomy, star
formation includes the study of the interstellar medium (ISM)
and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star
formation process, and the study of protostars and young
stellar objects as its immediate products. It is closely related
to planet formation, another branch of astronomy. Star
formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a
single star, must also account for the statistics of binary
stars and the initial mass function. Most stars do not form in
isolation but as part of a group of stars referred as star
clusters or stellar associations.

Interstellar clouds
A spiral galaxy like the Milky Way contains stars, stellar
remnants, and a diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) of gas and
dust. The interstellar medium consists of 10−4 to 106
particles per cm3 and is typically composed of roughly 70%
hydrogen by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting
of helium. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace
amounts of heavier elements that were ejected from stars as
they passed beyond the end of their main sequence lifetime.
Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form
clouds, or diffuse nebulae, where star formation takes
place.In contrast to spirals, an elliptical galaxy loses the cold
component of its interstellar medium within roughly a billion
years, which hinders the galaxy from forming diffuse nebulae
except through mergers with other galaxies.

Cloud collapse
An interstellar cloud of gas will remain in hydrostatic
equilibrium as long as the kinetic energy of the gas pressure
is in balance with the potential energy of the internal
gravitational force. Mathematically this is expressed using
the virial theorem, which states that, to maintain equilibrium,
the gravitational potential energy must equal twice the
internal thermal energy. If a cloud is massive enough that the
gas pressure is insufficient to support it, the cloud will
undergo gravitational collapse. The mass above which a cloud
will undergo such collapse is called the Jeans mass. The
Jeans mass depends on the temperature and density of the
cloud, but is typically thousands to tens of thousands of solar
masses.[4] During cloud collapse dozens to ten thousands of
stars form more or less simultaneously which is observable in
so-called embedded clusters. The end product of a core
collapse is an open cluster of stars.

Protostar

A protostellar cloud will continue to collapse as long as

the gravitational binding energy can be eliminated. This
 excess energy is primarily lost through radiation. However,
the collapsing cloud will eventually become opaque to its own
radiation, and the energy must be removed through some
other means. The dust within the cloud becomes heated to
temperatures of 60–100 K, and these particles radiate at
wavelengths in the far infrared where the cloud is
transparent. Thus the dust mediates the further collapse of
the cloud.During the collapse, the density of the cloud
increases towards the center and thus the middle region
becomes optically opaque first. This occurs when the density
is about 10−13 g / cm3. A core region, called the First
Hydrostatic Core, forms where the collapse is essentially
halted. It continues to increase in temperature as determined
by the virial theorem. The gas falling toward this opaque
region collides with it and creates shock waves that further
heat the core.
 Atomic theory
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the
nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units
called atoms. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and
entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries
in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were
made up of atoms.

The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos,
meaning "indivisible". 19th century chemists began using the term in
connection with the growing number of irreducible chemical elements.
Around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with
electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called
"uncuttable atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic
particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist
separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments, such as
neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from
existing at all.

Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists later invented the

term "elementary particles" to describe the "uncuttable", though not
indestructible, parts of an atom. The field of science which studies
subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists
hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.
 John Dalton

Dalton's atomic theory proposed that all matter was composed of

atoms, indivisible and indestructible building blocks. While all atoms of an
element were identical, different elements had atoms of differing size and
mass

Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford overturned Thomson's model in 1911 with his well-known

gold foil experiment in which he demonstrated that the atom has a tiny and
heavy nucleus. Rutherford designed an experiment to use the alpha particles
emitted by a radioactive element as probes to the unseen world of atomic
structure.
 J.J. Thompson

J.J. Thomson is credited with the discovery of the electron, the

negatively-charged particle in the atom. He is known for the Thomson atomic
theory. ... In 1904, Thomson proposed a model of the atom as a sphere of
positive matter with electrons positioned based on electrostatic forces.

Niels Bohr

In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a theory for the hydrogen atom based on
quantum theory that energy is transferred only in certain well defined
quantities. Electrons should move around the nucleus but only in prescribed
 orbits. ... Bohr's theory could explain why atoms emitted light in fixed
wavelengths

james Chadwick

This atomic model is known as the quantum mechanical model of the

atom. ... In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded beryllium atoms with alpha
particles. An unknown radiation was produced. Chadwick interpreted this
radiation as being composed of particles with a neutral electrical charge and
the approximate mass of a proton.
 Atomic theory
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of
the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete
units called atoms. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient
Greece and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century
when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did
indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.

The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos,
meaning "indivisible". 19th century chemists began using the term in
connection with the growing number of irreducible chemical elements.
Around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with
electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-
called "uncuttable atom" was actually a conglomerate of various
subatomic particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which
can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme
environments, such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and
pressure prevents atoms from existing at all.
 John Dalton

Dalton's atomic theory proposed that all matter was

composed of atoms, indivisible and indestructible building
blocks. While all atoms of an element were identical,
different elements had atoms of differing size and mass

Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford overturned Thomson's model in 1911 with his

well-known gold foil experiment in which he demonstrated
that the atom has a tiny and heavy nucleus. Rutherford
designed an experiment to use the alpha particles emitted by
 a radioactive element as probes to the unseen world of
atomic structure.

J.J. Thompson

J.J. Thomson is credited with the discovery of the

electron, the negatively-charged particle in the atom. He is
known for the Thomson atomic theory. ... In 1904, Thomson
proposed a model of the atom as a sphere of positive matter
with electrons positioned based on electrostatic forces.

Niels Bohr
 In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a theory for the hydrogen atom
based on quantum theory that energy is transferred only in certain
well defined quantities. Electrons should move around the nucleus but
only in prescribed orbits. ... Bohr's theory could explain why atoms
emitted light in fixed wavelengths

James Chadwick

This atomic model is known as the quantum mechanical

model of the atom. ... In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded
beryllium atoms with alpha particles. An unknown radiation
was produced. Chadwick interpreted this radiation as being
composed of particles with a neutral electrical charge and the
approximate mass of a proton.