ARCUATE TECHNIQUES IN PALATIAL

STRUCTURES OF WESTERN RAJASTHAN

Salim Zaweed

The paper is based on physical explorations and survey of the palace-

complexes of Western Rajasthan, viz., Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner and
Nagaur.1 It makes an attempt to examine the various arcuate techniques
encountered in these buildings constructed between 1532 and 1762.
Through such a study an attempt is made to discern the various types
of arcuate styles developed or used at different times as part of
‘Rajasthani Architecture’ and then assess the impact of the Mughal
architecture on them.
The scholars of Indian architecture, including James Fergusson
(1876),2 E. B. Havell (1913),3 Ananda K. Coomaraswamy (1927),4 and
Oscar Reuther (1925)5 while mentioning Rajput Architecture, had very
little to offer on the structures we have surveyed. More extensive work
was carried out by Herman Goetz (1940-50), who in the 1940-50, wrote
many articles on Rajput art and architecture.6 However his studies focus
more on the essential elements of these buildings rather than their
inspirations and sources.Thenature of ornamentation and art of
embellishing the surface of the architectural monuments, has not
received much attention. The only except to this was G. H. R.
Tillotson’s7 detailed work on Rajput Palaces and a thesis, later published
in the form of book, by Sikha Jain.8 Apart from these no substantial
work appears to have been done on the buildings in question.
The palace-complexes of this region are not all of the same type.
The palaces of Jaisalmer, Jodhpur [also known as Mehrangarh] and
Bikaner contain a palace each which is the largest and principal one
and served as the main residence of the ruler and his wives and courtiers.
It is normally divided into two sections; the women’s quarters [the
zanana or rawala] and the men’s quarters [the mardana]. The zanana
is always secluded from the other parts of the palace-complex through
an angled entrance [deorhi]. Often such structures are divided into
separate apartments to accommodate each queen and suite of rooms
for concubines and maids. This particular portion of the palace is fully
protected through stone-screen [perforatedjali] windows. The men’s
quarters- are divided into several rooms, included diwan-i am, diwan-
i khas and private apartments of the ruler. This part of the palace, usually
also includes an armoury [Sileh Khana], a treasury [DaulatKhana],
other offices and copious store rooms. Sometimes it includes barracks
and stables, as in the case of Mehrangarh and Bikaner palaces. These
palaces-complexes are formed by an assemblage of multiple courtyards
876 IHC: Proceedings, 74th Session, 2013
raised one upon another without any sense of geometry and regularity.
On the other hand the buildings of Nagaur are dispersed in a large
space according to a strong geometric pattern. The Mughal influence
upon the arrangement of buildings with open spaces around, often
connected by arcades or colonnades is quite obvious. The core area or
palace precinct is located in the centre of the fort towards the south.
The next larger portion includes the houses of concubines, maids and
sarai’s with their own courts. Then comes a series of ancillary buildings
and enclosures, such as barracks and offices [daftar] etc.
In Marwar, a number of palaces constructed by various rulers have
survived from medieval times. In the second half of the twelfth century,
RawalJaisal (1152-1167), Rajputs of Bhatti clan, was the first who chose
a site over the western margin of the desert for erecting a strong fort9and
named it Jaisalmer 10 . The other fort-palace complexes, which
showconsiderable developments in the field of architecture,were
Mandor11 and Jodhpur.12 In the subsequent period the palaces of Bikaner,
established by RaoBika (1485-1504) and Nagaur13ruled by the Jodhpur
sovereigns, can be taken to be prominent representatives of ‘Rajput
Architecture’.
The surviving edifices within the fort-palace complexes in
Mehrangarh, Bikaner14, Jaisalmer and Nagaurwere the contribution of
more or less thirty rulers. However, the period when building
construction activity took place was confined to a few reigns only.
Thus we haveRaoMaldev (1532-62), Jaswant Singh (1638-76) and Ajit
Singh (1678-1724) in Mehrangarh fort15; Raja Rai Singh (1573-62),
Raja Karan Singh (1631-69), Raja Anup Singh (1669-98) and Raja Gaj
Singh (1746-87) in Bikaner fort16 during where reigns buildings were
erected. The structures in Nagaur fort17 were erected mainly under
RaoMaldev(1532-62) and Bakht Singh (1725-51). Similarly, the reigns
of Maldev (1550-61) and MaharawalAkhai Singh (1722-62) in Jaisalmer
fort18 shows the predominance.
The earliest structures of Marwarbuilt by RaoMaldev (1532-
62)hadplain trabeated openings which were also the general prevalent
form among the buildings of Mehrangarh and Nagaur19. Some trabeated
openings of Nagaur are also composed of moulded brackets to support
the horizontal beam in Dhupi Pol. As far as the arches are concerned,
there are four types, i.e., pointed, four-centred Mughal, ogee and multi-
foliated. The pointed arches of this period have mouldings at their end.
While some pointed archesare also used in the Pols (gates) of Nagaur
fort such as, Bichhli Pol, Kachehri Pol and Suraj Polin a form where
the apex of the arch has ogee curve ( For detail see Table I). The four-
centred Mughal arch employed in the Amriti Pol of Mehrangarh fort is
also attributed to this period.Thethree-foil cusped arches used under
 Archaeology 877
RaoMaldev (1532-62) in Nagaur to embellish the Sire Pol, Bichhli Pol,
Kachehri Pol, Suraj Pol and service quarters are perhaps the result of
later renovations. This is not a true arch but isreally a form of an
extended bracket.
The structures built during the reign ofMaldev (1550-61) in
Jaisalmer, apart from the trabeated entrances, also have an arch where
the central portion is flat with side curves having foliation. These can
be divided into two sub-categories on the basis of their foliations, viz.,
two and three foliationsfound in MotiMahal and TripoliaMahal
respectively.
In the minor structural remains of Raja Rai Singh (1573-1612) of
Bikaner towards northern side of palace complexconsisting of stables,
guard rooms, RaiNivas and various gates, one finds two new arcuate
styles. The three-centred arches are used in the entrances of
KarkhanaKalanand old portion of Rai Niwas, whereas the Chand Pol
and guard rooms have semi-circular arches.
We encounter acute difficulty over the dating of the structures at
Nagaur where particular portions are attributed to rulers of the
eighteenth century or laterbut withfrequent renovations by subsequent
rulers.The most extensive contributions are made by Raja Gaj Singh I
(1619-38) of Jodhpur. The period shows a new type of an arch which
we can term‘flat arch’, which is exclusively found in the Hadi Rani
Mahal. These are actually simplerectangular articulations given an arch
form by filling up the two upper corners. The same type was later used
in the MotiMahalat Jaisalmer fort built during the reign
ofMaharawalMulraj II (1762-1819).
From the reign of Raja Karan Singh (1631-69) at Bikaner, we begin
to see full fledgedborrowings of ‘Mughal’ arcuate techniques, especially
those used during the reign of Shahjahan. The earlier four-centred
Mughal arches are now constituted with half-dome depth as constructed
in DaulatParol.But this is a single example and never used again by
the later rulers. The other type of arch which is profusely used in this
period is the multi-foliated arch which, again can be divided into three
sub-categories on the basis of foliations: four, five and six cusps. These
cusped arches rest over balustradesor fluted columns.
The AnupMahalChowk, BadalMahaland Kachehri(south range)
added by Anup Singh (1669-98) in Bikaner, on the other hand are built
in a classical Mughal style where most of the arcuate forms are already
employed. Only trefoil arch is a new feature found in AnupMahal and
Kachehri.
In the subsequent reign,ofMaharawalAkhai Singh (1722-62) in
Jaisalmer, an arch whose central portion is flat and side curves have
878 IHC: Proceedings, 74th Session, 2013
foliations earlier used by Maldeo, now goes more elaborate where the
foliations are upgraded to five in almost all the structures of his period.
The next stage of development in relation to arcuate style comes
under Bakht Singh (1725-51) of Nagaur. He seems to have incorporated
several new elements which wereneither used or constructed earlier
and nor repeated by any subsequent rulers. His three-foil cusped arch
has an overhanging pendant above the capitals of twelve-faced columns.
This is exclusively constructed in a palace called Bakht Singh Mahal.
Hereafter, the structures which were constructed during the second
half of the eighteenth century or early nineteenth century in Marwar
showa multiplicity of arcuate forms through an amalgamation of
prevailing techniques. The arches get more and more elaborate during
the subsequent reigns.Among such buildings those constructed during
the reigns of Raja Gaj Singh (1746-84) of Bikaner, MaharawalMulraj
II (1762-1819) of Jaisalmer and Takhat Singh (1843-73) of Jodhpur
are important. The most prevalent arcuate style under them is that of
the multi-foliated arch where the cusps go up to seven-foil. These are
built during the period ofZorawar Singh Mahalunder Gaj Singh.
Fromour survey we have been ablenot only to trace some broad
changes in techniques but also the undeniable effects of Mughal
influence. The palace architecture of the period of RaoMaldev (1532-
62) of Jodhpur and Maldev (1550-61) of Jaisalmer shows simplicity in
its arcuate styles and other architectural elements. It was during the
rule of Raja Gaj Singh I (1619-38) of Jodhpur and Raja Karan Singh
(1631-69) of Bikaner that the crucial development in the field of arcuate
techniques took place. During this period an assimilation of prevailing
Mughal arch-types as well as innovationsbecomenoticeable. Further,
during the period from the reign of Bakht Singh (1725-51) of Nagaur
to that of Takhat Singh (1843-73) of Jodhpur, there is a trendtowards
employing many varieties of arches through an amalgamation of earlier
forms,rather than any fresh development.
One may finally conclude that apart from the influences which
Rajasthani structural elements had on the development of Mughal
architecture, as argued many scholars of architecture like Percy Brown,
Ebba Koch and Catherine Asher, Mughal architecture too in time had a
deep impact on the buildings of Rajasthan.
Arcuate Types Jodhpur
1. Trabeated entrances Lakhan Pol, Zanana Mahal (old),
Suraj Pol, Sringar Chowk, Hauda
Khana, Rooms for army personel,
Daulat Khana Chowk, Daulat Khana,
Sharad Mahal, Sileh Khana, Umaid
Mahal, Sheesh Mahal, Sardar Vilas,
Khabgah Mahal, Chandra Mahal,
Moti Mahal, Ajeet Pol (Mandor),
Zanana Mahal (Mandor), Takhat
Vilas, Jhanki Mahal, Zanana Mahal
(new) (renovated), Jalori Gate =22
b. Entrances with
brackets Sharad Mahal, Nagauri Gate =2
2. Flat arch
3. Pointed arch with
mouldings Amriti Pol, Loha Pol, Zanana Mahal Daulat Parol =1
(old), Ajeet Pol (Mandor), Merta
Gate, Sojate Gate, Jalori Gate,
Siwanchi Gate =8
a. Plain pointed
b. Pointed arch with
ogee curve at the apex
Bikaner
Suraj Pol, Guard rooms, Karkhana
Kalan, Horse stable, Har Mandir, Sur
Mandir, Rai Niwas, Phool Mahal,
Chandra Mahal, Karan Mahal, Kanwar
Pade ka Mahal, Daulat Parol, Fateh
Parol, Anup Mahal, Badal Mahal,
Catchehry, Zorawar Singh Mahal, Gaj
Mahal, Hanuman Chowk, Chhatra
Mahal =20
Suraj Pol, Chand Pol, Karkhana Kalan,
Horse Stable, Har Mandir, Karan
Parol =6
Nagaur
Service Quarters, Hadi Rani
Mahal, Akbari Mahal, Deepak
Mahal, Hammam, Abha Mahal,
Bakhat Singh Mahal, Diwan-i
Am, Jal Mahal =9
Dhupi Pol =1
Hadi Rani Mahal =1
Sire Pol, Bichhli Pol, Abha
Mahal, Bakhat Singh Mahal =4
Hammam =1
Bichhli Pol, Kachehri Pol, Suraj
Pol =3
Jaisalmer
Mardana Mahal, Paigah, Armoury,
Tripolia Mahal, Roop Mahal, Suraj
Pol, Ganesh Pol, Hawa Pol, Akhai
Vilas, Rani ka Mahal, Het Vilas,
Zanana Mahal, Moti Mahal =13
Paigah, Akhai Pol =2
Moti Mahal =1

4. Three-centred arch Sharad Mahal, Jhanki Mahal =2 Karkhana Kalan, Rai Nivas, Sarvottam Vilas, Moti Mahal =2
Archaeology

Cutchehry, Gaj Mahal =4

5. Four-centred Mughal Amriti Pol, Jai Pol, Sharad Mahal
arch =3
a. With half-dome depth
6. Trefoil arch
7. Multi-foliated arch
a.arch with two Singar Chowk, Suraj Pol, Daulat
foliation Khana, Sharad Mahal, Sileh Khana,
Umaid Mahal, Sheesh Mahal, Sardar
Vilas, Khabgah Mahal, Ajeet Pol
(Mandor), Zanana Mahal (Mandor),
Nagauri Gate =12
b. arch with three Loha Pol (renovated), Zanana
foliation Mahal (renovated), Hauda Khana,
Shastra Khana, Daulat Khana, Sharad
Mahal, Sileh Khana, Umaid Mahal, Japa
Mahal, Sardar Vilas, Takhat Vilas,
Zanana Mahal (new), Merta Gate,
Daulat Parol, Fateh Parol =2
Daulat Parol =1
Anup Mahal, Cutchehry =2
Phool Mahal (renovated), Anup Mahal=2
Hadi Rani Mahal, Akbari Mahal,
Hammam, Abha Mahal =2 Moti Mahal =1
Sarvottam Vilas, Rani ka Mahal,
Het Vilas, Moti Mahal =4
Bakhat Singh Mahal =1 Sarvottam Vilas, Moti Mahal =2
Sire Pol, Bichhli Pol, Kachehri
Pol, Suraj Pol, Service Quarters,
Baradari, Deepak Mahal, Abha
Mahal, Bakhat Singh Mahal,
Diwan-i Am, Diwan-i Khas, Jal
879

Sojate Gate, Siwanchi Gate =15 Mahal =14

Bakhat Singh Mahal =1
c. Three foliation
with overhanging
880

pendant
d. arch with four- Jai Pol (renovated), Naqqar Khana Karan Parol, Anup Mahal, Badal Hadi Rani Mahal (renovated), Diwan Khana (renovated), Akhai
foliation (renovated), Zanana Mahal Mahal, Cutchehry =4 Deepak Mahal (renovated), Vilas, Diwan-i Am, Udai Vilas,
(renovated), Sringar Chowk, Hauda Abha Mahal, Bakhat Singh Zanana Mahal, Moti Mahal =6
Khana, Palki Khana, Rooms for army Mahal, Raj Pol, Jal Mahal =6
personel, Daulat Khana Chowk, Daulat
Khana, Sharad Mahal, Japa Mahal,
Sardar Vilas, Khabgah Mahal, Mardana
Deodhi, Moti Mahal, Chandra Mahal,
Takhat Vilas, Jhanki Mahal, Zanana
Mahal (new), Jalori Gate =20

e. arch with five Zanana Mahal (renovated), Japa Karan Mahal, Kanwar Pade ka Mahal, Rani ka Mahal =1
foliation Mahal, Phool Mahal, Jhanki Mahal, Anup Mahal, Badal Mahal, Cutchehry,
Zanana Mahal (new) =5 Gaj Mahal =6

f. arch with six foliation Kanwar Pade ka Mahal, Zanana Deodhi,

Anup Mahal, Badal Mahal, Zorawar
Singh Mahal, Chhatar Mahal =6

g.arch with seven Zorawar Singh Mahal =1

foliation
h. central portion is
flat and side curves
has foliation
h1. Two foliation Gaj Mahal =1
Moti Mahal =1
h2. Three foliation Daulat Khana Chowk =1 Rai Nivas (renovated), Chandra Mahal Tripolia Mahal, Sarvottam Vilas,
(renovated), Anup Mahal (renovated), Moti Mahal =3
Badal Mahal (renovated), Cutchehry
(renovated), Zanana Deodhi (renovated),
Zorawar Singh Mahal, Hanuman Chowk,
Chhatar Mahal =9
IHC: Proceedings, 74th Session, 2013

h3. Four foliation Umaid Mahal, Japa Mahal =2 Hanuman Chowk =1 Mardana Mahal, Sarvottam Vilas,
Moti Mahal =3
h4. Five foliation Chhatar Mahal =1 Akhai Vilas, Diwan-i Am, Rani ka
Mahal, Udai Vilas, Het Vilas =5
h5. Six foliation Zorawar Singh Mahal, Chhatar Mahal =2 Moti Mahal =1
8. Semi-circular arch Sharad Mahal =1 Chand Pol, Guard rooms, Karkhana
Kalan, Phool Mahal (renovated), Karan
Mahal Chowk, Badal Mahal, Zorawar
Singh Mahal, Chhatar Mahal =8
Archaeology 881
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 Archaeology 883
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. The exploration of Jaisalmer regions was conducted in 20.08.2011 while the
Jodhpur and Bikaner area was surveyed in 17.08.2011.
2. James Fegusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 2 vols., Burgess and
R. PheneSpiers, London, 1876.
3. E.B. Havell, Indian Architecture, London, 1927.
4. Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of India and Indonesain Art, New York, 1965.
5. Oscar Reuther, IndischePalaste und Wohnhouser, Berlin, 1925. Cf. G. H. Tillotson,
The Rajput Palaces (The Development of an Architectural Style, 1450-1750),
Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1982.
6. Hermann Goetz, ‘Rajput School’, repr.Rajput Art and Architecture, ed., Jhotindra
Jain and Jutta Jain, Neubauer, Wiesbaden, 1978.
7. G.H. Tillotson, The Rajput Palaces (The Development of an Architectural Style,
1450-1750), Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1982.
8. Shikha Jain, Havelis: A Living Tradition of Rajasthan, Shubhi Publications,
Gurgaon, 2004
9. It was the fort of Jaisalmer, built on a triangular hill rises 250 feet above the
surrounding plain. For details see L. P. Mathur, Forts and Strongholds of Rajasthan,
Inter-India Publications, New Delhi, 1989, pp. 57-61; SureshwaraNand, Art and
Architecture of Jaisalmer, Research Publishers, Jodhpur, 1990, pp. 33-34, 72-73;
Chandramani Singh (ed.), op. cit., pp. 239-40; The Imperial Gazetteer of India,
vol. XIV, Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, Faridabad (New Edition),
p. 9; Inventory of Monuments and Sites of National Importance, Jaipur Circle, p.
147.
10. The town of Jaisalmer lies on latitude 26o 55' N. and longitude 77o 55' E. See K. D.
Erskine, Western Rajputana States Residency and the Bikaner Agency, Vintage
Books, 1992, pp. 37-38; The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XIV, p. 1. It came
under Mughal suzerainty during the rule of Rawal Har Rai in November, 1570
A.D. See Â’în-i Akbarî (1595), Vol. II, p. 358.
11. Mandor, the old capital of Marwar, situated on latitude 26o 21' N. and longitude
73o 2' E and five miles north of Jodhpur city. See K. D. Erskine, pp. 196-198; its
gardens, cenotaphs,etc., see H. B. W. Garrick, Report of a Tour in the Punjab and
Rajputana in 1883-84, vol. XXIII, Indological Book House, Varanasi, pp. 73-84.
12. Jodhpur was founded by RaoJodha, after shifting the capital from Mandor in samvat
1515/A.D 1459. See Chand, Lakshmi, Tawârikh Jaisalmer, Rajasthan Granthgar,
Jodhpur, 1999, p. 300; James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan or The
Central and Western Rajput States of India, II, Low Price Publications, Delhi,
1993, pp. 929-968; It lies on 24 o 37' and 27o 42' north latitude and 70o 37' and 75o
22' east longitude. For more details see M. S. Naggar, The Genealogical
Survey: Royal House of Marwar and other States, Maharaja Man Singh
PushtakPrakash Research Centre, Jodhpur, 2004, p. 11.
13. The district of Nagaur is located on 26o 25' and 27o40' north latitude and 73o 10'
and 75o 15' east longitude. K. K. Sehgal, Rajasthan District Gazetteers, Nagaur,
Jaipur, 1975, pp. 1, 19-30; Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XVIII, The Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1905, p. 298; Walter Hamilton, East India Gazetteer of Hindoostan,
vol. II, Second Edition, Parbury Allen and Co., London, 1828, p. 276.
14. The city of Bikaner was founded by RaoBika (1465-1504) in samvat 1545/A.D
1489. See TawarikhJaisalmer, p. 312; James Tod, II, pp. 1123-1135; Master Plan
884 IHC: Proceedings, 74th Session, 2013
of Bikaner, prepared by the chief town planner and architectural advisor,
Government of Rajasthan, Jaipur, under The Rajasthan Urban Improvement Act,
1959, November, 1977, pp. 1-2; K. K. Sehgal, Rajasthan District Gazetteers,
Bikaner, Jaipur, 1972, pp. 1, 26-45.
15. The fort of Jodhpur locally named as Mehrangarh fort stands on a hill which 400
feet in height, encircled by a massive thick wall. See Rajasthan District Gazetteers,
Jodhpur, pp. 505-507; K. D. Erskine, pp. 194-95; James Tod, II, pp. 820-22;
AmitVerma, op. cit., pp. 31-32.
16. The fort of Bikaner was constructed during the reign of Rai Singh (1571-1611)
between 1588 to 1593. This rectangular shaped fort of Bikaner is also known as
Junagarh fort. For details see L. P. Mathur, pp. 67-68; AmitVerma, pp. 33-34; K.
D. Erskine, pp. 309, 382-83; Rajasthan District Gazetteers, Bikaner, pp. 411-
415; Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. VIII, pp. 217-218.
17. The fort of Nagaur was renovated from mud fort into stone under Muhammad
Bahlim (1119-21) and among the surviving structures the credit of erecting largest
numbers of buildings was goes to RaoMaldev (1532-62). See H. B. W. Garrick,
Report of a Tour in the Panjab and Rajputana in 1883-84, ASI, vol. XXIII, Calcutta,
1887, pp. 53-56. For brief political history see Kailash Chand Jain, Ancient Cities
and Towns of Rajasthan, MotilalBanarsidas, Delhi, 1972, p. 242; James Tod, II,
pp. 957-958.
18. The foundation of Jaisalmer with its fort was laid on 12th of Sravan, samvat 1212/
A.D 1156. But the major contribution was done under RawalMaldeo (1550-61).
See Lakshmi Chand, TawarikhJaisalmer, Rajasthan Granthgar, Jodhpur, 1999, p.
28; James Tod, II, p. 1204-1205; K. D. Erskine, op. cit., pp. 5-6; G. B. Malleson,
An Historical Sketch of the Native Sates of India, Asian Educational Services,
New Delhi, 2005, p. 117.
19. Nagaur was founded by Chauhans and had been transformed into an independent
Muslim Kingdom by Muhammad Bahalim. During fifteenth century it was taken
by Rao Chonda and Rao Maldeo of Marwar and finally in 1568 A.D conquered by
Akbar who gave it as a fief to Rai Singh of Bikaner in 1576. Shahjahan in 1634
A.D separated Nagaur from Bikaner and bestowed to Gaj Singh of Jodhpur as a
new kingdom. See Herman Goetz, ‘The Nagaur School of Rajput Painting (18th
Century)’, ArtibusAsiae, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (1949), pp. 89-98.