1.

Ionising Radiation

What is radiation?

Radiation is a very general term, used to describe any process that transmits energy through space or a material
away from a source. Light, sound, and radio waves are all examples of radiation. When most people think of
radiation, however, they are thinking of ionizing radiation--radiation that can disrupt the atoms and molecules
within the body. While scientists think of these emissions in highly mathematical terms, they can be visualized either
as subatomic particles or as rays. Radiation's effects on humans can best be understood by first examining the effect
of radiation on atoms, the basic building blocks of matter.

What is ionization?

Ionization: The process resulting in the removal of an electron from an atom, leaving the atom with a net
positive charge.

Atoms consist of comparatively large particles (protons and neutrons) sitting in a central nucleus, orbited by smaller
particles (electrons): a miniature solar system. Normally, the number of protons in the center of the atom equals the
number of electrons in orbit. An ion is any atom or molecule that does not have the normal number of
electrons. Ionizing radiation is any form of radiation that has enough energy to knock electrons out of atoms or
molecules, creating ions.

How is ionizing radiation measured?

Measurement lies at the heart of modern science, but a number by itself conveys no information. Useful
measurement requires both an instrument for measurement (such as a stick to mark off length) and an agreement on
the units to be used (such as inches, meters, or miles). The units chosen will vary with the purpose of the
measurement. For example, a cook will measure butter in terms of tablespoons to ensure the meal tastes good, while
a nutritionist may be more concerned with measuring calories, to determine the effect on the diner's health.

The variety of units used to measure radiation and radioactivity at times confuses even scientists, if they do not use
them every day. It may be helpful to keep in mind the purpose of various units. There are two basic reasons to
measure radiation: the study of physics and the study of the biological effects of radiation. What creates the
complexity is that our instruments measure physical effects, while what is of interest to some are biological effects.
A further complication is that units, as with words in any language, may fade from use and be replaced by new units.

Radiation is not a series of distinct events, like radioactive decays, which can be counted individually. Measuring
radiation in bulk is like measuring the movement of sand in an hourglass; it is more useful to think of it as a
continuous flow, rather than a series of separate events. The intensity of a beam of ionizing radiation is measured by
counting up how many ions (how much electrical charge) it creates in air. The roentgen (named after Wilhelm
Roentgen, the discoverer of x rays) is the unit that measures the ability of x rays to ionize air; it is a unit of exposure
that can be measured directly. Shortly after World War II, a common unit of measurement was the roentgen
equivalent physical (rep), which denoted an ability of other forms of radiation to create as many ions in air as a
roentgen of x rays. It is no longer used, but appears in many of the documents examined by the Advisory
Committee.

What are the basic types of ionizing radiation?

There are many types of ionizing radiation, but the most familiar are alpha, beta, and gamma/x-
ray radiation. Neutrons, when expelled from atomic nuclei and traveling as a form of radiation, can also be a
significant health concern.
Alpha particles are clusters of two neutrons and two protons each. They are identical to the nuclei of atoms of
helium, the second lightest and second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen. Compared with other
forms of radiation, though, these are very heavy particles--about 7,300 times the mass of an electron. As they travel
along, these large and heavy particles frequently interact with the electrons of atoms, rapidly losing their energy.
They cannot even penetrate a piece of paper or the layer of dead cells at the surface of our skin. But if released
within the body from a radioactive atom inside or near a cell, alpha particles can do great damage as they ionize
atoms, disrupting living cells. Radium and plutonium are two examples of alpha emitters.

Beta particles are electrons traveling at very high energies. If alpha particles can be thought of as large and slow
bowling balls, beta particles can be visualized as golf balls on the driving range. They travel farther than alpha
particles and, depending on their energy, may do as much damage. For example, beta particles in fallout can cause
severe burns to the skin, known as beta burns. Radiosotopes that emit beta particles are present in fission products
produced in nuclear reactors and nuclear explosions. Some beta-emitting radioisotopes, such as iodine 131, are
administered internally to patients to diagnose and treat disease.

Gamma and x-ray radiation consists of packets of energy known as photons. Photons have no mass or charge, and
they travel in straight lines. The visible light seen by our eyes is also made up of photons, but at lower energies. The
energy of a gamma ray is typically greater than 100 kiloelectron volts (keV--"k" is the abbreviation for kilo, a prefix
that multiplies a basic unit by 1,000) per photon, more than 200,000 times the energy of visible light (0.5 eV). If
alpha particles are visualized as bowling balls and beta particles as golf balls, photons of gamma and x-radiation are
like weightless bullets moving at the speed of light. Photons are classified according to their origin. Gamma rays
originate from events within an atomic nucleus; their energy and rate of production depend on the radioactive decay
process of the radionuclide that is their source. X rays are photons that usually originate from energy transitions of
the electrons of an atom. These can be artificially generated by bombarding appropriate atoms with high-energy
electrons, as in the classic x-ray tube. Because x rays are produced artificially by a stream of electrons, their rate of
output and energy can be controlled by adjusting the energy and amount of the electrons themselves. Both x rays and
gamma rays can penetrate deeply into the human body. How deeply they penetrate depends on their energy; higher
energy results in deeper penetration into the body. A 1 MeV ("M" is the abbreviation for mega, a prefix that
multiplies a basic unit by 1,000,000) gamma ray, with an energy 2,000,000 times that of visible light, can pass
completely through the body, creating tens of thousands of ions as it does.

A final form of radiation of concern is neutron radiation. Neutrons, along with protons, are one of the components of
the atomic nucleus. Like protons, they have a large mass; unlike protons, they have no electric charge, allowing
them to slip more easily between atoms. Like a Stealth fighter, high-energy neutrons can travel farther into the body,
past the protective outer layer of the skin, before delivering their energy and causing ionization.

Several other types of high-energy particles are also ionizing radiation. Cosmic radiation that penetrates the Earth's
atmosphere from space consists mainly of protons, alpha particles, and heavier atomic nuclei. Positrons, mesons,
pions, and other exotic particles can also be ionizing radiation.

2. Terminology
Glossary of Radiation Terms

alpha A positively charged particle made up of two neutrons and two protons emitted by certain
particle: radioactive nuclei. Alpha particles can be stopped by thin layers of light materials, such as a
sheet of paper, and pose no direct or external radiation threat; however, they can pose a serious
threat if ingested.

ambient air: The atmosphere around a facility.

beta An electron or positron emitted by certain radioactive nuclei. Beta particles can be stopped by
particle: aluminum. They pose a serious direct or external radiation threat and can be lethal, depending
on the amount received.

curie: A measure of radioactivity. One curie of radioactive material will have 37 billion
transformations of atoms (disintegrations) in one second.

dose: A general term denoting the quantity of radiation or energy absorbed. Dose may refer to
absorbed dose, the amount of energy deposited per unit mass, or to equivalent dose, the
absorbed dose adjusted for the relative biological effect of the type of radiation being measured.

dose A unit of biologically equivalent dose, defined as the absorbed dose in rad multiplied by the
equivalent: quality factor (Q).

exposure: A term relating to the amount of ionizing radiation that is incident upon living or inanimate
material.

gamma rays: High-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted by certain radioactive nuclei. These rays have
high energy and a short wave length. Stopping gamma rays requires thick layers of dense
materials such as lead. Gamma rays are potentially lethal to humans depending on the dose.

neutron: A small particle possessing no electrical charge typically found within an atom's nucleus.

nucleus: The central part of an atom that contains protons and neutrons.
 proton: A small particle, typically found within an atom's nucleus, that possesses a positive electrical
charge.

quality Dependent factor by which absorbed doses are to be multiplied to account for the varying
factor (Q): effectiveness of different radiations.

rad: An acronym for Radiation Absorbed Dose. The rad is a basic unit of absorbed radiation dose.

radioactive The process in which a radioactive nucleus emits (gives off) radiation and changes to a different
decay: isotope or element. A number of different particles can be emitted by decay. The most typical
are alpha, beta particles, and gamma rays.

rem: Roentgen Equivalent Man. A unit of absorbed dose.

3.Fundamental Quantities

Radiation UNITS

Roentgen: Is the measurement of energy produced by Gamma or X-Ray radiation in a cubic centimeter of air. It is
abbreviated with the capital "R". One milliroentgen, abbreviated "mR" is one-thousandth of a roentgen. One
microroentgen, abbreviated “uR” is one-millionth of a roentgen.

RAD: Radiation Absorbed Dose. Original measuring unit for expressing the absorption of all types of ionizing
radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, neutrons, etc) into any medium. One rad is equivalent to the absorption of 100 ergs of
energy per gram of absorbing tissue.

REM: Roentgen Equivalent Man is a measurement that correlates the dose of any radiation to the biological effect of
that radiation. Since not all radiation has the same biological effect, the dosage is multiplied by a "quality factor"
(Q). For example, a person receiving a dosage of gamma radiation will suffer much less damage than a person
receiving the same dosage from alpha particles, by a factor of three. So alpha particles will cause three times more
damage than gamma rays. Therefore, alpha radiation has a quality factor of three. Following is the Q factor for a few
radiation types. Radiation: Quality Factor (Q) Beta, Gamma and X-rays 1 Thermal Neutrons 3 Fast n, a, and protons
10 Heavy and recoil nuclei 20 The difference between the rad and rem is that the rad is a measurement of the
radiation absorbed by the material or tissue. The rem is a measurement of the biological effect of that absorbed
radiation. For general purposes most physicists agree that the Roentgen, Rad and Rem may be considered equivalent

4.Radioactivity and Half life

Radioactivity, property exhibited by certain types of matter of emitting energy and subatomic particles
spontaneously. An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable configuration but
will do so only in a few specific ways by emitting certain particles or certain forms of electromagnetic energy.
Eg:- Uranium-238, Uranium-235, Potassium-40, Carbon-14,

Half-life (symbol t1⁄2) is the time required for a quantity to reduce to half of its initial value. The term is
commonly used in nuclear physics to describe how quickly unstable atoms undergo, or how long stable atoms
survive, radioactive decay.

Radioisotope Half-life

Polonium-215 0.0018 seconds

Bismuth-212 60.5 seconds

Sodium-24 15 hours

Iodine-131 8.07 days

Cobalt-60 5.26 years

Radium-226 1600 years

Uranium-238 4.5 billion years

5.Radiation Exposure

Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of air due to ionizing radiation from photons; that
is, gamma rays and X-rays.[1] It is defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a specified volume
of air divided by the mass of that air.

The SI unit of exposure is the coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), which has largely replaced the roentgen (R).
[2]
One roentgen equals 0.000258 C/kg; an exposure of one coulomb per kilogram is equivalent to 3876
roentgens.

6.Roentgen Absorbed Dose

’ The rad is a unit of absorbed radiation dose, defined as 1 rad = 0.01 Gy = 0.01 J/kg.[1] It was originally
defined in CGS units in 1953 as the dose causing 100 ergs of energy to be absorbed by one gram of matter.
The material absorbing the radiation can be human tissue or silicon microchips or any other medium (for
example, air, water, lead shielding, etc.).

7.Roentgen Equivalent Man

The roentgen equivalent man (or rem)[1][2] is an older, CGS unit of equivalent dose, effective dose,
and committed dose which are measures of the health effect of low levels of ionizing radiation on the human
body.

Quantities measured in rem are designed to represent the stochastic biological risk of ionizing radiation;
primarily radiation-induced cancer. These quantities are derived from absorbed dose, which in the CGS
system has the unit rad which is also an older unit. There is no universally applicable conversion constant
from rad to rem; the conversion depends on relative biological effectiveness (RBE).

The rem has been defined since 1976 as equal to 0.01 sievert, which is the more commonly used SI
unit outside the United States. A number of earlier definitions going back to 1945 were derived from
the roentgen unit, which was named after Wilhelm Röntgen, a German scientist who discovered X-rays. The
acronym is now a misleading historical artifact, since 1 roentgen actually deposits about 0.96 rem in soft
biological tissue, when all weighting factors equal unity. Older units of rem following other definitions are up
to 17% smaller than the modern rem.

One rem carries with it a 0.05% chance of eventually developing cancer. [3] Doses greater than 100 rem
received over a short time period are likely to cause acute radiation syndrome (ARS), possibly leading to
death within weeks if left untreated. Note that the quantities that are measured in rem were not designed to
be correlated to ARS symptoms. The absorbed dose, measured in rad, is the best indicator of ARS.[4]:592–593

A rem is a large dose of radiation, so the millirem (mrem), which is one thousandth of a rem, is often used for
the dosages commonly encountered, such as the amount of radiation received from medical x-rays
and background sources.

8.Radiation sources

Non-ionizing radiation

People use and are exposed to non-ionizing radiation sources every day. This form of radiation does not carry
enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules.

Microwave ovens, global positioning systems, cellular telephones, television stations, FM and AM radio, baby
monitors, cordless phones, garage-door openers and ham radios all use non-ionizing radiation. Other forms
include the earth’s magnetic field and magnetic field exposure from proximity to transmission lines,
household wiring and electrical appliances. These are defined as extremely low frequency (ELF) waves.
Ionizing radiation

Some types of radiation have enough energy that they can knock electrons out of their orbits around atoms,
upsetting the electron/proton balance and giving the atom a positive charge. Electrically
charged molecules and atoms are called ions. The radiation that can produce ions is called ionizing radiation.

There are many types of ionizing radiation. The following are some of the relevant ones:

Alpha radiation:

Alpha radiation consists of two protons and two neutrons; since they have no electrons, they carry a positive
charge. Due to their size and charge, alpha particles are barely able to penetrate skin and can be stopped
completely by a sheet of paper.

Beta radiation:

Beta radiation consists of fast-moving electrons ejected from the nucleus of an atom. Beta radiation has a
negative charge and is about 1/7000th the size of an alpha particle, so it is more penetrating. However, it can
still be stopped by a small amount of shielding, such as a sheet of plastic.

Gamma radiation:

Gamma radiation is a very penetrating type of radiation. It is usually emitted immediately after the ejection
of an alpha or beta particle from the nucleus of an atom. Because it has no mass or charge, it can pass
through the human body, but it is absorbed by denser materials, such as concrete or lead.

X-rays:
X-rays are a form of radiation similar to gamma radiation, but they are produced mainly by artificial means
rather than from radioactive substances.

Neutron radiation:

Neutron radiation occurs when neutrons are ejected from the nucleus by nuclear fission and other processes.
The nuclear chain reaction is an example of nuclear fission, where a neutron being ejected from one fissioned
atom causes another atom to fission, ejecting more neutrons. Unlike other radiations, neutron radiation is
absorbed by materials with lots of hydrogen atoms, like paraffin wax and plastics.

Sources of ionizing radiation

People are constantly exposed to small amounts of ionizing radiation from the environment as they carry out
their normal daily activities; this is known as background radiation. We are also exposed through some
medical treatments and through activities involving radioactive material.

Natural background radiation

Radiation has always been present and is all around us. Life has evolved in a world containing significant
levels of ionizing radiation. Our bodies are adapted to it.

The following section outlines sources of natural background radiation. For information on dose levels from
these sources, visit the Radiation Doses page and fact sheet on natural background radiation.
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) identifies four
major sources of public exposure to natural radiation:

 cosmic radiation

 terrestrial radiation

 inhalation

 ingestion

Exposure from cosmic radiation

The earth's outer atmosphere is continually bombarded by cosmic radiation. Usually, cosmic radiation
consists of fast moving particles that exist in space and originate from a variety of sources, including the sun
and other celestial events in the universe. Cosmic rays are mostly protons, but can be other particles or wave
energy. Some ionizing radiation penetrates the earth's atmosphere and becomes absorbed by humans, which
results in natural radiation exposure.

The doses due to natural sources of radiation vary depending on location and habits. Regions at higher
altitudes receive more cosmic radiation. The following map shows how levels of cosmic radiation vary with
elevations above sea level and longitude and latitude in North America.

Annual outdoor effective dose from cosmic radiation for North America (in microsieverts)

Source: Gratsky et al., 2004

Exposure from terrestrial radiation

The composition of the earth's crust is a major source of natural radiation. The main contributors are natural
deposits of uranium, potassium and thorium which, in the process of natural decay, release small amounts of
ionizing radiation. Uranium and thorium are “ubiquitous”, meaning they are found essentially everywhere.
Traces of these minerals are also found in building materials, so exposure to natural radiation can occur
indoors as well as outdoors.

Exposure through inhalation

Most of the variation in exposure to natural radiation results from inhalation of radioactive gases that are
produced by radioactive minerals found in soil and bedrock. Radon is an odourless and colourless radioactive
gas that is produced by the decay of uranium-238. It is an inert gas, meaning that it does not react with
surrounding matter. Because radon does not react, it can readily move up through the ground and into the
atmosphere.. Thoron is a radioactive gas produced by thorium. Radon and thoron levels vary considerably by
location depending on the composition of soil and bedrock. Once released into the air, these gases normally
dilute to harmless levels in the atmosphere, but sometimes they become trapped and accumulate inside
buildings where they are inhaled by occupants. Radon gas poses a health risk not only to uranium miners but
also to homeowners if it is left to accumulate in the home. On average, it is the largest source of natural
radiation exposure. More information about radon gas and the means to control it can be found on Health
Canada's website.

Exposure through ingestion

Trace amounts of radioactive minerals are naturally found in the contents of food and drinking water. For
instance, vegetables are typically cultivated in soil and ground water which contains radioactive minerals.
Once ingested, these minerals result in internal exposure to natural radiation.

Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40 and carbon-14, have the same chemical and
biological properties as their non-radioactive isotopes. These radioactive and non-radioactive elements are
used in building and maintaining our bodies. Natural radioisotopes continually expose us to radiation. The
table below identifies the amount of radioactivity from potassium-40 contained in about 500 grams of
different food products. A becquerel is a unit of radioactivity, equal to one transformation (decay) per second.

Brazil nuts also naturally contain radium-226 (between 19 and 130 Bq per 500
grams.)

Table 1: Potassium-40 content in food

Food Becquerel (Bq) per 500 grams

Red meat 56

Carrot 63

White potato 63

Banana 65

Lima bean 86

Brazil nut 103

Source: Handbook of Radiation Measurement and Protection, Brodsky, A. CRC Press 1978

The human body also contains several radioactive isotopes. The table below contains a list of some of the
isotopes naturally found in the body.
 Table 2: Radioactive isotopes in the body (70 kg adult)

Isotope Amount of radioactivity in Bq

Uranium 2.3table 2 note1 table 2 note2 table 2 note3

Thorium 0.21table 2 note2

Potassium-40 4,000table 2 note2

Radium-266 1.1table 2 note2

Carbon-14 3,700table 2 note2

Tritium 23table 2 note4

Polonium-210 40table 2 note2 table 2 note3

Table 2 Notes

Table 2 Note 1

ICRP-23 (1975)

Return to table 2 note1referrer

Table 2 Note 2

Environmental Radioactivity from Natural, Industrial and Military Sources, Eisenbud, M

and Gesell T. Academic Press, Inc. 1997

Return to table 2 note2referrer

Table 2 Note 3

ICRP-30 (1980)

Return to table 2 note3referrer

Table 2 Note 4

UNSCEAR 2000

Return to table 2 note4referrer

Artificial sources of radiation

Atmospheric testing

The atmospheric testing of atomic weapons from the end of the Second World War until as late as 1980
released radioactive material, called fallout, into the air. As the fallout settled to the ground, it was
incorporated into the environment. Much of the fallout had short half-lives and no longer exists, but some
continues to decay to this day. People and the environment receive smaller and smaller doses from the fallout
every year.

Medical sources

Radiation has many uses in medicine. The most well known use is in X-ray machines, which use radiation to
find broken bones and diagnose disease. X-ray machines are regulated by Health Canada and provincial
authorities. Another example is nuclear medicine, which uses radioactive isotopes to diagnose and treat
diseases such as cancer. These applications of nuclear medicine, as well as the related equipment, are
regulated by the CNSC. The CNSC also licenses those reactors and particle accelerators that produce isotopes
destined for medical and industrial applications.

This image shows examples of medical sources of radiation including an x-ray, CT scan, nuclear medicine,
and a particle accelerator that produce isotopes.

Industrial sources

Radiation has a variety of industrial uses that ranges from nuclear gauges used to build roads to density
gauges that measure the flow of material through pipes in factories. It is also used in smoke detectors and
some glow-in-the dark exit signs, and to estimate reserves in oil fields. Radiation is also used for sterilization
in which large, heavily shielded irradiators are used. All of these uses are licensed by the CNSC.

This image shows examples of industrial sources of radiation including nuclear gauges, a smoke detector, and
glow in the dark exit sign.

Nuclear fuel cycle

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) use uranium to drive a chain reaction that produces steam, which in turn drives
turbines to produce electricity. As part of their normal activities, NPPs release regulated levels of radioactive
material which can expose people to low doses of radiation. Similarly, uranium mines, fuel fabrication plants
and radioactive waste facilities release some radioactivity that contributes to the dose of the public.

This image shows examples of the nuclear fuel cycle including uranium mining, yellowcake, fuel rods and a
nuclear power plant.

There are two principal types of exposure to radiation : internal and external. Internal exposure occurs when
the source of ionising radiations is located inside the organism, usually as a consequence of ingestion or
inhalation of radioactive substances. This sort of exposure is frequently used in medicine, when radioactive
tracers are placed inside the body for a diagnostic or therapeutic purpose.

External exposure, on the other hand, takes place when the radioactive source is located outside the body.

Internal exposure is the most dangerous as the radioactive atoms are fixed to your body. Alpha rays , which
would ordinarily be stopped by a few cm of air or the thickness of a shirt, can now deposit their energy
directly into our cells. The same is true, albeit to a lesser extent, for beta rays . These two types of radiation,
due to alpha and beta particles, only affect a very localised area along their short trajectories. Gamma rays
, on the other hand, are very penetrating and can even pass through the entire the body without interacting.

The low levels of naturally-occurring radiation mean that we all have a small number of radioactive atoms
inside our bodies. The water cycle as well as the food chain both contain trace amounts of radioisotopes:
carbon 14 is absorbed by vegetation, potassium 40 is found in the soil, and traces of uranium, thorium and
their descendants can be found into some mountain water.

We also all breathe in trace quantities of radon gas - another descendant of uranium. This chemically inert
gas would be harmless, were it not for the fact that its radioactive descendants sometimes fix themselves to
bronchi in the lungs. The risk associated with the inhalation of radon is the primary natural source
irradiation. In France, radon is responsible for around 55% of the effective dose of radiation due to natural
radioactivity emitted.
The two principal modes of exposure to ionising rays
Exposure to radiations comes from internal and external sources. Internal exposure results from the ingestion
of radioactive atoms present in food and drink as well as the inhalation of radioactive isotopes carried by air-
borne particles. If these radioactive atoms attach themselves to our organs, glands or bones, then their
subsequent decay may damage our cells and affect our health. External exposure results from the exposure to
the rays emitted by a radioactive source, a source of X-rays or can be natural (for example cosmic rays,
radioactivity of rocks).
IN2P3

The external exposure is the less dangerous. This time, it is the gamma rays passing through the body that are
responsible of the hazards, alpha and beta particles being stopped by the outermost layers of the skin. Alpha
and beta particles can be still dangerous in the case of contact with a radioactive substance and are used do
destroyed malignant cells in brachytherapies.

Iodine 131, a radioactive isotope of iodine, provides an effective illustration of the different risks associated
with internal and external exposure. Iodine attaches itself very easily to the thyroid - a small gland which
plays a crucial role in early childhood and adolescence. After the Chernobyl accident, quantities of iodine 131
contaminated fresh products (such as milk, meat and vegetables) which were eventually ingested, leading to
radioisotopes entering the thyroid. This exposure lasted for the three months following the accident, and had
important consequences for those bringing medical assistance to the affected regions. The UNSCEAR report
on the health consequences of the Chernobyl accident had shown a significant increase in the risk of thyroid
cancer among children and adolescents living near the reactor. This increase has been definitively linked to
the quantities of iodine 131 which were released into the air.

9.Biological Effects

Biological effects of radiation are typically divided into two categories. The first category consists of exposure
to high doses of radiation over short periods of time producing acute or short term effects. The second
category represents exposure to low doses of radiation over an extended period of time producing chronic or
long term effects.

High doses tend to kill cells, while low doses tend to damage or change them. High doses can kill so many cells
that tissues and organs are damaged. This in turn may cause a rapid whole body response often called the
Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS). High dose effects are discussed on pages 6-12 to 6- 16.

Low doses spread out over long periods of time don’t cause an immediate problem to any body organ. The
effects of low doses of radiation occur at the level of the cell, and the results may not be observed for many
years. Low dose effects are discussed on pages 6-17 to 6-23.
Besides death, there are several other possible effects of a high radiation dose. Effects on the skin include erythema
(reddening like sunburn), dry desquamation (peeling), and moist desquamation (blistering). Skin effects are more
likely to occur with exposure to low energy gamma, X-ray, or beta radiation. Most of the energy of the radiation is
deposited in the skin surface. The dose required for erythema to occur is relatively high, in excess of 300 rad.
Blistering requires a dose in excess of 1,200 rad. Hair loss, also called epilation, is similar to skin effects and can
occur after acute doses of about 500 rad. Sterility can be temporary or permanent in males, depending upon the dose.
In females, it is usually permanent, but it requires a higher dose. To produce permanent sterility, a dose in excess of
400 rad is required to the reproductive organs. Cataracts (a clouding of the lens of the eye) appear to have a
threshold of about 200 rad. Neutrons are especially effective in producing cataracts, because the eye has a high
water content, which is particularly effective in stopping neutrons.

21.6 Biological Effects of Radiation

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Describe the biological impact of ionizing radiation

 Define units for measuring radiation exposure

 Explain the operation of common tools for detecting radioactivity

 List common sources of radiation exposure in the US

The increased use of radioisotopes has led to increased concerns over the effects of these materials on biological
systems (such as humans). All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this
radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious
biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, alpha and
beta particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond
energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they produce ions and molecular fragments that are
extremely reactive. The damage this does to biomolecules in living organisms can cause serious malfunctions in
normal cell processes, taxing the organism’s repair mechanisms and possibly causing illness or even death (Figure
1).
Figure 1. Radiation can harm biological systems by damaging the DNA of cells. If this damage is not properly
repaired, the cells may divide in an uncontrolled manner and cause cancer.

Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation

There is a large difference in the magnitude of the biological effects of nonionizing radiation (for example, light
and microwaves) and ionizing radiation, emissions energetic enough to knock electrons out of molecules (for
example, α and β particles, γ rays, X-rays, and high-energy ultraviolet radiation) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Lower frequency, lower-energy electromagnetic radiation is nonionizing, and higher frequency, higher-
energy electromagnetic radiation is ionizing.

Energy absorbed from nonionizing radiation speeds up the movement of atoms and molecules, which is equivalent
to heating the sample. Although biological systems are sensitive to heat (as we might know from touching a hot
stove or spending a day at the beach in the sun), a large amount of nonionizing radiation is necessary before
dangerous levels are reached. Ionizing radiation, however, may cause much more severe damage by breaking bonds
or removing electrons in biological molecules, disrupting their structure and function. The damage can also be done
indirectly, by first ionizing H2O (the most abundant molecule in living organisms), which forms a H2O+ ion that
reacts with water, forming a hydronium ion and a hydroxyl radical:
Because the hydroxyl radical has an unpaired electron, it is highly reactive. (This is true of any substance with
unpaired electrons, known as a free radical.) This hydroxyl radical can react with all kinds of biological molecules
(DNA, proteins, enzymes, and so on), causing damage to the molecules and disrupting physiological processes.
Examples of direct and indirect damage are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Ionizing radiation can (a) directly damage a biomolecule by ionizing it or breaking its bonds, or (b) create
an H2O+ ion, which reacts with H2O to form a hydroxyl radical, which in turn reacts with the biomolecule, causing
damage indirectly.

Biological Effects of Exposure to Radiation

Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and sperm (genetic damage). Its effects are
more pronounced in cells that reproduce rapidly, such as the stomach lining, hair follicles, bone marrow, and
embryos. This is why patients undergoing radiation therapy often feel nauseous or sick to their stomach, lose hair,
have bone aches, and so on, and why particular care must be taken when undergoing radiation therapy during
pregnancy.

Different types of radiation have differing abilities to pass through material (Figure 4). A very thin barrier, such as a
sheet or two of paper, or the top layer of skin cells, usually stops alpha particles. Because of this, alpha particle
sources are usually not dangerous if outside the body, but are quite hazardous if ingested or inhaled (see the
Chemistry in Everyday Life feature on Radon Exposure). Beta particles will pass through a hand, or a thin layer of
material like paper or wood, but are stopped by a thin layer of metal. Gamma radiation is very penetrating and can
pass through a thick layer of most materials. Some high-energy gamma radiation is able to pass through a few feet of
concrete. Certain dense, high atomic number elements (such as lead) can effectively attenuate gamma radiation with
thinner material and are used for shielding. The ability of various kinds of emissions to cause ionization varies
greatly, and some particles have almost no tendency to produce ionization. Alpha particles have about twice the
ionizing power of fast-moving neutrons, about 10 times that of β particles, and about 20 times that of γ rays and X-
rays.

Figure 4. The ability of different types of radiation to pass through material is shown. From least to most
penetrating, they are alpha < beta < neutron < gamma.

Radon Exposure

For many people, one of the largest sources of exposure to radiation is from radon gas (Rn-222). Radon-222 is an α
emitter with a half–life of 3.82 days. It is one of the products of the radioactive decay series of U-238 (Chapter 21.3
Radioactive Decay), which is found in trace amounts in soil and rocks. The radon gas that is produced slowly
escapes from the ground and gradually seeps into homes and other structures above. Since it is about eight times
more dense than air, radon gas accumulates in basements and lower floors, and slowly diffuses throughout buildings
(Figure 5).
Figure 5. Radon-222 seeps into houses and other buildings from rocks that contain uranium-238, a radon emitter.
The radon enters through cracks in concrete foundations and basement floors, stone or porous cinderblock
foundations, and openings for water and gas pipes.

Radon is found in buildings across the country, with amounts depending on where you live. The average
concentration of radon inside houses in the US (1.25 pCi/L) is about three times the levels found in outside air, and
about one in six houses have radon levels high enough that remediation efforts to reduce the radon concentration are
recommended. Exposure to radon increases one’s risk of getting cancer (especially lung cancer), and high radon
levels can be as bad for health as smoking a carton of cigarettes a day. Radon is the number one cause of lung cancer
in nonsmokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer overall. Radon exposure is believed to cause over 20,000
deaths in the US per year.

Measuring Radiation Exposure

Several different devices are used to detect and measure radiation, including Geiger counters, scintillation counters
(scintillators), and radiation dosimeters (Figure 6). Probably the best-known radiation instrument, the Geiger
counter (also called the Geiger-Müller counter) detects and measures radiation. Radiation causes the ionization of
the gas in a Geiger-Müller tube. The rate of ionization is proportional to the amount of radiation. A scintillation
counter contains a scintillator—a material that emits light (luminesces) when excited by ionizing radiation—and a
sensor that converts the light into an electric signal. Radiation dosimeters also measure ionizing radiation and are
often used to determine personal radiation exposure. Commonly used types are electronic, film badge,
thermoluminescent, and quartz fiber dosimeters.

Figure 6. Devices such as (a) Geiger counters, (b) scintillators, and (c) dosimeters can be used to measure radiation.
(credit c: modification of work by “osaMu”/Wikimedia commons)

A variety of units are used to measure various aspects of radiation (Figure 7). The SI unit for rate of radioactive
decay is the becquerel (Bq), with 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second. The curie (Ci) and millicurie (mCi) are much
larger units and are frequently used in medicine (1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second). The SI unit
for measuring radiation dose is the gray (Gy), with 1 Gy = 1 J of energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue. In medical
applications, the radiation absorbed dose (rad) is more often used (1 rad = 0.01 Gy; 1 rad results in the absorption
of 0.01 J/kg of tissue). The SI unit measuring tissue damage caused by radiation is the sievert (Sv). This takes into
account both the energy and the biological effects of the type of radiation involved in the radiation dose.
The roentgen equivalent for man (rem) is the unit for radiation damage that is used most frequently in medicine (1
rem = 1 Sv). Note that the tissue damage units (rem or Sv) includes the energy of the radiation dose (rad or Gy)
along with a biological factor referred to as the RBE (for relative biological effectiveness) that is an approximate
measure of the relative damage done by the radiation. These are related by:

with RBE approximately 10 for α radiation, 2(+) for protons and neutrons, and 1 for β and γ radiation.

Figure 7. Different units are used to measure the rate of emission from a radioactive source, the energy that is
absorbed from the source, and the amount of damage the absorbed radiation does.

Units of Radiation Measurement

Table 4 summarizes the units used for measuring radiation.

 Measurement
Purpose Unit Quantity Measured Description

amount of sample that undergoes 1

becquerel (Bq)
decay/second
radioactive decays or
activity of source
emissions
amount of sample that undergoes 3.7 ×
curie (Ci)
1010 decays/second

gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 J/kg tissue

energy absorbed per
absorbed dose
radiation absorbed kg of tissue
1 rad = 0.01 J/kg tissue
dose (rad)

sievert (Sv) Sv = RBE × Gy

biologically
tissue damage
effective dose roentgen equivalent for
Rem = RBE × rad
man (rem)

Table 4. Units Used for Measuring Radiation

Example 1

Amount of Radiation

Cobalt-60 (t1/2 = 5.26 y) is used in cancer therapy since the γ rays it emits can be focused in small areas where the
cancer is located. A 5.00-g sample of Co-60 is available for cancer treatment.

(a) What is its activity in Bq?

(b) What is its activity in Ci?

Solution
The activity is given by:

And to convert this to decays per second:

(a) Since 1 Bq = , the activity in Becquerel (Bq) is:

(b) Since 1 Ci = , the activity in curie (Ci) is:

Check Your Learning

Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen (t1/2 = 12.32 y) that has several uses, including self-powered lighting, in
which electrons emitted in tritium radioactive decay cause phosphorus to glow. Its nucleus contains one proton and
two neutrons, and the atomic mass of tritium is 3.016 amu. What is the activity of a sample containing 1.00mg of
tritium (a) in Bq and (b) in Ci?

Answer:

(a) 3.56 × 1011 Bq; (b) 0.962 Ci

Effects of Long-term Radiation Exposure on the Human Body

The effects of radiation depend on the type, energy, and location of the radiation source, and the length of exposure.
As shown in Figure 8, the average person is exposed to background radiation, including cosmic rays from the sun
and radon from uranium in the ground (see the Chemistry in Everyday Life feature on Radon Exposure); radiation
from medical exposure, including CAT scans, radioisotope tests, X-rays, and so on; and small amounts of radiation
from other human activities, such as airplane flights (which are bombarded by increased numbers of cosmic rays in
the upper atmosphere), radioactivity from consumer products, and a variety of radionuclides that enter our bodies
when we breathe (for example, carbon-14) or through the food chain (for example, potassium-40, strontium-90, and
iodine-131).
Figure 8. The total annual radiation exposure for a person in the US is about 620 mrem. The various sources and
their relative amounts are shown in this bar graph. (source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission)

A short-term, sudden dose of a large amount of radiation can cause a wide range of health effects, from changes in
blood chemistry to death. Short-term exposure to tens of rems of radiation will likely cause very noticeable
symptoms or illness; a dose of about 500 rems is estimated to have a 50% probability of causing the death of the
victim within 30 days of exposure. Exposure to radioactive emissions has a cumulative effect on the body during a
person’s lifetime, which is another reason why it is important to avoid any unnecessary exposure to radiation. Health
effects of short-term exposure to radiation are shown in Table 5.

Time to Onset (without

Exposure (rem) Health Effect treatment)

5–10 changes in blood chemistry —

50 nausea Hours
 Time to Onset (without
Exposure (rem) Health Effect treatment)

55 fatigue —

70 vomiting —

75 hair loss 2–3 weeks

90 diarrhea —

100 hemorrhage —

400 possible death within 2 months

1000 destruction of intestinal lining —

internal bleeding —

death 1–2 weeks

2000 damage to central nervous system —

loss of consciousness; Minutes

death hours to days

Table 5. Health Effects of Radiation (Source: US Environmental Protection Agency)

It is impossible to avoid some exposure to ionizing radiation. We are constantly exposed to background radiation
from a variety of natural sources, including cosmic radiation, rocks, medical procedures, consumer products, and
even our own atoms. We can minimize our exposure by blocking or shielding the radiation, moving farther from the
source, and limiting the time of exposure.

Key Concepts and Summary

We are constantly exposed to radiation from a variety of naturally occurring and human-produced sources. This
radiation can affect living organisms. Ionizing radiation is the most harmful because it can ionize molecules or break
chemical bonds, which damages the molecule and causes malfunctions in cell processes. It can also create reactive
hydroxyl radicals that damage biological molecules and disrupt physiological processes. Radiation can cause
somatic or genetic damage, and is most harmful to rapidly reproducing cells. Types of radiation differ in their ability
to penetrate material and damage tissue, with alpha particles the least penetrating but potentially most damaging and
gamma rays the most penetrating.

Various devices, including Geiger counters, scintillators, and dosimeters, are used to detect and measure radiation,
and monitor radiation exposure. We use several units to measure radiation: becquerels or curies for rates of
radioactive decay; gray or rads for energy absorbed; and rems or sieverts for biological effects of radiation.
Exposure to radiation can cause a wide range of health effects, from minor to severe, and including death. We can
minimize the effects of radiation by shielding with dense materials such as lead, moving away from the source, and
limiting time of exposure.

Key Equations

 rem = RBE × rad

 Sv = RBE × Gy

Radiological Protection Principles

Justification:

No practice or source within a practice should be authorized unless the practice produces sufficient benefit to the
exposed individuals or to society to offset the radiation harm that it might cause; that is: unless the practice is
justified, taking into account social, economic and other relevant factors

Optimisation(ALARA):

All living things are exposed to ionising radiation from the natural (called background radiation) and man-made
radiation sources. Ionising radiation may cause biological changes in the exposed person hence the doses to the
occupational workers shall be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) and doses to patients shall be
optimized. Suitable control measures shall be employed to minimise radiation exposure so that maximum benefits
are derived with minimum radiological risk.

Dose Limitations (Never exceed Dose Limits):

The normal exposure of individuals resulting from all relevant practices should be subject to dose limits to ensure
that no individual is exposed to a risk that is judged to be unacceptable.
Dose Limitations

Part of the body Occupational Exposure Public Exposure

Whole body 20 mSv/year averaged over 5 1 mSv/y

consecutive years;
(Effective dose)
30 mSv in any single year

Lens of eyes 150 mSv in a year 15 mSv/y

(Equivalent dose)

Skin 500 mSv in a year 50 mSv/y

(Equivalent dose)

Extremities 500 mSv in a year -

(Hands and Feet)

Equivalent dose

For pregnant radiation workers, after declaration of pregnancy 1 mSv on the embryo/fetus should not
exceed.

Where,

Occupational Exposure - Radiation Exposure to worker involved in a practice in which he/she is exposed due to
handling of radioactive source or radiation generating equipment.

Public Exposure - Radiation Exposure to public due to above practices.