3/9/2011 section 2_7 DC imperfections 1/2

2.7 DC Imperfections

Reading Assignment: 98-104

In addition to saturation and slew-rate limiting, another non-linear

behavior of amplifiers is a DC output offset!

vout

Voff

vin

Amplifiers built with op-amps can/will exhibit this non-linear

behavior, mainly for two separate reasons!

HO: THE INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE

EXAMPLE:THE INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 section 2_7 DC imperfections 2/2

The second reason for output offsets is there is a constant bias

current flowing into the input terminals.

HO: THE INPUT BIAS CURRENT

EXAMPLE: THE INPUT BIAS CURRENT

Fortunately, we can minimize the DC output offset due the input

bias current with one simple design rule.

HO: REDUCING THE EFFECT OF THE INPUT BIAS CURRENT

Finally, we find that real op-amps have input and output

resistances that are not quite ideal!

HO: REAL OP-AMP INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCES

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 The Input Offset Voltage lecture 1/5

The Input Offset Voltage

For real op-amps, we typically find that if both inputs are grounded, the output
will be—saturated!
V+
-
−
vd = 0 vout =V + or V −
+
+

V−

Q: What!? Why isn’t

vout (t ) = Aopvd
= Aop ( 0 ) ??
=0

A: The reason the output is saturated is that real op-amps exhibit a

phenomenon called the input offset voltage Vos.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 The Input Offset Voltage lecture 2/5

The input offset voltage model

This value can be either positive or negative, typically with a magnitude of 5 mV
or less (Vos < 5 mV ).

A real op-amp therefore behaves as if it has a small, internal voltage source at

the non-inverting input:

v− -
- vout = Aop ⎡⎣(v + +Vos ) − v − ⎤⎦
ideal
Vos +
v+ +
- + Input Offset Voltage
Equivalent Model

Applying the concept of a virtual short to the ideal op-amp, we find from KVL

v − = v + +Vos

Thus, v − ≠ v + !

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 The Input Offset Voltage lecture 3/5

The new virtual “short”

Recall, however, that the input offset voltage is typically very small (i.e.,
Vos < 5 mV ), so that v − ≈ v + .

So, for an op-amp with an input offset voltage, the virtual “short” equation
turns out to be:

v − =Vos + v +

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 The Input Offset Voltage lecture 4/5

Small, but large enough to saturate!

Therefore, if v − = v + = 0 , we find that the output voltage of this op-amp is
ideally equal to:

vout = Aop (v + − v − +Vos )

= Aop ( 0 − 0 +Vos )
= Aop Vos

v− -
-
ideal vout = Aop Vos
Vos +
v+ +
- +

Of course, since the differential voltage Aop is very large, the product Aop Vos is
likewise large, such that the output of real op-amps will saturate.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 The Input Offset Voltage lecture 5/5

This changes our previous results

Q: Does this mean that Vos will cause the output of op-amp circuits and
amplifiers to saturate?

A: Fortunately no! vout

However, the input offset voltage will

affect the output of circuits and
amplifiers made with op-amps. Voff

vin

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 1/7

Example: The Input

Offset Voltage
Consider an inverting amp constructed with an op-amp exhibiting an input offset
voltage of Vos:
R2

i2

R1
vin -
v- -
i1 ideal
vout
Vos +
v+
- +
+

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 2/7

v- not equal to v+
We know that because of the input offset voltage:

v − = v + +Vos

For the circuit above, the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp is connected to
ground (i.e., v + = 0 ), and so the virtual “ground” is now described by:

v − =Vos

The current into each terminal of the op-amp is still zero, so that from KCL:

i1 = i2

where form KCL and Ohm’s Law:

vin − v − vin −Vos

i1 = =
R1 R1

and:
v − − vout Vos − vout
i2 = =
R2 R2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 3/7

The output has a DC offset!

Combining, we find:
vin −Vos Vos − vout
=
R1 R2

Performing a little algebra, we can solve this equation for output voltage vout :

Vos R1 +Vos R2 − vin R2

vout =
R1

R2
and rearranging:

⎛R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞ i2
vout = − ⎜ 2 ⎟vin + ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟Vos
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R1 ⎠
R1
vin -
v- -
i1 ideal
vout
Vos +
v+
- +
+

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 4/7

Superposition is your friend

Q: Hey! Couldn’t we have easily found this result by applying superposition?

A: Absolutely! R2

i2

R1
vin -
v- -
i1 ideal
vout
+
v+
Note that if the input offset voltage is +
zero (its ideal value), this expression
simply reduces to the normal inverting
amplifier expression:

⎛R ⎞
vout = − ⎜ 2 ⎟vin
⎝ R1 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 5/7

It’s the non-inverting amplifier!

Likewise, if we set the input voltage source to ground potential (i.e., vin = 0 ), it is
evident that we have a non-inverting amplifier:
R2

i2

R1
-
v- -
i1 ideal
vout
Vos +
v+
- +
+

And so the output voltage is:

⎛ R2 ⎞
vout = ⎜ 1 + ⎟V
⎝ R1 ⎠ os

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 6/7

Look at the DC offset!

The sum of these two results provides our previous answer:

⎛R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞
vout = − ⎜ 2 ⎟vin + ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟Vos
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R1 ⎠

Note the term:

⎛ R2 ⎞
⎜ 1 + ⎟Vos
⎝ R1 ⎠

vout
is a constant with respect to vin —its value does
not change, even if the input voltage is zero!.
⎛ R2 ⎞
Thus, the term represents an output offset Voff = ⎜ 1 + ⎟V
⎝ R1 ⎠ os
voltage.

vin

⎛R ⎞
−⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/7/2011 Example The Input Offset Voltage lecture 7/7

How do we define gain?

Q: But what is the gain of this amplifier? The ratio vout vin is not a constant!

vout ⎛R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞V
= − ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ os ????
vin ⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R1 ⎠ vin

A: Remember, it is more accurate and more general to define gain in terms of

the derivative:
d vout
Avo 
d vin

Which for this case provides the same result for the inverting amplifier:

⎛ R2 ⎞
Avo = − ⎜ ⎟
R
⎝ 1⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

 3/9/2011 The Input Bias Current lecture 1/3

The Input Bias Current

i− = IB 1 Real op-amps typically exhibit a phenomenon known

- as input bias current.
v−
IB 1
We find that there is a small
amount of current flowing into
each of the op-amp inputs (i.e.,
i+ = IB 2 i+ ≠ 0 , and i+ ≠ 0 )!
v+ +

IB 2 These currents are constant currents—in other

words, they are independent of the input terminal
voltage

Input Bias Current

Op-Amp Model

Real op-amps act like there are small

current sources at the inputs!!!!!!!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 The Input Bias Current lecture 2/3

The input offset current

The values of bias currents IB1 and IB2 are approximately—but not exactly—
equal.

As a result, we typically express these currents in terms of their common-mode

(i.e., average) and differential modes.

The common mode is called the Input Bias Current:

IB 1 + IB 2
IB = Input Bias Current
2

The differential mode is called the Input Offset Current:

Ios = IB 1 − IB 2 Input Offset Current

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 The Input Bias Current lecture 3/3

They seem so small, yet…

Thus, the two bias currents can be expressed as:

Ios Ios
IB 1 = IB ± IB 2 = IB ∓
2 2

Typical values of these parameters are, for example, IB = 100nA and Ios =10nA.

Q: These bias current values are so tiny, we do we even care about them????

A: Because they can cause offset voltages in op-amp circuits!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Example The Input Bias Current lecture 1/6

Example: The Input

Bias Current
Q: How do input bias currents IB 1 and IB 2 affect amplifier operation?

A: Consider both inverting and non-inverting configurations.

Inverting Configuration

R2

i2

R1
v-
vin -
IB 1 vout
i1
v+
+
IB 2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Example The Input Bias Current lecture 2/6

KCL is now a bit more tricky!

In this case, we apply KCL and we find:

i1 = i2 + IB 1

However, we still find v −  v + = 0 (neglecting the input offset voltage) by virtue

of the virtual short.

Therefore, from KVL and Ohm’s Law:

vin −v − vin v − −vout −vout

i1 = = and i2 = =
R1 R1 R2 R2
R2
Combining these results:
i2
vin −vout
= + IB 1 R1
R1 R2 v-
vin -
IB 1 vout
The output voltage is thus: i1
v+
⎛R ⎞ +
vout = − ⎜ 2 ⎟vin + R1 IB 1 IB 2
⎝ R1 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Example The Input Bias Current lecture 3/6

Should we make R1 really small?

Note again that if IB 1 = 0 , the result reduces to the expected inverting
amplifier equation:
⎛R ⎞
vout = − ⎜ 2 ⎟vin
⎝ R1 ⎠

The second term in the above expression ( IB 1 R1 ) therefore represents another

output offset voltage!

It appears that we should keep the value of R1 small to minimize the output
offset voltage.
R2
Q: What would a small value of R1 do
to the amplifier input resistance?
i2

A: R1
v-
vin -
IB 1 vout
i1
v+
+
IB 2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Example The Input Bias Current lecture 4/6

Please welcome the non-inverting config.

Non-Inverting Configuration
R1 R2

i1 i2
IB 1
v-
-
vout
IB 2
v+
vin +

Neglecting the input offset voltage, we can use the virtual short to determine
that:
v −  vin

and KCL provides the same result as that of the inverting amplifier:

i1 = i2 + IB 1

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Example The Input Bias Current lecture 5/6

Again, a DC output offset

From KVL and Ohm’s Law:

0 −v − −vin
i1 = =
R1 R1

and likewise:
v − −vout vin −vout
i2 = =
R2 R2

Combining, we find:
R1 R2
−vin vin −vout
= + IB 1
R1 R2 i1 i2
IB 1
or rearranging: v-
-
⎛ R ⎞ vout
vout = ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟vin + IB 1R2 IB 2
⎝ R 1 ⎠ v+
vin +

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Example The Input Bias Current lecture 6/6

We have another trick or two up our sleeve

Again, we find that this result is simply the ideal non-inverting expression:

⎛ R ⎞
vout = ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟vin
⎝ R 1 ⎠

with an added output offset voltage term:

IB 1 R2

In this case, we find that this offset voltage is minimized by making feedback
resistor R2 small.

In general, we find that the effects of the input bias currents can be minimized
by using small resistor values.

However, we will find that there is an additional

strategy for minimizing the effects of input bias
currents!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

 3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 1/7

Reducing the Effect

of Input Bias Current
We found that the input bias current
will cause an offset in the output
R2
voltage.

i2 There is a solution to this problem—

R1 place a resistor (R3) on the non-
v- inverting input!
vin -
IB 1
i1 vout
v+
+
R3 IB 2
Q: Maria, why is
this resistor here?
I don’t see how it
can do any good.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 2/7

The voltage v+ is non-zero!

A: Let’s analyze this circuit to determine how this new resistor helps.

First, notice that the voltage at the non-inverting terminal is now non-zero!

The bias current IB 2 means that, by virtue of KVL:

v + = 0 − R3 IB 2 = −R3 IB 2
R2

Now, because of the virtual short:

i2
v − = v + = −R3 IB 2 R1
v-
vin -
And from KCL: IB 1
i1 vout
i1 = i2 + IB 1 v+
+
R3 IB 2
where from KCL and Ohm’s Law:

vin − v − vin + R3IB 2

i1 = =
R1 R1

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 3/7

It seems like this just

made the offset even larger
And also from KCL and Ohm’s Law: R2

vin − vout − (R3IB 2 + vout ) i2

i2 = =
R2 R2
R1
v-
vin -
Combining these results: IB 1
i1 vout
vin + R3IB 2 − (R3IB 2 + vout ) v+
= + IB 1 +
R1 R2 IB 2
R3

Performing the usual algebraic gymnastics, we rearrange this result and find
that the output voltage is:

⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ R2R3 ⎞
vout = ⎜ − v − R I
⎟ in ⎜ 3 B 2 + I B2 − R I
2 B1 ⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R1 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 4/7

Awl be baak
Again we find the output consists of two terms. The first term is the ideal
inverting amplifier result:

R2
− vin
R1

and the second is an output D.C. offset:

R2R3
−(R3IB 2 + IB 2 − R2IB 1 )
R1

Q: Resistor R3 was supposed to reduce the

D.C. offset, but it seems to have made
things even worse. Fix this or I shall be
forced to pummel you.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 5/7

We must choose the proper value of R3…

A: Say we set the value of resistor R3 to equal R3 = R1 R2 , i.e.:

R1R2
R3 =
R1 + R2

In this case, the D.C. offset becomes:

⎛ R1R2 R22 ⎞
−⎜ IB 2 + IB 2 − R2IB 1 ⎟
⎝ R1 + R2 R1 + R2 ⎠
⎛ (R + R2 )R2 ⎞
= −⎜ 1 IB 2 − R2IB 1 ⎟
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
= R2 (IB 1 − IB 2 )
= R2Ios

Typically, the bias currents IB 1 and IB 2 are approximately equal, so that offset
current IB 1 − IB 2 = Ios is very tiny.

Therefore, the resulting output offset voltage is likewise very tiny!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

 3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 6/7

…and this is that proper value

Therefore, when designing an amplifier with real op-amps, always include a
resistor R3 equal to the value:

R1R2
R3 = R1 R2 =
R1 + R2

This is true regardless of whether we use the inverting or non-inverting

configurations! R2

i2
R2
R1
v-
vin - i2
i1 IB 1
R1
R3 = R1 R2 v-
v+ -
+
i1 IB 1
IB 2
R3 = R1 R2
vin v+
+
IB 2
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS
3/9/2011 Reducing the Effect of Input Bias Current lecture 7/7

This is just the type of subtle point

that shows up on an exam

If the impedances are complex (i.e., Z 1 (ω ) and Z 2 (ω ) ), then set the resistor R3
based on the D.C. values of the impedances:

R3 = Z 1 (ω = 0 ) Z 2 (ω = 0 )

In other words, set the capacitors to open circuits and inductors to short
circuits.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Real Op Amp Input and Output Resistance lecture 1/5

Real Op-Amp Input and

Output Resistances
The input resistances of real op-amps are very large, but of course not infinite!

Typical values of input resistances range from several hundred K Ohms to tens
of Mega Ohms.

As a result, there is a small amount of current flowing into input terminals of a

real op-amp.

Q: Well of course! We just studied this topic.

We already know that there is a bias current IB

flowing into (or out of) real op-amp terminals!

A: This is true! However, there is an additional amount of current flowing into

the input terminals. This current is not a constant bias current, but instead is
directly proportional to the input terminal voltage.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Real Op Amp Input and Output Resistance lecture 2/5

The input resistance is large, but finite

Because the input resistance is finite, the total current into real op-amp
terminals are:
v+
i+ = IB 2 +
Rin

v−
i− = IB 1 +
Rin

As such, our input terminal circuit model is:

Op-Amp Input
i− = IB 1 Terminal Model
-
v−
Rin
IB 1

i+ = IB 2
v+ +

Rin
IB 2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Real Op Amp Input and Output Resistance lecture 3/5

Don’t use resistors that are too large!

We find that the input current v − Rin or v + Rin will be insignificant (i.e., we can
ignore its effect), provided that all other resistors used in an op-amp circuit are
significantly less than the op-amp input resistance Rin.

Q: But this would imply that we should

never use resistor values greater than
100K in our op-amp circuits!

A: That’s exactly right!

If the resistor values that you use in your op-circuit design are of the order of
Rin, you may find that your circuit behaves quite differently from what you
expected!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Real Op Amp Input and Output Resistance lecture 4/5

Worse even than finding haggis on the menu

Now let’s examine the real values of op-amp output resistance.

Instead of the ideal value of zero, we find that the output resistances of real
op-amps are non-zero (i.e., Rout
op
> 0 )!

Recall that the output resistance of both the inverting and non-inverting
configurations is approximately equal to the op-amp output resistance (i.e.,
Rout = Rout
op
).

Thus, we find that the output resistance of real inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers are likewise non-zero!

Q: NO! The amplifier output resistance is

not zero?!?

This means that the amplifier output will not

be equal to the open-circuit voltage if a finite
load is attached!

A: This is absolutely correct!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

3/9/2011 Real Op Amp Input and Output Resistance lecture 5/5

Still, Rout is usually pretty darn small

Remember, the output voltage of an amplifier is equal to the input voltage times
the open-circuit voltage gain only when the amplifier output is connected to an
open circuit.

vin Rout > 0

+
RL vout ≠ Avo vin
−

But, recall that the output voltage will be approximately equal to the open-
circuit voltage if the output resistance is much smaller than the load resistance.
I.E.,:
vout  Avo vin if Rout  RL

Typical values of real op-amp output resistances are less than 5 Ohms!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS