Challenges in supercritical CO2 power cycle technology and first operational

experience at CVR
Vojacek, Ales; Hacks, Alexander Johannes; Melichar, Tomas; Frybort, Otakar;
Hájek, Petr
In: 2nd European sCO2 Conference 2018

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.17185/duepublico/46075

URN: urn:nbn:de:hbz:464-20180827-122255-0

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CHALLENGES IN SUPERCRITICAL CO2 POWER CYCLE TECHNOLOGY AND
FIRST OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE AT CVR
Ales Vojacek*
Research Centre Rez
Rez, Czech Republic
Email: ales.vojacek@cvrez.cz
Tomas Melichar Otakar Frybort
Research Centre Rez Research Centre Rez
Rez, Czech Republic Rez, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT
CVR, Research Centre Rez, Czech Republic, is
investigating advanced Brayton cycles using supercritical CO2
(sCO2) as working fluid, which has potential for high
thermodynamic efficiency of a power plant. This innovative
technology needs to be demonstrated and experimentally
proven by numerous tests. For this purpose, CVR has built a
sCO2 experimental loop within Sustainable Energy project
(SUSEN). This unique facility is flexible, modifiable and
suitable for performance testing of key components of sCO2
conversion cycles such as compressor, turbine, heat exchanger
and valves together with material research with wide range of
parameters: temperature up to 550°C, pressure up to 30 MPa
and mass flow rate up to 0.35 kg/s. This paper covers literature
survey on major challenges in sCO2 development and the design
of the loop with description of key components. The first
operational experience is given as well as the discussion on the
measured data set. Finally, it is outlined how the sCO2 loop is
involved in various research projects such as sCO2-HeRo
project (heat removal safety back-up system for LWR) for
testing of sCO2 turbomachine (TAC) and air sink heat
exchanger (sink HX).
INTRODUCTION
In pursuit of inventing effective ways of generating
electricity, researchers are experimenting with different working
fluids as an alternative to the conventional water-steam in
energy conversion cycles. Such a fluid is e.g. supercritical CO2
and the idea of applying it in energetics using Brayton cycle is
far not new. The advantages of the sCO2 are coming from its
2nd European supercritical CO2 Conference
August 30-31, 2018, Essen, Germany
2018-sCO2.eu-100
Alexander Hacks
Universität Duisburg-Essen
Duisburg, Germany
Petr Hajek
Research Centre Rez
Rez, Czech Republic
real gas properties have been outlined and discussed during the
60's [1]-[2]. Over the past several decades there has been a
prolific increase in research and development that make
deployment of the sCO2 systems more likely. Number of
institutions have built their sCO2 facility. Most of them are
focusing on heat transfer (HT) near the critical region (7.4 MPa,
31°C) in simple circular heated geometries. First experimental
data are dated to 60’s. The very first HT research in sCO 2 was
performed in USA and in former Soviet Union [3]-[4]. An
exhaustive literature survey on an early research on supercritical
HT is reported in [5]. Recently built experimental loops for
sCO2 HT investigation near pseudo-critical point found in
literature are summarized in Annex A [6]-[16]. The main
motivation of these facilities is to deliver new HT correlations,
which could be transferred for the supercritical water as both
media show similarities in pseudo-critical region and the
parameters can be scaled from one supercritical media to
another like proposed in [17] and [18]. To develop such a
facility for sCO2 is more economical than for water where the
critical point is much higher (22.1 MPa, 374°C). Heat transfer
at the supercritical pressure is very different from that at the
subcritical pressure due to the drastic variations of the physical
properties of fluids at around the pseudo-critical temperature. In
addition, at heating sections oriented vertically with upward
flow, the buoyancy effect reduces turbulence and shear stress
causing heat transfer deterioration (HTD) [17]. The
supercritical water enhances the efficiency of the fossil-fuel
power plants already and supercritical water reactor design is
part of the future nuclear reactors concepts (Generation IV). In
such technologies, the problematic pseudo-critical point of
water is being crossed in a heat source, i.e. boiler or nuclear
reactor. Hence, HT become of great importance since HTD
could lead to fuel overheating and in the worst case to core
1 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
meltdown. However, this is not the case for the sCO2 energy
applications. In the sCO2 Brayton cycle, the pseudo-critical
point will be crossed in a cooler. As far as for the HT, the heat
transfer deterioration or enhancement would only lead to
underestimated or overestimated size of the cooler, potentially
decreasing/increasing the overall thermodynamic efficiency of
the conversion cycle.
A number of researchers [19]-[43] have investigated heat
transfer in the coolers using sCO2 as an effective alternative
refrigerant (in air-conditioning and heat pump systems using
trans-critical cycles) to conventional substances such as
chlorinated and fluorinated hydrocarbons, which are much more
harmful to the environment and destroy the ozone layer. The
very first research on HT is dated back to 1937 and was
conducted in Germany. From the studies, it can be concluded
that heat transfer is enhanced greatly in the near-critical region,
with a maximum heat transfer coefficient occurring at the
corresponding pseudocritical temperature and the maximum
heat transfer coefficient decreases as the pressure increases. No
HTD in the sCO2 was found in literature. The experimental
work on coolers in sCO2 is shown in Annex B.
The sCO2 Brayton cycle architecture has been largely
studied since the choice of recommended cycle configuration is
far not straightforward. Researchers are conducting theoretical
studies on numerous sCO2 configurations such as condensation,
simple Brayton, precompression, recompression, split
expansion, partial cooling, cascade, simple re-heat, double re-
heat cycles [44]. For waste heat recovery application with
sensible heat (e.g. flue gas combustion cycle), bottom cycle is
needed to maximize the usable power. Various cascade like
cycles are recommended [45]. However, the recompression
cycle (operating at pressures of 20-25 MPa maximum
temperature of 650°C) is perceived as the most promising cycle
layout for the heat flux sources applications such as nuclear and
solar power plants [46]. This is owing to the fact that the pinch
point problem in the recuperator is in recompression cycle
prevented by the lower mass flow at high pressure side of the
low temperature recuperator, hence the heat capacity mass flow
on both sides are equal and recuperation is prolonged. In order
to prevent large HXs volume the introduction of effective
compact HXs has to come in place to enable achieving a high
degree of regeneration with recuperators of reasonable cost.
The most compact of those presently available are Printed
Circuit Heat Exchangers (PCHX) and they can be utilized in
Brayton cycle as coolers (cooled by water for instance, but not
by air because of too high pressure drop), yet more importantly
as recuperators. This new type of HX has been developed by
Heatric Pty Ltd over the last few decades [47]. Flat plates are
photochemically etched with heat-transfer passages and then
diffusion bonded together to form a solid block which can
withstand high pressure and high temperature (700°C at 80
MPa/800°C at 35 MPa for Inconel 617 [48], 600°C at 20 MPa
[49]) unlike the finned plate HX. A unique channel design
requires optimization to maximize heat transfer while
minimizing pressure drop. Based on the literature survey, the
surface geometries of PCHXs can be categorized as either
continuous or discontinuous-fin surfaces. Continuous fin
surfaces include straight, sinusoidal, and zig-zag channels,
while discontinuous surfaces include louver, S-shaped, and
airfoil fin geometries. The experimental work performed in
PCHX with sCO2 is summarized in Annex C [50]-[58]. A
comparison of a straight, two different zig-zag (40°/32.5° angle)
and two types of airfoil (4/8.1 mm length) channel geometries at
nearly equivalent cross-sectional area ratios have been made
[55]. Based on this study, two airfoil geometries appear to
perform much better than the zig-zag geometries, provided
almost the same thermal performance with hydraulic losses
reduced to almost the level of equivalent hydraulic straight
channel.
The next task and likely the most challenging one is the
sCO2 turbomachinery design. The turbomachinery components
claims to be highly compact due to significant power densities
resulting in economically attractive solution. Sandia National
Laboratory [59] has begun testing of sCO2 compressors and
turbines of power of few hundreds of kWe with poor
efficiencies. The isentropic/polytrophic efficiencies of most
power turbomachines increase with size and so does the sCO2
machines. Hence, there is a need for bigger scale demonstrator
in multi-MWe range in order to move the concept closer to
market. Echogen [60] has developed sCO2 10 MWe heat engine
technology for waste heat recovery. However, there seems to be
still some open issues, since they claim to have reached just 3
MWe for limited period of time. Within the SunShot program
funded by Department of Energy, GE together with Southwest
Research Institute aims to develop 10 MWe recompression
sCO2 cycle for CSP. In advance, they have built a simple
recuperated Brayton cycle to test 1 MWe turbine [61]. There
are several areas in which additional research is needed in order
to make the sCO2 cycle commercially viable. The impeller,
diffusor and diaphragm need an advanced design to reach good
efficiency and cope with the highly non-ideal behavior of the
sCO2 close to the critical point, possibly choked and two-phase
flow conditions. Proper sealing is a key issue. Due to high
pressure differences and design limitations (axial lengths) the
labyrinth seals are not suitable. The dry gas seals are considered
to have the best performance. The design of bearings to balance
the thrust loads is challenging. Gas-foil thrust and journal
bearings seem to be suitable option. They are widely used in
small scale machines. However, the applicability for large scale
machines needs to be tested. The rotation speed of sCO2
turbomachines of 10 MW will likely be few times higher the
standard 3000 rpm. Hence, design of gear box or high speed
generators is required. If a shaft from a turbine is sealed, e.g. by
dry gas seal, then commercial products of high speed
generators/gear boxes are available.
Attractive thermal efficiencies of sCO2 are reached at
pressures as high as 25 MPa and temperatures as high as 650°C.
Hence, material research is being conducted. Large number of
corrosion data has been gained in University of Wisconsin. The
corrosion behavior of commercial austenitic steels 800H and
2 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
AL-6XN and ferritic-martensitic steels F91 and HCM12A  The water cooler (CH1) cools down the sCO2 at the
exposed to sCO2 at 650°C and 20.7 MPa for up to 3000 hours inlet of the MP by water (nominal temperature 20°C,
was studied [55] with positive results. Further testing with 1.4 kg/s flow rate of water).
various austenitic/ferritic steels is planned at CVR, Czech  Air driven filling (reciprocating) compressor (gas
Republic and in Centro Sviluppo Materiali Spa, Italy, within the booster station) which pumps the sCO2 from the CO2
European H2020 project sCO2-Flex for 25MWe sCO2 Brayton bottles and also controls the operating pressure (the
cycle coaled powered development. main parameters listed in Table 1).
A reliable operation of the sCO2 Brayton cycle requires to
carefully study the stability and control. The development and Table 1: Parameters of the filling compressor.
validation models that are capable of predicting operational Device Filling compressor - DLE5-
performance characteristics in sCO2 are important. Currently, 15-GG-C
there a few sCO2 experimental loops equipped well enough to Nominal inlet pressure of CO2 0.5 MPa
demonstrate sCO2 Brayton cycle or at least a most part of it. It Nominal outlet pressure 6.5 MPa
includes Echogen (waste heat recovery system, planned 10 Maximum outlet pressure 30 MPa
MWe), SunShot (Simple recuperated cycle, 1 MWe and Nominal flowrate 15 lN/min
recompression cycle 10 MWe planned) Sandia National Nominal air pressure 0.6 MPa
Laboratory (full Brayton recompression cycle, few hundreds of
kWe reached), SCIEL loop in KAIST, South Korea (cycle for The dashed blue line at the PID stands for the air cooled
compressor testing, rest of the Brayton cycle on the way, few finned-tube sink HX testing layout and the green dash-and-dot
hundreds of kWe planned) and CVR, Czech Republic (Brayton line marks the modification for the turbomachinery performance
cycle with piston pump and turbine substituted by reduction testing.
valve, 110 kW heat power). The experimental work performed
in integral sCO2 loops is summarized in Annex D [61]-[63]. The main operating parameters of the primary circuit are shown
in Table 2.
Table 2: The main operating parameters of the sCO2 primary
CVR SCO2 EXPERIMENTAL LOOP DESCRIPTION loop.
The sCO2 experimental loop was constructed within Maximum operation pressure 25 MPa
SUSEN (Sustainable Energy) project in 2017. This unique Maximum pressure 30 MPa
facility enables component testing of sCO2 Brayton cycle such Maximum operation temperature 550°C
as compressor, turbine, HX, valves and to study key aspects of Maximum temperature in HTR 450°C
the cycle (heat transfer, erosion, corrosion etc.) with wide range Maximum temperature in LTR 300°C
of parameters: temperature up to 550°C, pressure up to 30 MPa Nominal mass flow 0.35 kg/s
and mass flow rate up to 0.35 kg/s. The loop is designed to
represent sCO2 Brayton cycle behavior. The sCO2 loop layout is depicted in Figure 1 and the top view
of the built facility is shown in Figure 2.
Annex E shows the piping and instrument diagram (PID) of
the loop. The primary circuit is marked in thick red and it
consists of following main components:
 The main pump (piston type), which circulates sCO2
through the cycle with the variable speed drive for the
flow rate control.
 The high and low temperature regenerative heat
exchanger (HTR HX/LTR HX), which recuperates the
heat, hence reduce the heating and cooling power.
 The 4 electric heaters (H1/1, H1/2, H2, H3), which
have in total a maximum power of 110 kW and raise
the temperature of sCO2 to the desired test section
(TS) inlet temperature up to 550°C.
 The reduction valve which consists of series of orifices
to reduce the pressure and together with oil cooler
(CH2) represent a turbine. Nominal temperature of oil
(Marlotherm SH) is 140°C and flow rate is 0.4 kg/s.
The oil is used due to the high temperatures of the
exhaust heat (up to 550°C).
Figure 1: 3D CAD model of the sCO2 loop.

3 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075

Figure 2: A view from the top to the built sCO2 loop.
Table 3 summarize parameters of MP and the schematic cross-
section of MP is shown in Figure 3.
Table 3: Parameters of the main pump.
Device
Nominal inlet pressure
Nominal outlet pressure
Maximal outlet pressure
Nominal inlet temperature
Maximum inlet temperature
Nominal isentropic efficiency
Rotational speed
Volumetric flowrate
Internal tube Ø 10 x 1.5 mm,
Shell Ø 50 x 5 mm.
H1/1 + H1/2 Length = 0.95 m, Number of
(30 + 30 kW) heating rods = 2 x 6,
(from SS) Diameter of a heating rod = 8
mm, Shell Ø 100 x 20 mm
H2 Length = 0.95 m, Number of
(30 kW) heating rods = 2 x 6,
(from Inconel 625) Diameter of a heating rod = 8
mm, Shell Ø 73 x 6.5 mm
H3 Length = 0.75 m, Number of
(20 kW) heating rods = 2 x 6,
(from SS) Diameter of a heating rod = 8
mm, Shell Ø 100 x 20 mm
CH1 Length = 7.5 m, Number of
(counter-flow shell and tube- internal tubes = 7, Internal
type from SS) tube Ø 10 x 1.5 mm, Shell Ø
43 x 1.5 mm
CH2 Length = 1.8 m, Number of
(counter-flow shell and tube- internal tubes = 7, Internal
type from Inconel 625/SS) tube Ø 10 x 1.5 mm, Shell Ø
43 x 1.5 mm
TS Length = 1.5 m, Shell Ø 73 x
(from Inconel 625) 6.5 mm
Pipeline from MP to T- Length = 4m, Tube Ø 22 x 4
Main Pump - PAX-3-30-18-
junction LTR by-pass mm
250-YC-CRYO-drive 9/FM
LTR by-pass Length = 7 m, Tube Ø 22 x 4
12.5 MPa
mm
25 MPa
Pipeline from T-junction LTR Length = 6 m, Tube Ø 22 x 4
30 MPa by-pass to LTR mm
25°C Pipeline from CH1 to MP Length = 8 m, Tube Ø 20 x 3
50°C mm
0.7
250÷1460 rpm The electrical heater H3 with nominal power 20 kW is
5÷30 l/min. positioned at the bypass of the LTR in order to simulate the
behavior of a recompression cycle.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES WITH SCO2 LOOP

The very first procedure necessary before starting-up the
loop is vacuuming. It not only enables to eliminate all
atmospheric gases, but also helps to remove unwelcome
moisture. The system includes a vacuum pump which provides
20 kPa absolute pressure and is connected to an exhaust system
to ambient. The loop is equipped with several joints from which
it is possible to suck contaminants. The advantage is in an
Figure 3: Cross-section of main pump. effective and economic handling of the CO2 content. While
some part of the loop needs to be opened and discharged the
The component geometry of the sCO2 loop is described in Table rest can stay full. In order to intensify the cleaning technique the
4. CO2 is let into the loop. The desired purity is checked by
sampling. To assure that the loop is gas tight the created
Table 4: Component geometry of the sCO2 loop negative pressure should stay constant for several hours
HTR + LTR Length of HTR = 20 m, (obviously with vacuum pump switched-off).
(counter-flow shell and tube- Length of LTR = 60 m, The next process is the filling. To fill the loop with the
type from SS) Number of internal tubes = 7, required mass to achieve operating conditions, CO2 vapor from

4 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
a standard pressurized bottle (where 2 phase CO2 is stored) is
introduced just before the water cooler CH1. The loop is
initially filled quite quickly due to the high pressure difference
in the bottle and the loop (approx. 60 bars). However, as the
pressure in the system rises and the bottle content is decreasing,
the process slows down. Hot air is used to heat up the bottle to
speed up the filling. The weight of the bottle is measured in
order to know how many CO2 goes in. When a fixed mass based
on model predictions gets near the normal operating mass which
in our case is around 40 kg of CO2 then the main circulation
pump can start circulating the CO2 content around. To adjust
(increase) the pressure in the system the heaters are switched
on. The maximum limit of 50 K/h temperature increase is
controlled. As the system heats up and pressure rises the mass
flow rate increases since the density at the inlet to the MP
increases. If further mass adjustments are needed to reach
desired parameters the air driven reciprocating compressor is
used to boost the CO2 to the loop and reducing the pressure can
be performed through opening the bleeding valves with orifices
installed in the pipe. For setting the inlet temperature to the MP
a speed of a water pump is adjusted to control the water flow
rate through the CH1 cooler.
The operation of the loop is controlled by the MP speed
drive. Flow rate sCO2 measured with a coriolis flow meter. It is
possible to adjust the flow rate through the LTR by-pass so to
simulate recompression cycle, as well as to adapt flow rate
through the CH2 (simulating the turbine heat power release).
The loop is divided into the low and high pressure part. The
separation is performed by the reduction valve. The pressure in
both parts is adjusted by the opening position of the valve.
To protect the loop against over pressure several pressure
relief valves are installed at positions, where increase of
pressure might occur. These are e.g. the heating parts equipped
with closing valves both at the inlet and outlet as well as the
pump.
The shut-down procedure is performed through the heating
power control. The 50 K/h temperature change should be
satisfied to bring the loop to the cold state (20°C). If there is a
need for a repair the necessary part or the whole loop is
evacuated trough the release valves and system of orifices to
slow down the pressure change.
Within the European H2020 project sCO2-HeRo (2016-
2018) [64], six partners from three European countries are
working on the assessment of this cycle. The goal is to
numerically and experimentally prove the concept on a small-
scale demonstrator which shall be incorporated in the PWR
glass model at the Simulator Centre GfS in Essen, Germany.
The sCO2-HeRo is a system for safe, reliable and efficient
removal of residual heat from nuclear fuel without the
requirement of external power source.
Before assembling the small sCO2-HeRo system in the GfS,
each major component was tested in different institutions. The
performance of the compact HX (micro channel type) was
verified in the sCO2 test loop (SCARLETT) in University of
Stuttgart, while the air-cooled sink HX, compressor and turbine
were measured in the CVR sCO2 experimental facility.
Due to high flexibility of the loop layout, the loop might be
easily modified and therefore can provide wide range of
conditions for various experiments in terms of the operational
parameters, geometry of test sections or thermal cycle
simulations.
AIR COOLED SINK HEAT EXCHANGER TESTING
The heat transfer investigations in the air cooled sCO2
finned-tube sink HX test configuration took place at CVR
(Figure 4). Annex E shows the piping and instrument diagram
(PID) of the sCO2 loop and the dashed blue line stands for the
sink HX testing modification to the existing loop.

UTILIZATION OF THE CVR SCO2 LOOP

The CVR sCO2 loop is involved in various research
projects for testing of materials and equipment of the Brayton
conversion cycle.
Figure 4: The sink HX with measurements.
The CVR with 9 other European partners is involved in
sCO2-Flex project (2018-2020), where the main components of
The nominal thermodynamic parameters of sink HX are
a 25 MWe Brayton cycle (boiler, HX, turbomachinery,
shown in Table 5.
instrumentation and control strategies) are being designed and
optimized. The CVR role is to provide material tests, thermal- Table 5: Thermodynamic parameters of sink HX
hydraulic tests of HXs (PCHXs and FPHX) and perform several
design/off-design and abnormal operation to provide sufficient pressure of sCO2 inlet to sink HX 7.83 MPa
data for computational codes validation. temperature of sCO2 outlet of sink HX 33.0°C
temperature of sCO2 inlet to sink HX 166.0°C

5 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
mass flowrate of sCO2 0.325 kg/s
thermal power of sink HX 92.5 kW
temperature of air inlet to sink HX 25.0°C
temperature of air outlet of sink HX 50.0°C
volumetric flowrate of air outlet 12500.0 m3/h
electric power of EC fans 0.33 kW
The measurement campaigns covered both supercritical
and subcritical regions including transition through the
pseudocritical region in the last stages of the sink HX. The
critical point of the CO2 is 7.39 MPa and 31.1°C. The
controlled (independent) and resulted (dependent) parameters
are summarized in Table 6.
Table 6: The main controlled and measured parameters for the
performance tests
Pressure – inlet of sCO2 in the sink HX –
7 – 10 MPa
controlled
Temperature of sCO2 inlet to the sink HX –
50 – 166°C
controlled
Temperature of sCO2 outlet from the sink HX
25 – 37°C
– measured
0.1 – 0.32
Mass flow rate of the sink HX – controlled
kg/s
Temperature of air inlet to the sink HX –
23 – 31°C
*controlled
Temperature of air outlet from the sink HX –
31 – 65°C
measured
6 000 – Volumetric flow rate of air outlet from the sink
13 000 m3/h HX – controlled
* depends on the actual ambient temperature.
The experimentally determined heat balances from the
measured parameters on both sides (sCO2 and air) are in fair
agreement (±15 %) with each other which demonstrate good
quality measurement. The results of calculated averaged overall
heat transfer coefficients using correlations (Gnielinsky [65] for
sCO2 and IPPE [66] or VDI [67] for the air) and experimentally
determined values shows for the performed tests reasonably low
error of + 25 % and – 10 %. Hence, using the correlations for
the estimation of the heat transfer in the sink HX with a similar
design and similar conditions gives a fair error and thus is
recommended. Utilizing the measured data with look-up tables
for the HT of the sink HX is rather complicated to program.
The analyzed correlations for heat transfer on the air side
according to IPPE and VDI are in perfect match with each
other. More detailed discussion of the performance is presented
in the paper of Vojacek et al. [68].
TURBOMACHINE TESTING
The sCO2 experimental loop is easy to modify and was thus
used for two purposes in the sCO2-HeRo project. After the
component test of the heat sink it was also used for TAC testing.
For TAC testing the sCO2 experimental loop was redone in a
way that the expansion valve was replaced with the turbine and
the main pump (MP) with the compressor. The MP was then
used for leakage feedback to regulate the pressure in the central
housing around the bearings and the generator. The heater and
recuperator arrangement was adjusted in a way that one of the
recuperators (LTR) was bypassed. The reason is the lower inlet
temperature of the turbine, which lies well below the cycle
maximum temperature of 650 °C, and the resulting lower
heating power. The complete thermodynamic design parameters
of the sCO2-HeRo TAC are summarized in Table 7. The TAC
has an integrated design with turbine, generator and compressor
in one casing. Thus, its general layout is similar to
turbomachines of other small scale sCO2 test cycles such as the
SNL RCBC, IST, TIT or SCIEL cycle, which are presented in
the book of Brun et al. [61]. Mayor difference to the
turbomachines of these cycles is, that the sCO2-HeRo cycle
mass flow is even smaller (see Table 7). For detailed
information on the TAC design please refer to Hacks et al. [69].
Table 7: Design parameters of the TAC
Component Parameter Value
Cycle Mass flow 0.65 kg/s
Pressure 78.3 MPa
Compressor inlet
Temperature 33 °C
Compressor outlet Pressure 11.75 MPa
Pressure 11.75 MPa
Turbine inlet
Temperature 200 °C
Turbine outlet Pressure 7.83 MPa
Goals of the first component tests of the turbomachine in the
modified loop are as follows:
 Gain experience in operating an sCO2-loop with a
TAC
 Comparison of the predicted TAC behavior with the
real behavior.
 Finding of a suitable strategy for turbomachine start-up
and setting the operation point
 Measuring of the performance maps and comparison to
the calculated performance
Prior to start-up of the TAC the cycle is brought to
supercritical conditions by using the MP to circulate CO2
through the cycle. The CO2 is heated simultaneously to raise the
pressure. Additionally, a booster pump or release valves are
used for adjusting the pressure independent of the temperature
and thus be more flexible in setting an operation point.
Changing the pressure in the central housing to supercritical
conditions reveled incompatibility of sCO2 with grease used for
lubrication. The bearings are designed as angular hybrid ball
bearings. Therefore, CO2 in the central housing must constantly
be held in gaseous condition by reducing the pressure to
subcritical conditions. This means that during start-up, the
valves to the turbomachine are opened, only if gaseous
6 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
conditions are reached. At this point the pressure needs to be CVR works in the sCO2 for several years now and operates
subcritical. If the valves are open the turbomachine is started by sCO2 loop for testing of Brayton cycle. The first operational
using the generator as motor to accelerate the shaft to the experience with the turbomachine tests of a size of 10 kWe has
desired speed. Different acceleration rates were tested. been given along with the heat transfer investigations in the air
Compared to the sCO2 experimental loop the sCO2-HeRo cycle cooled sCO2 finned-tube sink HX. The compressor performance
design is a non-recuperated, simple Brayton cycle and thus has measurements of the pressure ratio matched well with the CFD
lower pressure losses. First performance tests showed that calculations and the heat transfer at the sink HX is predictable
closed loop operation is not possible in the loop at CVR due to using the conventional 1D empirical correlation (Gnielinsky
the additional pressure losses. This means, that the overall [63] for sCO2 and IPPE [66] or VDI [67] for the air).
pressure losses would push the compressor operating point The described first operational experience and the data
across the surge line. Performance tests of the compressor are obtained from different experiments proves operability and
therefore carried out in bypass operation using a control valve flexibility of the loop, which may be utilized within various
to throttle the flow. In this way pressure ratio and through flow experimental campaigns in the field of sCO2.
rate could be adjusted. The measurements showed good
agreement with the calculated performance map. The calculated NOMENCLATURE
pressure ratio lies within the range of measurement uncertainty. Abbreviation Description
Changing the inlet conditions further showed, that decreasing CH Cooler
the inlet temperature increases the pressure ratio. More detailed CVR Reseach Center Rez, Czech
discussion of the performance is presented in the paper of Rebublic
Hacks et al. [70]. FPHX Finned plate heat exchanger
H Heater
CONCLUSIONS HPC High pressure compressor
This paper comprises a comprehensive literature review of HT Heat transfer
the experimental work done in sCO2 including heat transfer and HTD Heat transfer deterioration
pressure drops in HXs, turbomachinery, system behavior and HTR High temperature heat
materials. The results of this review can be summarized as exchanger
follows. The heat transfer in the supercritical region varies HX Heat exchanger
greatly with temperature. There has been extensive research in IPPE Institute of Physics and Power
heated surfaces. There in the vertical flow at high heat fluxes Engineering
and low mass flow rates the heat transfer deterioration occurs at KAPL/BAPL Knolls Atomic Power Lab/
near pseudo critical region. This has to do with buoyant force Bettis Atomic Power Lab &
which disturb the turbulence. Number of authors have Korea Atomic Energy
investigated the cooling surfaces as well. All researches Research Institute
observed improvement of heat transfer during cooling at the KAERI & KAIST & Korea Advanced Institute of
pseudo critical region. Various types of compact heat POSTECH Science and Technology &
exchangers have been discussed with focus on the most Korea Atomic Energy
effective PCHXs. Based on the literature survey, comparisons Research Institute & Pohang
between different channel geometries reveals that the airfoil University of Science and
geometries appear to perform much better than the zig-zag Technology
geometries. In the past 10 years, a number of sCO2 Brayton LPC Low pressure compressor
cycles designs and prototypes have been developed. The LPT Low pressure turbine
experimental data from small test facilities (100 kWe range) LTR Low temperature heat
indicate that the basic design and performance predictions are exchanger
sound. A few multi-MWe range are in early stage operation. The LWR Light water reactors
most challenging is the turbomachinery. The design is very
MP Main pump
compact due to the high pressures resulting in highly dense gas
PID Piping and instrument
which implies extreme loads on blades. The compact design
diagram
requires also high speed which makes the bearing and seal
PCHX Printed circuit heat exchanger
design challenging. Additional difficulties are related with the
RPM Rotation per minute
stability of the cycle and operation in off-design region. Hence,
progressive engineering research and development is required SNL RCBC Sandia National Laboratories
to improve existing prototypes and bring the technology closer recompression closed Brayton
to the market. cycle
TAC Turbomachine
TIT Test loop at Tokyo Institute of

7 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
 Technology
SCIEL Supercritical CO2 Brayton
Cycle Integral Experimental
Loop
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project has received funding from the
European research and training programme
2014 – 2018 under grant agreement No
662116.
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Award Number: 88234, Project Number: 09-778, Oct. 30, 2012. Compressor. 2018-sCO2.eu-115, 2nd European supercritical
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and Applications of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SCO2)

10 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
ANNEX A

RECENTLY BUILT EXPERIMENTAL SCO2 FACILITIES FOR HT INVESTIGATION TO HEATED SURFACES NEAR
PSEUDO-CRITICAL POINT

Table 8: Recently built experimental sCO2 facilities for HT investigation to heated surfaces near pseudo-critical point

Year Country Facility Parameters Geometry and flow

SPHINX (KAERI), 7.75÷8.12 MPa, inlet 5÷39 Vertical upward/downward flow,
2005 South Korea [6]-[7] °C, 285÷1200 kg/m2/s, Ø 4.4/4.57/6.32/ 9.0mm, annulus 8 x 10 mm
30÷170 kW/m2
Tsinghua University, 8.6 MPa, inlet 25÷30°C, Vertical upward/downward flow, Ø 0.27 mm
2008 [11]-[12] 388÷582 kg/m2/s, 27÷549
2008 kW/m2
China
Tsinghua University, 8.6 – 9.5 MPa, inlet 23 ÷ 36 Vertical upward/downward flow, Ø 2 mm
2008 [13] °C, 6.3 – 6.6 kg/m2/s,
2008 4.5÷94 kW/m2
SPHINX (KAERI), 7.75÷8.12 MPa, inlet 5÷39 Vertical upward/downward flow,
2010 [6]-[7] °C, 285÷1200 kg/m2/s, Ø 4.4/4.57/6.32/ 9.0mm, annulus 8 x 10 mm
30÷170 kW/m2
South Korea
Pohang University, 7.5÷10.3 MPa, inlet 29 °C, Vertical upward flow, Ø 4.5 mm
2010 [10] 208÷874 kg/m2/s, 38÷234
kW/m2
Tsinghua University, 7.6 MPa, inlet 22÷34 °C, Vertical upward/downward flow, Ø 1 mm
2014 [14] 230–354 kg/m2/s, 12÷63
kW/m2
China Nuclear Power 8.2÷10.2 MPa, inlet 27÷30 Vertical upward flow, Ø 6 mm
Institute of China, °C, 245–393 kg/m2/s, 4÷53
2015
Sichuan, Natural kW/m2
circulation loop, [15]
SCUOL Ottawa, [16] 6.6÷8.36 MPa, 11÷30 °C, Vertical upward flow, 3 rods (Ø 10 mm)
2015 Canada 330÷1173 kg/m2/s, 56÷175 bundle in Ø 25.4 mm
kW/m2

ANNEX B
EXPERIMENTAL SCO2 FACILITIES FOR HT INVESTIGATION IN COOLERS

Table 9: Experiments in sCO2 facilities for HT investigation in coolers (chronologically ordered)

Year Country Facility Parameters Geometry and flow

Berlin, [19] 6÷7.4 MPa, temperature close to critical Vertical downward flow,
1937 Germany
temperature (no superheating), 0.05÷0.3 m/s Circular tube
Moscow Power 8÷12 MPa, 29÷214 °C, Re=(900÷3200) x 10 3, Horizontal flow, Ø 2.22 mm
1969 Russia Engineering Institute 120÷1110 kW/m2
[20]
University of Tokyo, - Vertical downward flow,
1967 Japan
[21] Circular tube Ø 6 mm
Moscow Power 8÷12 MPa, 17÷212 °C, 1560÷4170 kg/m2/s, up Vertical upward/downward
1977 Russia Engineering Institute to 640 kW/m2 flow, Ø 4.12 mm
[22]
1985 Russia Moscow, [23] 7.85÷12 MPa, 20÷248 °C, 450÷4000 kg/m2/s, -

11 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
 14÷1000 kW/m2
Moscow, [24] 7.85÷12 MPa, 20÷248 °C, 450÷4000 kg/m2/s, -
1985 Russia
14÷1000 kW/m2
1998 USA Purdue University, [25] 8.4÷11.4 MPa, 20÷124 °C, 1200÷2400 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, Ø 4.7 mm
SINTEF Energy 8.1÷10.1 MPa, 15÷70 °C, 600÷1200 kg/m2/s, Horizontal flow, Multi-port
2000 Norway Research, [26] 10÷20 kW/m2 extruded circular tube, Ø 0.79
mm
NIST, [27] 7.8÷13.4 MPa, 23÷87 °C, 200÷900 kg/m2/s, Horizontal flow, Ø 10.9 mm
2000 USA
1.78÷6.22 kW
2000 USA Purdue University, [28] 8÷12 MPa, 100÷125 °C, 1700÷5100 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, Ø 2.75 mm
University of Illinois, 7.7÷14.4 MPa, 33÷140 °C, 0.45÷0.71 kg/s Horizontal flow, Multi-port
2001 USA [29] extruded circular tube, Ø 0.79
mm
Hong Kong, University 7.4÷12 MPa, 20÷110 °C, 0.02÷0.2 kg/min., Horizontal flow, Ø 0.5÷2.16
2002 China of Science and 10÷200 kW/m2 mm
Technology, [30]
2002 Japan Tokyo, [31] 7.6÷9.6 MPa, 20÷100 °C, 330÷680 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, Ø 5 mm
2002 Japan Tokyo, [32] 9.5 MPa, 20÷70 °C, 100÷500 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, Ø 4÷8 mm
South Seoul, [33] 7.5÷8.8 MPa, 50÷80 °C, 225÷450 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, Ø 7.7 mm
2003
Korea
Tokyo, National 8÷10 MPa, 5÷70 °C, 200÷1200 kg/m2/s, 6÷33 Horizontal flow, Ø 1÷6 mm
Institute of Advanced kW/m2
2004 Japan
Industrial Science and
Technology, [34]
Beijing, Chinese 7.4÷8.5 MPa, 22÷53 °C, 110÷420 kg/m2/s, 0.8÷9 Horizontal flow, Multi-port
2005 China Academy of Science, kW/m2 extruded circular tube, Ø 1.31
[35] mm
University of 8÷10 MPa, 25÷50 °C, 300÷1200 kg/m2/s, 20÷25 Horizontal flow, Multi-port
2006 USA Maryland, [36] kW/m2 extruded circular tube, Ø 0.79
mm
University of 8.4÷10.4 MPa, 40÷80 °C, 200÷400 kg/m2/s, Horizontal flow, Multi-port
2007 USA Maryland, [37] 20÷25 kW/m2 extruded circular tube, Ø 1
mm
CEA-Grenoble, 7.4÷12 MPa, 15÷70 °C, 50÷590 kg/m2/s Vertical flow,
2008 France Laboratoire Greth, [39] upward/downward flow, Ø 6
mm
South San, Pukyong National 7.5÷10 MPa, 20÷100 °C, 200÷600 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, Ø 4.55÷7.75
2010
Korea University, [40] mm
South Potchefstroom North- 8÷11 MPa, 34÷120 °C, Re = Re=(350÷680) x Horizontal flow, Ø 16 mm
2014
Africa West University, [41] 103
Brunel University, 7.6÷8.7 MPa, 30÷105 °C, 980÷1180 kg/m2/s Horizontal flow, finned tube
2015 UK
Uxbridge, [42] HX Ø 6.7 mm
HCMC University of 7.7÷8.6 MPa, 32÷56 °C Horizontal flow, finned tube
Technology and HX Ø 7.8/4.8 mm, finned plate
2017 Vietnam
Education, [43] HX – multiport micro-channel
height 0.6 mm, width 1.2 mm

ANNEX C
EXPERIMENTAL SCO2 FACILITIES FOR HT INVESTIGATION IN PCHX

Table 10: Experiments in sCO2 facilities for HT investigation in PCHX (chronologically ordered)

12 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
Year Country Facility Parameters Geometry and flow
Tokyo Institute of Hot side 2.2÷3.2 MPa, inlet 280÷300°C, Horizontal flow
Technology, [50] 0.011÷0.022 kg/s, 65÷130 kg/m2/s Zig-zag channel:
Cold side 6.5÷10.5 MPa, inlet 90÷108°C, Hot side fin gap 1.9 mm,
0.011÷0.022 kg/s, 161÷322 kg/m2/s channel depth 0.9 mm, wave
length 9 mm, pitch 2.964 mm,
2005 Japan
angle 32.5°,
Cold side fin gap 1.8 mm,
channel depth 0.9 mm, wave
length 7.24 mm, pitch 3.263
mm, angle 40°
Tokyo Institute of Hot side 6 MPa, inlet 120°C, 0.011÷0.042 kg/s, Horizontal flow
Technology, [51] 93÷356 kg/m2/s S-shape channels:
Cold side 7.7÷12 MPa, inlet 35÷55°C, Hot/cold side fin gap 1.31 mm,
0.011÷0.042 kg/s, 93÷356 kg/m2/s channel depth 0.94 mm, wave
length 7.565 mm, pitch 3.426
mm, angle 52°,
2007 Japan
Horizontal flow
Zig-zag channels:
Hot/cold side fin gap 1.31 mm,
channel depth 0.94 mm, wave
length 7.565 mm, pitch 3.426
mm, angle 52°
Argonne National Hot side 7.9÷8.5 MPa, inlet 154÷161°C, Horizontal flow
Laboratory, [52] 0.085÷0.091 kg/s, Zig-zag channels:
2010 USA Cold side 11.3÷20 MPa, inlet 40.7÷48.8°C, Hot side fin gap 1.5 mm,
0.054÷0.064 kg/s channel depth 0.75 mm, angle
38°, 45° (estimated)
University of Only 1 plate Hot side of sCO2 (surrounded 2 Horizontal/vertical
Wisconsin, [53] plates top/bottom with cold water) (downward/upward) flow
7.5÷8.1 MPa, inlet 20÷100 °C, 326÷762 kg/m2/s, Straight channel:
12÷36 kW/m2 Hot side fin gap 1.9 mm
Zig-zag channel:
Hot side fin gap 1.9 mm,
channel depth 0.9 mm, wave
2010 USA length 9 mm, pitch 2.964 mm,
angle 32.5°,
Horizontal flow
Zig-zag channel:
Hot side fin gap 1.9 mm,
channel depth 0.9 mm, wave
length 7.24 mm, pitch 3.263
mm, angle 40°
Tokyo Institute of - Horizontal flow
Technology, [54] Zig-zag, sinuous curve, S-
2011 Japan
shape, modified louvered,
louvered channels
University of Only 1 plate (surrounded 2 plates top/bottom with Horizontal flow
Wisconsin, [55] cold water) 8.1 mm NACA0020
6÷12 MPa, inlet 16÷105 °C, 210÷1200 kg/m2/s 4 mm NACA0020
2012 USA

2015 South KAIST, [56] Hot side sCO2/cold side water Horizontal flow

13 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
 Korea 7.3÷8.5 MPa, inlet 25÷40 °C, Re=2000÷58000 Zig-zag channel:
Hot/cold side fin gap 1.8 mm,
channel depth 0.75 mm, wave
length 9 mm, pitch 2.964 mm,
angle 32.5°
Atlanta, Georgia Only 1 plate (surrounded 2 plates top/bottom with Horizontal flow
Institute of Technology, cold water) 8.1 mm NACA0020
2016 USA
[57] 7.5÷8.1 MPa, inlet 12÷135 °C, 220÷660 kg/m2/s 9 mm Offset fin

SCARLETT, sCO2 heated up by steam Straight channel

2017 Germany University of Stuttgart, 9.5÷11 MPa, inlet 40 °C, 1233÷2267 kg/m2/s Hot side/cold side fin gap 2
[58] mm, channel depth 1 mm

ANNEX D
THE DESIGN COMPARISON OF SCO2 INTEGRAL TEST LOOPS

Table 11: The design comparison of SCO2 integral test loops

Facility Turbomachinery Cycle Heat Efficiency Mass flow rate Turbine intet Pressure Rpm
layout power [-] [kg/s] temp. [°C] ratio [-] [rmp x 10-3]
[kW]
SNL, [61], 2 x TAC, (2x100 Recompr. 780 0.315 3.5 (target) / 537 (target) / 1.8 75 (target) /
[62] kWe net target), (target) 2.7(achieved) 342(achieved) (target) / 52
1.65 (achieved)
(achieved
)
KAPL / 1 x TAC + 1 x Simple 834.9 0.147 5.35 (target) / 300 (target) 1.8 75(target)/60
BAPL, turbine (target 100 recuper. (target) 3.54 (achieved) (target) / (achieved)
[61], [62] kWe net), (40 1.44
kWe net achieved) (achieved
)
TIT, [61], 1 x TAC (10 kWe Simple 160 0.07 1.1 (achieved) 277 (achieved) 1.4 69
[62] net achieved) recuper. (achieved) (achieved (achieved)
)
KAERI & 1 x TAC Simple 1320 0.225 6.4 (target) 500 (target) 2.67 75 (LPT), 70
KAIST & (HPC&HPT), 1 x recuper. (target) (target) (LPC), 68
POSTEC turbine (LPT), 1 x (HPT &
H compressor HPC)
(SCIEL), (LPC), (250 kWe (target)
[61], [62] net target)
SunShot, 1 x compressor Simple 2600 - 8.4 (target) 715 (target) 2.9 27 (turbine)
[61], [63] (standard), 1 x recuper. (target) (target)
turbine (target 1
MWe net)
Echogen 1 x TAC, 1 x Simple 25000 - - 485 (target) - 30
(EPS100), turbine (10 MWe recuper. (target)
[61] net target) (3
MWe net
achieved)

14 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075
ANNEX E
EXPERIMENTAL SCO2 FACILITIES FOR HT INVESTIGATION IN PCHX RECUPERATORS

Figure 5: PID of the sCO2 loop in CVR

15 DOI: 10.17185/duepublico/46075