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Reproduction
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in Organisms
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Reproduction is the characteristic feature of all living organisms

by which they produce young ones of their own species. It is means
of multiplication and perpetuation of the species because the older
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In The Snapshot individuals of each species undergo senescence and die.

Asexual Reproduction It is a vital process without which species cannot survive for long.
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Sexual Reproduction It enables the continuity of species generation after generation.

It maintains life on earth and allow species to live indefinitely.
There are several factors which determine how an organism
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reproduces like the organisms habitat, its internal physiology and

environmental conditions.
Reproduction is divided into following two types based on the
number of parents involved in the process
1. Asexual reproduction It involves only one parent and no
involvement of gametes.
2. Sexual reproduction It involves both male and female
parents. Both contributes their part in the form of gametes
called sexual gametes or male and female gametes.

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2 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

Asexual Reproduction
Production of offspring by single parent without the formation or fusion of gametes is called asexual
reproduction. It involves only one parent. Thus, process like meiosis, gamete production, fertilisation and
parthenogenesis, etc., does not occur. Since asexual reproduction does not involves meiosis and fusion of gametes,
the offsprings produced are genetically similar to their parents. Further, they do not show any variations due to
absence of crossing over and recombination. These offsprings are referred to as clones. Genetic variation arises in
them only as a result of random mutation.
Asexual reproduction occurs most commonly in unicellular or cellular organism like monerans and protists,
and in higher plants and animals with relatively simple body organisations. It is very quick mode of reproduction
and therefore used by plant breeders for cloning. While in animals and other simple organisms the term asexual
reproduction is used ambiguously, but in plants the term vegetative propagation is preferred.

Modes of Asexual Reproduction

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It involves various methods such as binary fission, sporulation, budding, gemmae and gemmules, fragmentation

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and vegetative reproduction both in plants as well as animals. Various types of asexual reproduction may be
catagorised on the conditions in which organism is reproducing. In favourable condition reproduction by binary
fission, budding (gemmae) and gemmules are favored. But sporulation generally occurs during unfavourable
condition.
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The various modes of asexual reproduction are as follows
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Binary Fission
Binary fission is the process of division of parent into two daughter cells of equal size. During binary fission, the cell
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elongates and its nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei. A transverse wall is formed in the centre of the parent
cell dividing it into two daughter cells, which later on separate and lead independent lives. Bacteria divides rapidly
by binary fission.Binary fission is also the characteristic feature of some yeasts, e.g., Schizosaccharomyces pombe.
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Dividing Daughter cells

Cleavage nucleus
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pic

(a) (b) (c)

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Fig. 1.1 Fission in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Binary fission is the common method of asexual reproduction in Amoeba. It includes all the stages of
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karyokinesis of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) along with cytokinesis. A very interesting
feature seen in karyokinesis is the existence of multiple spindle which is reduced to unipolar spindle at the end of
the anaphase stage.
In case of Amoeba, the parent divides into offsprings. Thus, there exists a continuity of life and we can say that
Amoeba is potentially immortal. The various phases of binary fission are associated with the changes in the
shape of the animal and is seen under favourable conditions of food and water.
(i) In the prophase stage, animal withdraws its normal pseudopodia and becomes somewhat rounded and
small pseudopodia are seen all around. The cell organelles and honeycomb lattice disappear and cytoplasm
loses its transparency. The chromidia appear as duplicated chromosomes in the nucleus.
(ii) In the metaphase stage, the chromosomes are arranged over metaphase plate and formation of multipolar
spindles takes place.
(iii) In the anaphase stage, daughter chromosomes move towards opposite poles and construction of nuclear
membrane begins from the middle. Nuclear spindle becomes unipolar from the multipolar condition of
metaphase and the pseudopodia become larger and irregular in shape.

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Reproduction in Organisms 3

(iv) In the telophase stage, pseudopodia assume the normal shape. The body first elongates and then constricts in
the middle thus, resulting into two daughter amoebae.
This condition is exactly opposite to prophase, i.e., involves reappearance of organelles which were
disappeared in prophase.
Plasmalemma Chromosomes Daughter chromosomes
Fragmenting (chromatids)
Chromatin honey comb
Honey comb lattice
lattice

Multipolar
Nuclear Nucleoli
nuclear
membrane disintegrating
spindle
Interphase Prophase Metaphase Early anaphase

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Daughter
nuclei

Unipolar
ing Daughter
Tripolar
nuclear nuclear amoebae
spindle spindle
Mid anaphase Late anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis
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Fig. 1.2 Amoeba : Stages in binary fission

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Types of Binary Fission

Various types of binary fission are as follows
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(a) Transverse binary fission The fission in which plane of cytoplasmic division coincides with the transverse of
individual.
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(b) Longitudinal binary fission The fission in which plane of cytoplasmic division coincides with the
longitudinal plane of individual.
(c) Irregular binary fission Plane is not fixed.
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Multiple Fission
In this type of fission cell divides several times by mitosis producing several nuclei and then multiple daughter
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cells. It is a common method of reproduction in many protists, algae, protozoans and sporozoans.
Many daughter
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cells produced by
Nucleus multiple fission
Daughter cells
Cytoplasm
release

Cell (schizont)

Fig. 1.3 Multiple fission in Plasmodium

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4 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

Budding Gemmule
In this process, the parent cell produces one or more bud Reproduction by gemmules also known as propagules
like protuberances which detach from parent cell and is a charateristic of plants as well as animals. These
grow into new individual. Such type of reproduction is arise as modified branches and are rich in food and
very common in budding yeast (Saccharomyces) where germinate into new plant on detachment from the
chain of buds may produce pseudomycelium. parent.
During bud formation, the cell wall of the parent cell Gemmae
bulges out in the form of an outgrowth. The parent
nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei, one of which
migrate into the bud. As the bud enlarges and is fully
formed, it is separated from the parent cell and leads an
independent life.
Gemma cup
Developing bud Daughter cell
Dividing

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nucleus Mother
cell (a) (b)

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Fig. 1.6 Marchantia : (a) A thallus with gemma cups
(b) Gemmae cup

In case of Marchantia, the gemmae are multicellular,

Fig. 1.4 Budding in Saccharomyces
Budding also occurs in Hydra where a bud arises from
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green bodies of definite form, which develop in a
gemma cup. These may be unicellular, bicellular or
multicellular at the time of release.
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the side of this animal and later on detach and gives rise A gemmae cup contains about 15-20 gemmae. On
to a new individual. detachment from the parent thallus, they find a
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Tentacles suitable substratum to germinate and give rise to a

Mouth new plant.
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Hypostome In case of algae, the gemmae occurs in Sphacelaria.

In bryophytes, the gemmae are common in
Hepaticopsida, less common in Anthocerotopsida
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Batteries of nematocysts
and approximately not present in Bryopsida.
Testes In case of invertebrates, all freshwater and some
pic

Body Knob like tentacles marine sponges have a regular and specialised mode of
Bud
asexual reproduction called as gemmule formation.
Ovary Gemmules are normally seen in unfavourable
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conditions and help in passing over these conditions. A

Ovum
Bud fully grown gemmule is a small hard ball consisting of
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an internal mass of food laden archaeocytes,

Contracted
Pedal disc
body surrounded by a resistant chitinous covering.
(a) (b)
The structure contains a single opening called as
Fig. 1.5 (a) Expanded body of Hydra with bud and gonads micropyle. The covering of gemmule is two layered
(b) Contracted body bearing bud with monaxon spicules in between.

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Reproduction in Organisms
The gemmules are commonly seen in autumn when cold
and food scarcity is evident. The archaeocytes present
inside the gemmule are called histoblasts. As the
sponge body dies in autumn, the histoblast cells
present inside hatch from micropyle in the next
summer when the conditions become favourable again.
Micropyle
Outer covering
Inner covering
Archaeocytes
Spicules
Fig. 1.7 A gemmule of sponges
Thus, resulting into new generation of sponges. This
generation then dies in autumn again. Thus, an
alternation of generation seems to be present in these
forms.
Sporulation
The process of formation of spores is known as
sporulation. It is a mode of reproduction in monera,
protista, algae and fungi. Different organism produces
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different types of spores. Each spore, later on
germinates to produce a new individual.
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In plants, micropores and in some other cases
megaspore are formed from all four products of meiosis.
Different types of spores present in plants are as follows
pic
(i) Zoospores In Chlorophyceae
Phaeophyceae, motile and flagellated zoospores
are produced from zoosporangia during favourable
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conditions. Zoospores may be biflagellate as in
Chlamydomonas and Ulothrix quadriflagellate
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as in Ulothrix and Ectocarpus. The zoospores of
Vaucheria are multinucleate known as synzoospores.
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(ii) Aplanospores During unfavourable conditions,
some unicellular, uninucleate, non-motile and
thin-walled spores are produced, which are called
aplanospores, e.g., Spirogyra and Ulothrix.
(iii) Statospores These are thick-walled spores
found in diatoms. Their wall may be smooth or
variously ornamented.
(iv) Neutral spores In certain algae, the protoplast
of vegetative cells directly function as spores and
these are called as neutral spores, e.g.,
Asterocystis and Ectocarpus.
(v) Carpospores Spores produced directly in the
carpogonium of gonimoblast filament are called as
carpospores. These carpospores are common in
Polysiphonia, Batrachospermum and other red
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algae.
(vi) Tetraspores In brown algae, non-motile spores
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known as tetraspores are produced within the
specialised cells known as the tetrasporangia.
ing Tetraspores are produced on the diploid plant and
are haploid.
(vii) Hormospores Multicellular spores like bodies
having thick cell walls formed in some
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cyanophycean algae are called as hormospores.
These are somewhat similar to hormogonia but
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are surrounded by a stratified wall. Hormospores
are usually formed in series. usually in Westiella.
(viii) Chlamydospores These are thick-walled,
non-motile spores commonly found in Rhizopus.
(ix) Sporangiospores These are non-motile
spores produced inside the sporangium as in
Rhizopus and Mucor, etc.
(x) Conidia These are thick-walled, non-motile
and spores produced in chains over the conidiophores.
These are commonly produced by Penicillium and
Aspergillus.
(xi) Oidia These are thin-walled, non-motile spores
borne on a hypha oidiophores, e.g., Rhizopus.
(xii) Soredia Soredia are special kind of spores
produced in the sporangia of lichens.
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6 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

In Amoeba, sporulation is seen during adverse conditions without encystation. In this process, the nuclear
membrane disappears and the nucleoplasm breaks into several small chromatin blocks or fragments in cytoplasm.
Each of these become a complete nucleus after acquiring the nuclear membrane.

Conidia
Conidiospore
Sporangiospore
angium
Zoospores Sporangium

Zoosporangium Conidiophore

Zoospores Sporangiospores Conidia Conidiosporangia

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Basidium

Chlamydospores Gemmae Arthrospores Uredospore Ascospores Basidiospores

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(Oidia)
Fig. 1.8 Various types of spores found in algae and fungi
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It is further protected by the formation of a spore case resulting into about 200 spores in the parent body. These
are liberated and remain dormant throughout the adverse conditions. Each of these spores produces a small
Amoeba on the approach of favourable conditions.
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Daughter nuclei Quick Digest

pic

Disintegrating
< Spores are classified on basis of producing structure, like
nucleus urediospore (uredium in smuts), teliospore (telium in rusts) and
zygospore (zygosporangium in zygomycetes)
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Spores < Parasitic fungal spores are divided into two internal spores

Chromatin (germinate within the host) and external spores (environmental

block spores released by one host to infest other hosts).
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< Spores are also classified as

Each spore
develops to
(i) Monolete spore A single line on the spore indicating the axis
new Amoeba on which the mother spore was split into four along a vertical
axis.
Amoeba under (ii) Trilete spore All four spores share a common origin and are in
unfavourable conditions
contact with each other and on separation each spore shows
Fig 1.9 Sporulation in Amoeba three lines radiating from a center pole.

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Reproduction in Organisms 7

Fragmentation
It is the process of breaking down of parent individual into small pieces or fragments accidentally or through external
force. Each piece or fragment develops into a new individual.
This type of reproduction is very common in lower forms, under unfavourable conditions. In plant group, it occurs
commonly in algae, fungi, bryophytes and pteridophytes. Among animals asexual reproduction by fission or
fragmentation is common in Protists. Many flatworms can construct into two halves, each of which can become a
new individual.
(i) (ii)
Fragments

(i) (ii)

Decayed portion

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(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.10 Fragmentation in Marchantia : (a) Parent thallus (b) Fragmentation (c) Daughter thallai

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Vegetative Propagation ing
In higher plants specially angiosperm, a very important type of asexual reproduction is found called as vegetative
reproduction. It is the process of formation of new plants from detached vegetative parts or propagules of the parent
plant. It is of two types, i.e., natural and artificial vegetative propagation.
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Natural Vegetative Propagation in Higher Plants

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In this type of propagation, a fragment of the mother plant functions as a propagule to form an independent plant
under suitable conditions. The modes of natural propagation in higher plants are
(a) Roots Tap root branches can develop adventitious buds and form new plants in guava, popular and
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Dalbergia. Fleshy adventitious roots also take part in vegetative propagation as in sweet potato, dahlia and
Asparagus.
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Young plant
Fleshy root
pic

Sprouting bud
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Fig. 1.11 Sprouted root of sweet potato bearing young plants

(b) Underground stems Various underground stems are given below
Ž Buds present inside the bulbs sprout to form new plants in onion, garlic and Narcissus.
Ž Corms bear buds for the growth of daughter plants, e.g., Crocus, Colocasia, Freesia.

Node
Bud
Daughter
corms

Parent corm
Roots
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.12 Corm : (a) Crocus (b) Colocasia

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8 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

Ž Tubers are modified underground stem branches having several buds. Each eye of the potato tuber is a bud
which grows into a new potato plant, when planted with a portion of the swollen tuber.
Ž The potato crop is raised by tubers and not by seeds.

Aerial shoot
Young leaves
Aerial shoot Scale leaf
Rhizome Branch
Petiole

Root
Rhizome
Branch Roots Roots
Bud
(a) (b) (c)

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Fig. 1.13 Rhizomes : (a) Monopodial rhizome of Saccharum (b) Sympodial rhizome of
ginger (Zingiber officinalis) (c) Rootstock rhizome of fern Dryopteris

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(c) Subaerial stems (Creeping stems) Runners, stolons and offsets are meant for forming new crowns at their
tips as well as in nodes in the case of former two. Breaking of these horizontal stems convert the different
ing
crowns into independent plants, e.g., Eichhornia, Pistia (offsets), grass (runners) and strawberry (stolons).
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Leaf
Stolon
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Bud

Scale leaf
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Adventitious roots Node

Fig. 1.14 Stolon of strawberry

pic

Runner growing from axillary

bud in axis of scale leaf
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Parent plant
New plants growing
from axillary buds
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Apical bud
Runner

Tap root
Lateral roots Scale leaf Adventitious roots
Fig. 1.15 A strawberry runner

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Reproduction in Organisms 9

Ž Aerial shoots Segments of Opuntia and other Colocasia and Gladiolus), bulb e.g., garlic and
cacti produce new plants after falling on the onion), part of rhizome (e.g., banana and ginger),
ground. stem tuber (e.g., potato) and bulbil (e.g.,
Ž Leaves Injured leaves of Begonia develop new pineapple).
plants when come in contact with the soil while in
case of Bryophyllum and Kalanchoe uniniored Underground
leaves do so and form buds present in its marginal stem branches Scar Eyes
(heel end) Apex
notches.
Tubers (rose end)
In Bryophyllum, marginal buds form plantlets
while they remains attached in the plants.
Another example of vegetative propagation by
leaves in Adiantum caudatum (walking fern).
(a) (b)
Scale
Bud

Leaf (c)

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Fig. 1.18 Solanum tuberosum :
(a) Base of potato plant showing development of

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Adventitious bud stem tubers (b) A stem tuber (c) An eye
(b) Cuttings When a small piece of any plant organ
Petiole (stem, root or leaf) used for propagation it is called
ing as cutting. Sansevieria is propagated by leaf
cuttings. Root cuttings are used in case of
Fig. 1.16 A leaf of Bryophyllum showing formation
of new plants from marginal adventitious buds blackberry, raspberry, tamarind and lemon.
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Stem cuttings (20-30 cm segments of one year old

Ž Bulbils These are fleshy buds produced in the stem) are employed in case of rose, Clerodendron,
axil of foliage leaves in place of axillary buds. They Durantia, Citrus, tea, coffee, Bougainvillea and
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grow to form new plants when shed and fall on the
ground, e.g., Oxalis and Allium sativum.
In century plant (Agave sp.), the floral buds are
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cocoa. Rooting of stem cuttings is hastened by
dipping in NAA or IBA. Leaf and stem cuttings are
sown laterally with morphologically upper side

modified into bulbils which grow into new plants

upward.
when shed from the mother plant.
(c) Layering The middle part of a soft basal branch
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is defoliated, slightly injured (tongueing, notching

Bulbil
or ringing) and pegged in the soil to develop
adventitious roots.
Fleshy
Later on the branch or layer is separated and
pic

root
planted, e.g., cherry, jasmine and grapevine.
Bulbil In serpentine layering, the branch is pegged at
Stem several places so as to form many plants.
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Leaf
(a) (b) (c)
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Fig. 1.17 Bulbils : (a) Dioscorea (b) Oxalis

(c) Agave sp.
Ž Turions These are special types of fleshy buds
that develop in aquatic plants, e.g., Potamogeton, Bud
Utricularia, etc., for vegetative propagation.
New plant

Artificial Method of Vegetative Inter

Propagation node Adventitious roots

Artificial method of vegetative propagation is as follow Node

(a) Use of special vegetative parts Many
plants are multiplied vegetatively by using their (a) (b)
specialised vegetative structures like root tubers
Fig. 1.19 (a) A portion of sugarcane stem having buds
(e.g., sweet potato and dahlia), corm (e.g., Crocus, (b) A bud growing into new plant

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10 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

In mound layering, the shoot is pruned and lower part is covered by soil when a number of new shoots develop,
e.g., gooseberry and currant. In air layering (goottee), about 3.5 cm ring of bark is removed from near the base
of an aerial shoot. It is covered by a thick plaster of grafting clay (hay, cowdung, clay and water) with small
quantity of root promoting hormone and wrapped in polythene.
After 2-3 months, roots appear and the shoot is removed below the bandaged region to be used for planting,
e.g., litchi, pomegranate, guava, orange and lemon. Plants having scattered vascular bundles like sugarcane
cannot be propagated by air layering (gootee). This is because vascular bundles may be harmed in this method
and water and food supply will be affected.
Branch

ng
guei Ste Ringing
Ton m

Soil

m
Roots Adventitious
roots

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Polythene
Branch covering
Stem
Notching ing
Soil Grafting
Roots clay
Ring of
bark removed
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(a) (b)
Fig. 1.20 Vegetative propagation by (a) Mound layering (b) Air layering (Gootee)
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(d) Grafting It is the most common method of artificial vegetative propagation. In this method, parts of two plants
are joined in such a way that they grow as one plant. Grafting is done between the two closely related
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dicotyledonous plants having vascular cambia. The rooted supporting portion of one plant called stock is joined
with a twig of another plant called scion.
Generally, the root stock belongs to a wild variety which is resistant to diseases and pests and possess an efficient
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root system for the absorption of water and minerals on the other hand the scion is derived from the plant
possessing better characters. For example, a scion of Dussehri mango is grafted on the stock of Desi mango.
Similarly, scion of high quality roses are grafted on wild rose root stocks.
pic

Grafting is of four types

Ž Tongue or whip grafting Both the stock and scion are cut obliquely at about the same angle.
Ž Wedge grafting A V-shaped notch is made on stock and wedge-shaped cut is made on the scion.
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Ž Crown grafting Several scions having wedge-shaped cut are grafted on the slits at the top of stock.
Ž Side grafting Single scion having wedge-shaped cut is inserted in a lateral slit of the stock.
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In case of tongue and wedge grafting, the scion and stock have almost the same diameter, whereas in case of
crown and side grafting, the stock has more diameter than the scion. Examples of the plants propagated by
grafting are mango, roses, apple, rubber, citrus, pear, plum and peach, etc.
Scion
Scion
Bud scion
inserted in
bark of stock Scion

Bud
T-shaped slit
(d)
Bark of scion
(a) Stock
Stock

(b) (c) (e) (f)

Fig. 1.21 (a-c) Bud grafting, (d-f) Crown or wedge grafting

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Reproduction in Organisms 11

(e) Bud grafting It is also known as budding. This

method is similar to grafting except that scion in
this case consists of a bud along with a small
portion of bark having intact cambium. The living
tissue of scion bud is inserted into an incision made
in the stock so that it reaches upto the cambium of
stock.
The bud portion should remain exposed outside in
the air. The joint is thoroughly sealed using
bandage. After 3-5 weeks, the bud begins to grow. As
soon as the bud sprouts, the stock is cut above the
level of graft, e.g., rose, apple, peach, etc.
Importance of Vegetative Propagation
Importance of vegetative propagation is given below
Disadvantages of Asexual
Reproduction
Some disadvantages of asexual reproduction are as
follows
1. No genetic variations occur among the
offsprings.
2. If spores are produced, many will fail to find a
suitable place for germination and so energy
and material used in their manufacture are
wasted.
3. If an organism spreads in one area, it may
result in overcrowding and exhaustion of
nutrients.

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(a) Vegetative propagation is the only method of
reproduction for the plants which have lost their
Practice Test 1
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capacity to produce seeds, e.g., banana, seedless
grapes, oranges, rose, jasmine, figs, pineapple,
carnation, etc. 1. Match the following columns.
(b) Plants which produce small quantities of viable
ing
seeds (e.g., Cynodon and and Dactylon) are mostly
propagated vegetatively. A. Plasmogamy 1. Layering
(c) The vegetative reproduction methods are more rapid, B. Bulbils 2. Sporulation
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easier and less expensive as compared to others. C. Gootee 3. Fusion of protoplasts

(d) The great advantage of vegetative propagation is
D. Conidia 4. Fleshy buds
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that plant biotype (original plant) can be retained

and multiplied indefinitely without any change or 2. Name any two spores by which fungi reproduce.
variation.
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3. List one of the method of natural vegetative

(e) Effects of physico-chemical treatments and
environmental variations can be studied propagation.
conveniently in those plants which propagate 4. Differentiate between wedge and whip grafting.
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vegetatively. 5. Mention two dissimilarities between a zoospore and a

conidia and at least one feature common to both
Advantages of Asexual structure. (NCERT Exemplar)
pic

Reproduction 6. Mention the characteristic feature of binary fission in

Amoeba.
Asexual reproduction in a commom method of
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reproduction. The best part of asexual reproduction is 7. Match the following columns.
that it is very simple. It is a common method of
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reproduction in normal/favourable days.

A. Aplanospore 1. Polysiphonia
The main advantage of asexual reproduction is the
B. Carpospore 2. Lichens
addition of individuals to the population, resulting in
increase in population size. For example, bacteria can C. Hormospore 3. Ulothrix
generate a population of billions in 1-2 days from one D. Soredia 4. Westiella
original cell.

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12 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves the production of male gametes and female gametes (by meiosis) either by the same
individual (referred to as bisexual) or by different individuals of opposite sex (referred to as unisexual). During the
process of sexual reproduction the male and female gametes fuse to form the zygote, which develops into a new
organisms by the process of mitosis.
As the individuals produced here involve meiosis and gametic fusion, they exhibit genetic variation and difference
from either of their two parents or amongst themselves. Although sexual reproduction is an elaborate, complex and
slow process as compared to asexual reproduction, but still it plays a very important role in evolution of species.

Modes of Sexual Reproduction

Various modes of sexual reproduction are as follows

m
Syngamy
It is the complete and permanent fusion of male and female gametes to form the zygote.

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Strasburger discovered syngamy. Syngamy is of two types
(i) Exogamy also known as cross fertilisation. It involves the fusion of two gametes, produced by different
ing
parents. Thus, it is biparental, e.g., rabbit and other unisexual animals.
(ii) Endogamy also known as self fertilisation. It involves the fusion of two gametes of the same parent. Thus, it
is uniparental, e.g., tapeworm and other hermaphrodites.
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On the basis of structure of fusing gametes, syngamy is of four types

(i) Isogamy Fusion of morphologically similar gametes, e.g., Monocystis.
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(ii) Anisogamy Fusion of two dissimilar gamete, e.g., frog, rabbit and mammals.
(iii) Oogamy Fusion of Large non-motile female gamete (egg) and small motile male gamete antherozoid, e.g., red
algae.
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(iv) Hologamy Fusion of two organisms which act as gamete, e.g., yeasts.
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Conjugation
It involves temporary union of two parents of the same species which exchange their male pronuclei and then
separate. It is some what like cross fertilisation and found in Paramecium bacteria and other ciliates. It provides
pic

genetic variability among the organisms of the same species.

Conjugation in Bacteria
w.

In case of bacteria, the sex organs are not formed. There is no fusion of gametes and production of zygote. Genetic
recombination in bacteria takes place by conjugation. Conjugation was discovered by Lederberg and Tatum
ww

(1946) in E. coli.

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Reproduction in Organisms 13

It occurs between two sexually different strains of bacteria. One act as donor of genes (male) and other as recipient
(female). Both are haploid.
Factor Sex pilus F-factor divide in two
Conjugation
bridge

DNA

F+ (a) F– F+ (b) F–

m
F+ F+ F+ F+

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(c) (d)
Fig. 1.22 Conjugation between F + male and F - female of E.coli (The F - is converted to F + )

The donor possess sex factor or fertility factor which is a small genetic particle of circular DNA. Sex factor
ing
determines the formation of sex pilli which forms a conjugation bridge between the donor and recipient. Two
bacteria, i.e., F + and F - come close to each other.
The F factor divides into two out of which one remains in the donor cell and the other move to the recipient through
ch

the conjugation bridge. As a result, the F - cell now becomes F + cell. Thus, a conjugation between F + and F - strains
always yield F + progeny.
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Conjugation in Paramecium
It is the process, which occurs frequently between binary fission and is necessary for the continued vitality of
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species. The complete process of conjugation in Paramecium is given below.

Stationary
Conjugant Two daughter Disintegrating Four daughter Migratory gamete
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gamete
a micronuclei macronucleus micronuclei nucleus nucleus
pic

1 Conjugant 2 3 Three disintegrating Zygote 6

w.

b 4 nuclei 5 nucleus

Two Four Eight Micronucleus Two Four

Zygote daughter
daughter daughter dividing daughter daughter
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nucleus nuclei
nuclei nuclei mitotically paramecia paramecia

Exconjugant a Four macronuclei Three disintegrating nuclei

Exconjugant b
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Fig. 1.23 Stages of conjugation

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14 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

Sexual Reproduction in Algae Asci are produced in fruiting bodies called

ascocarps, which are mainly of three types
Depending upon the structure and behaviour of gametes, three based on their shape and structure. These are
different modes of sexual reproduction are involved in algae. as follows
These are of following types (i) Cleistothecium It is completely
(i) Isogamy It occurs in Ulothrix, Chlamydomonas, closed and spherical body, opening by
Spirogyra, Oedogonium, etc. the breakage of outer wall.
(ii) Anisogamy It occurs in Chlamydomonas. (ii) Perithecium It is a flask-shaped
(iii) Oogamy It occurs in Chlamydomonas, Fucus, Chara, body having a terminal opening or
Volvox, etc. ostiole.
(iii) Apothecium It is cup-shaped
Sexual Reproduction in Fungi fruiting body with a wide mouth.
Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy (fusion of protoplasts In Basidiomycetes, basidiospores are
of male and female cells), karyogamy (fusion of male and female produced on the tip of the basidium. At the
nuclei forming zygotic nucleus) and subsequently meiosis to apex of basidium, four haploid basidiospores

m
convert diploid structure to haploid spores. Gametes may be are produced, which on germination produce
isogametes as in Rhizopus and Mucor. They are labelled as monokaryotic mycelium either of (+) or ( -)

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plus (+) and as minus ( -) and form a zygospore on fusion. Different strain. In Deuteromycetes (fungi Imperfecti),
types of gametes are produced in heterogametic fungi species. sexual reproduction is completely lacking.
Male gametes are produced in antheridium while female gametes
ing
Sexual Reproduction in
are produced in oogonium. Same mycelium can produce both male
and female sex organs (homothallic mycelium) or male and Bryophytes
female sex organs may be borne on different mycelia
ch

Sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular

(heterothallic mycelium). In some fungi, sex organs are not and are covered by multicellular sterile
developed and two vegetative cells fuse (somatogamy). Positive jackets. The male sex organ antheridium
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and negative strains of two primary monokaryotic hyphae fuse encloses a mass of androcytes. These
and form secondary dikaryotic hypha. In the members of androcytes give rise to biflagellate, motile
Ascomycetes, the sexual spores are called ascospores, which antherozoids. The female sex organ is
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are formed in asci (singular ascus) by meiosis. the archegonium a multicellular

Planogametic copulation flask-shaped structure differentiated into
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swollen venter and elongated neck.

Sperm
Egg
The venter encloses the egg or oosphere. On
maturity, the egg fuses with the antherozoid
pic

and forms a diploid zygote. The zygote by

Isogamy Anisogamy Oogamy
repeated cell divisions gives rise to embryo,
Gametangial contact which forms a sporophytic plant.
w.

Oogonium
Antheridium Operculum Cover cell
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Neck cells
Egg Antheridial
wall Neck
Gametangial copulation Male canal cells Neck
gametangium
+ – Female
gametangium
Host cell
(a) (b)
Venter wall
Spermatization Somatogamy
Ventral
Venter
canal cell
Spermatids
Egg
Stalk
Stalk
Receptive hypha
Hyphae of opposite
mating types (a) (b)
Fig. 1.25 (a) Mixture antheridium ready
Fig.1.24 Different types of sexual reproduction in fungi
for dehiscence (b) A nearly mature

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Reproduction in Organisms
Sexual Reproduction in Higher
Plants
In higher plants production of male and female gametes
are common during sexual reproduction. The male and
female gametes are common during sexual
reproduction.
The male gamete or sperms are produced in pollen
grains and transferred to female gamete or egg via
process of pollination. The fusion of gametes or
syngamy occurs and zygote develops.
Deviations in Reproductive Strategies in
Plants
Deviations in reproductive strategies in plants are
(a) Parthenogenesis It is defined as the
formation of an embryo from an unfertilised ‘egg
or female’ gamete.
(b) Parthenocarpy It is defined as the production
of fruits without fertilisation.
(c) Polyembryony The occurrence of more than
one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony.
(d) Amphimixis It is actually the process of sexual
ch
reproduction which involves meiosis and syngamy.
By meiosis, the diploid cells of the sporophyte give
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rise to haploid gametophytes which produces male
and female gametes. Syngamy, e.g., fusion of
haploid gametes results in the restoration of the
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diploid sporophytic generation.
(e) Apomixis Generally, plants reproduce by
syngamy but sometimes involvement of usual
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sexual gametes do not take place but offsprings
are formed due to a kind of asexual reproduction.
It is known as apomixis.
pic
(f) Apogamy Formation of a sporophyte directly
from gametophyte without meiosis and syngamy
is called as apogomy.
w.
Sexual Reproduction in Higher
Animals
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In higher animals syngomy is main mode of
reproduction. Male and females are generally different
and produce the male and female gametes separately.
Fusion of gametes develops zygote which produces the
young one.
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Deviations in Reproductive Strategies in
Animals
Though asexual and sexual reproduction are the
common methods of multiplication in animals, many
deviations are also observed in the reproductive
strategies of animals.
These are as follows
(a) Hermaphroditism Animals having both male
and female sex organs in the same individual are
known as hermaphrodites and the condition is
called hermaphroditism. These are also known
as monoecious.
Self-fertilisation occurs in the tapeworm (Taenia)
but between sperms produced by the testes of one
m
strobilus and eggs of another one. Cross
fertilisation occurs in earthworm (Pheretima)
whereas the sperms of one individual fertilise eggs
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of another.
(b) Neotany The larva of anuran embryos fail to go
through the normal metamorphosis and sexual
ing
maturity develops in the larval stage, e.g., axolotl
larva of necturans.
(c) Paegogenesis It is also known as
reproduction by the child. It is the reproduction by
immature or larval animals caused by
acceleration of maturation. It occurs in very small
fishes.
(d) Androgenesis It is the development of an
embryo with paternal (sperm) chromosomes only,
accomplished by removing or destroying egg
nucleus before syngamy.
(e) Gynogenesis In some species of roundworms
(Rhabditis) and flatworms (Dugesia), the sperm
penetrates the egg and stimulates development,
but soon degenerates without having taken any
part in the formation of embryo. This phenomenon
is called gynogenesis or pseudogamy or
partial fertilisation.
(f) Parthenogenesis It is the development of an
embryo from an unfertilised egg, or if a
spermatozoan does penetrate the egg, no union of
male and female pronuclei occurs. It occurs in
rotifers, gastropods lizards, crustaceans, etc. Male
drones in honeybee are naturally produced by this
process.
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16 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 2

Other Modes of Sexual
Reproduction
Various other modes of sexual reproduction are
(i) Paedogamy Fusion of young individuals.
(ii) Merogamy Fusion of small and
morphologically dissimilar gametes.
(iii) Macrogamy Fusion of two macrogametes
takes place.
(iv) Microgamy Fusion of two micro gametes
takes place.
(v) Cytogamy Fusion of cytoplasm of two
individuals but no nuclear fusion.
(vi) Plasmogamy Fusion of related cytoplasm.
Table 1.1 Differences between Asexual and Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves the Sexual reproduction involves
participation of single individual participation of two separate parents.
parent.
It generally occurs without the It usually requires the formation of
formation of sex organs. sex organs.
It does not involve meiosis or It involves meiosis which occurs at
reduction division. the time of sporogenesis in flowering
plants.
Asexual reproduction does not The sexual reproduction requires
involves sexual fusion or fusion of fertilisation to take place between
two gametes, i.e., the zygotes are not two opposite gametes leading to the
formed. production of a zygote.
The offsprings do not show variations The offsprings exhibit variations and

m
(vii) Karyogamy Fusion of nuclei of two gametes. and are genetically similar to the are different from either of the two
(viii) Automixis Fusion of gamete nuclei of the parent. parents.

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same cell.

Advantages of Sexual
Reproduction
ing Practice Test 2
1. Briefly describe various types of ascocarps.
Sexual reproduction involves the union of two
2. What is the role of sex pilli in conjugation?
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genetically different organisms, and so there is

formation of an organism with new genetic make up 3. What are the common sex organs of bryophytes?
sharing the characters of both the parents. So,
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4. Describe any two types of deviations in sexual reproduction in

sexual reproduction results in addition of variations
higher plants and animals.
to the population which ultimately contribute to
5. Differentiate between androgenesis and gynogenesis.
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evolution.
kM
pic

Capsule
w.
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ö The another name for grafting is patching.

ö Gametes are produced in gonads, which are mesodermal in origin (from nephrotomes or mesomeres).
ö Leeuwenhoek (1677) discovered spermatozoa (sperm) in human semen by self-designed microscope.
ö Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876) identified a mammalian ova first time in 1827.
ö Schleiden and Schwann (1838-39) established the cellular nature of sperm and ova.
ö Regner de Graaf (1672) discovered the follicles in human ova and thought them to be eggs that is why ovarian
follicles are called as Graafian follicles. Blakeslee in 1922 discovered haploids in Datura. The term
‘parthenocarps’ is given by Noll (1902).
ö Balasubramanyam and Rangaswamy (1959) obtained parthenocarpic fruits (seedless) of ‘Allahabad round’
variety of guava simply by treating emasculated flowers with an aqueous extract of pollen grains.

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