Dynamics of Structures:

Theory and Analysis

Steen Krenk
Technical University of Denmark

1. Free vibrations
2. Forced vibrations
3. Transient response
4. Damping mechanisms
5. Modal analysis I: Basic idea and matrix formulation
6. Modal analysis II: Implementation and system reduction
7. Damping and tuned mass dampers
8. Time integration by Newmark methods
9. Structural response to earthquakes
10. Vibration of cables, bars, etc.
11. Vibration of beams
12. Finite element formulation for bars, beams etc.
13. Course summary
Books

Daniel J. Inman, Engineering Vibration, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall Interna-

tional, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2001.
J.W. Tedesco, W.G. McDougal and C.A. Ross, Structural Dynamics, Addison-
Wesley, Menlo Park, Ca, 1999.
A.K. Chopra, Dynamics of Structures. Theory and application to Earthquake
Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2001.
Geradin, M. and Rixen, D., Mechanical Vibrations, Theory and Applications
to Structural Dynamics, 2’nd ed., Wiley, Chichester, 1997.
I. Langen and R. Sigbjørnsson, Dynamisk Analyse av Konstruktioner, Tapir,
Trondheim, 1979.

Journals

Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics.

Journal of Sound and Vibration
Journal of Engineering Structures.
Journal of Structural Engineering.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering.
Computers and Structures.
 General Introduction

Offshore platforms

Tyra South – STAR platform Harald Field (www.maersk.com)

Wind Turbines

Nysted Wind Farm (www.nystedwindfarm.com)

Cable stayed bridge

Erasmus Bridge, Rotterdam (www.h2olland.nl)

Rotating pedestrian bridge

Gateshead Millennium Bridge, Gateshead (www.gateshead.gov.uk/bridge)

Pedestrian bridge

Solferino Bridge, Paris (S. Krenk)

Pedestrian suspension bridge

Millennium Bridge, London (www.galinsky.com/buildings/millenniumbridge/ )

See also the detailed presentation at www.arup.com/millenniumbridge/

Lecture 1: Free Vibrations

• Undamped vibrations
• Damped vibrations
• Logarithmic decrement
• Energy balance
• State variables and state-space
• Discrete time increments
Undamped vibrations

Equation of motion by balance of inertial force mẍ and elastic force kx with
mass m and stiffness k,
m ẍ + k x = 0 (1.1)

Obtain normalized equation by division by m

ẍ + ω02 x = 0 (1.2)

where the natural angular frequency ω0 is defined by

r
k
ω0 = (1.3)
m

Note that the (angular) frequency is determined by

‘stiffness0
ω02 =
‘mass0
In many problems ‘stiffness’ and ‘mass’ can be estimated by use of energy
methods.
Solution

Solution requires initial conditions in terms of initial position x0 and initial

velocity v0 = ẋ0 .

v0
x(t) = x0 cos(ω0 t) + sin(ω0 t) (1.4)
ω0

x v/ω
0

ω0 t ω0 t

Figure 1.1: a) displacement x(t), and b) velocity ẋ(t) as function of time t.

The period T requires the phase ω0 t to increase by 2π, Note that the (angular)
frequency is determined by
2π
T = (1.5)
ω0

The natural frequency f is the number of oscillations per time unit, whereby
1 ω0
f = = (1.6)
T 2π
Damped vibrations

Include energy dissipation through damping force cẋ,

m ẍ(t) + c ẋ(t) + k x(t) = 0 (1.7)
Note, that all three parameters m, c, k are positive, when the forces are
restoring.
Normalize equation by division by m

ẍ + 2ζω0 ẋ + ω02 x = 0 (1.8)

using the natural angular frequency ω0 ,

r
k
ω0 = (1.9)
m

and the damping ratio ζ,

c
ζ = √ (1.10)
2 km

The characteristics of the free vibration behavior depends on the magnitude

of the damping ratio ζ.
Solutions

The free vibration solution is of exponential type and is found by substitution

of the partial solution x(t) = Aeλt into the homogeneous equation of motion,
yielding the characteristic equation

λ2 + 2ζω0 λ + ω02 = 0 (1.11)

There are three different cases of damped vibrations, depending on the mag-
nitude of the damping ratio ζ. The solutions are given below for initial
conditions (x, ẋ)t=0 = (x0 , v0 ).

Underdamped, 0 < ζ < 1 :

p
Two complex roots of characteristic equation, λ = ω0 (−ζ ± i 1 − ζ 2 ).
Imaginary part is expressed by defining the damped natural frequency
p
ωd = ω 0 1 − ζ2 (1.12)

This leads to complex partial solutions of the form

x(t) = A e−ζω0 t e±iωd t (1.13)

| {z } | {z }
amplitude oscillation
The last factor can be expressed in terms of sin(ωd t) and cos(ωd t).

ζω0
x(t) = x0 e−ζω0 t [ cos(ωd t) + sin(ωd t) ]
ωd (1.14)
v0 −ζω0 t
+ e sin(ωd t)
ωd

x v/ω
0

ω0 t ω0 t

Figure 1.2: a) displacement x(t), and b) velocity ẋ(t) for ζ = 0.05.

The period of the oscillatory factor in damped free oscillations is Td = 2π/ωd .

Critically damped, ζ = 1 :
The characteristic equation has the real double root, λ = −ω0 , and in this
case the amplitude A is replaced by a linear function A + Bt.

x(t) = [ x0 + (ω0 x0 + v0 ) t ] e−ω0 t (1.15)

Overdamped, 1 < ζ :
p
The characteristic equation has two
p real roots λ = ω 0 (−ζ ± ζ 2 − 1). In-
troducing the parameter ωd = ω0 ζ 2 − 1 < ζω0 the solution is expressed in
terms of hyperbolic functions as
ζω0
x(t) = x0 e−ζω0 t [ cosh(ωd t) + sinh(ωd t) ]
ωd (1.16)
v0 −ζω0 t
+ e sinh(ωd t)
ωd
Logarithmic decrement

x,a
a aj+1
j

ω0 t

Figure 1.3: Displacement record with maxima aj and aj+1 for ζ = 0.05.

Underdamping can also be characterized by the decrease in amplitude from

one maximum to the next. The ratio between any two maximum values
following each other is constant, and the logarithmic decrement is defined
as µ ¶
aj ¡ ¢ 2π ζ
δ = ln = ln eζω0 Td = p (1.17)
aj+1 1 − ζ2
or for lightly damped systems

δ ' 2π ζ for ζ << 1 (1.18)

NOTE: Lightly damped structures may have ζ as low as 0.001 .

Energy balance

Form the rate of work by multiplication of the equation of motion with ẋ,
µ ¶
ẋ(t) m ẍ(t) + c ẋ(t) + k x(t) = 0 (1.19)

Rewrite as time derivative,

µ ¶
d 1
2 m ẋ2 + 1
2k x
2
= −c ẋ2 ≤ 0 (1.20)
dt

This defines the mechanical energy E as

E = Ekin + Eel (1.21)

with kinetic energy

1 2
Ekin = 2 m ẋ (1.22)
and elastic energy
1 2
Eel = 2k x (1.23)

The mechanical energy of undamped free vibrations is constant.

When the motion can be described (estimated) by a single degree of freedom,
the equation of undamped motion can be determined from the time derivative
of the mechanical energy.
State vector and phase-plane

Time histories of displacement x(t) and velocity v(t) = ẋ(t) against time t.

x v/ω
0

ω t ω t
0 0

Figure 1.4: a) displacement x(t), and b) velocity ẋ(t) as function of time t.

Combination into a single three-dimensional graph as shown in Fig. , with

time t along the first axis.

v / ω0
v / ω0

x
ω0 t

Figure 1.5: a) response path and b) phase-plane diagram.

Projection of the state vector (x(t), ẋ(t)) on the phase-plane.

Use of normalized coordinates x, ẋ/ω0 reduces to ‘near-circle’.
Discrete time increment - Undamped system

Undamped equation of free vibrations, ζ = 0,

ẍ + ω02 x = f (t)

Free oscillations described entirely in terms of initial conditions,

x = x0 cos(ω0 t) + ẋ0 ω0−1 sin(ω0 t)
ẋ = −x0 ω0 sin(ω0 t) + ẋ0 cos(ω0 t)

State vector (x, ẋ)1 at time t = ∆t in terms of initial state vector (x, ẋ)0 .

Recurrence relation for any pair of state vectors with time separation ∆t.

Time separation only appears in the form of the non-dimensional parameter

α = ω0 ∆t

Non-dimensional form, when ẋ is replaced with ∆tẋ.

" # " #" #
−1
x cos α α sin α x
=
∆t ẋ −α sin α cos α ∆t ẋ
i+1 i
Discrete time increment - Damped system

Normalized equation for free vibrations

ẍ + 2ζ ω0 ẋ + ω02 x = 0

Damped natural angular frequency,

p
ωd = ω 0 1 − ζ2

Free damped oscillations given in terms of the initial conditions

µ ¶
−ζω0 t ζω0 ẋ0 −ζω0 t
x = x0 e cos(ωd t) + sin(ωd t) + e sin(ωd t)
ωd ωd
µ ¶
ω02 −ζω0 t −ζω0 t ζω0
ẋ = −x0 e sin(ωd t) + ẋ0 e cos(ωd t) − sin(ωd t)
ωd ωd
Two non-dimensional time scales, conveniently defined as
α = ωd ∆t , β = ζ ω0 ∆t

Recurrence relations for time increment ∆t,

" # " #" #

x −β α cos α + β sin α sin α x
e
=
∆t ẋ α −(α2 + β 2 ) sin α α cos α − β sin α ∆t ẋ
i+1 i
Structure of time-stepping algorithm

The exact solution (xn , ẋn ) can be obtained at discrete times 0, ∆t, 2∆t, · · ·
by starting at the initial conditions (x0 , ẋ0 ) and multiplying with the matrix
A, found above, in each step.

y0 = (x0 , ∆t ẋ0 )T
for i = 0 : n − 1
yi+1 = A yi
(x, ∆t ẋ) = yT

Table 1.1: Direct time-stepping algorithm.

NOTE: The simplicity of the algorithm is obtained because the natural

frequency and damping ratio is known. For multi-degree-of-freedom systems,
this procedure requires a modal analysis, described later.
Exercise 1.1

The natural frequency of a single-degree-of-freedom-system depends on the

ratio of ‘stiffness’ to ‘mass’. For a simple mass–spring system the relation is
ω02 = k/m.
a) For the beam shown in the figure the force-displacement relation for a
transverse force at the end is
EI
F = 3 3 u
l
What is the natural frequency for transverse vibrations of a heavy mass
M fixed to the end of the beam, when the mass of the beam is neglected.
b) Let the mass M = 1000 kg be supported by a beam of length l = 10
m. What is the bending stiffness EI necessary to give the frequency
f = 2.0 Hz.

Figure 1.6: Beam supporting a mass M .

Exercise 1.2

Consider the mass m supported by a spring with stiffness k. The motion of the
mass m is described by x. The mass of the spring ms is small relative to the
mass m, and therefore the motion of the spring is quasi-static. This implies
that the spring extends uniformly. Thus, the left end point is a rest, while
the right end point moves x. A non-dimensional coordinate ξ is introduced
such that the spring is described by 0 ≤ ξ ≤ 1. This implies that the motion
of a point described by the position ξ is ξx.
a) Find the total kinetic energy of the mass m and the spring in terms of ẋ.
b) Use energy balance to find an expression for the natural angular fre-
quency ω0 .
c) The contribution from the spring can be included as an extra contribu-
tion to the effective mass mef f ,

ω02 = k/mef f with mef f = m + (?)ms

Find the coefficient (?) of the spring mass.

Figure 1.7: Beam supporting a mass M .

Exercise 1.3

The figure shows a water column of total length l and cross-section area A.
The mass density is ρ. When the water surface at the left side is displaced
the distance x downward, the water surface at the right side is lifted the same
distance x and conversely. The system is exposed to downward gravitation
with acceleration constant g.
a) Express the potential energy Epot and the kinetic energy Ekin as function
of x and ẋ, respectively.
b) Use an energy balance argument to find an expression of the natural
angular frequency ω0 .
c) The angular frequency ω0 is independent of the mass density ρ. Why?

Figure 1.8: Beam supporting a mass M .

The motion of the fluid may be constrained, whereby damping is introduced.

This device can be used as damper of ship roll motion.
Summary

• Examples have been given of structures that often exhibit dynamic be-
havior and must be analyzed for dynamic effects.
• Free vibrations of a single degree-of-freedom system constitute an ex-
change between potential and kinetic energy. The time scale is charac-
terized by the natural angular frequency ω0 .
• The square of the natural (angular) frequency is determined by the ratio
‘stifness’/‘mass’, i.e. ω02 = k/m.
• Damping is charactized by the non-dimensional damping ratio ζ, de-
scribing attenuation per vibration cycle. Vibrations with ζ < 1 are
‘underdamped’ and may have damping ratio as low as 0.001.
• Damping may be measured from attenuation of free vibration response
in terms of the logarithmic decrement δ = 2πζ.
• The equation of motion may be considered as the time derivative of
an energy balance equation. For simple systems with distributed mass
or stiffness the equation of motion may be obtained from the energy
balance relation.
• The displacement and velocity may be combined into a state vector
(x, ẋ) describing the response of the system. Initial conditions and re-
sponse are conveniently represented in a phase-plane.